{"id":16698,"date":"2026-09-07T10:06:09","date_gmt":"2026-09-07T10:06:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/promotionexams.com\/?page_id=16698"},"modified":"2026-09-07T12:06:35","modified_gmt":"2026-09-07T12:06:35","slug":"mcqs-on-measurement-evaluation-in-education","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/promotionexams.com\/?page_id=16698","title":{"rendered":"MCQs on Measurement &amp; Evaluation in Education"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-page\" data-elementor-id=\"16698\" class=\"elementor elementor-16698\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e119fe7 e-con-full e-flex e-con e-parent\" data-id=\"e119fe7\" data-element_type=\"container\" data-e-type=\"container\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-4f4eee1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-html\" data-id=\"4f4eee1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"html.default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<!--\r\n=====================================================================\r\nCSS ADDA \u00b7 PromotionExams.com\r\nCHAPTER-WISE AI TEST SERIES  \u2014  generic template, one subject per page\r\n=====================================================================\r\n\r\nWHAT THIS IS\r\n  A drill page for one chapter-wise MCQ bank, on any subject. Two tabs:\r\n     PRACTICE     filters, search, flagging, per-question AI tutor\r\n     PERFORMANCE  readiness engine, Focused set \/ Mock paper planner\r\n\r\nSETTING UP A NEW SUBJECT \u2014 four edits, all at the top of the script\r\n  1. CFG.quizId   unique per page. Progress is stored under this key, so\r\n                  two subjects on the same site never mix. Change it.\r\n     CFG.topic    the subject name shown in the header.\r\n     CFG.eyebrow  the exam line above it, or blank.\r\n  2. CFG.sourceUrl  the page on your site carrying the full text of the\r\n                  subject. A \"Read the source\" card then appears in the\r\n                  rail. Leave it blank and the card disappears.\r\n  3. chapterImportance   rate each chapter yourself, any relative numbers\r\n                  you like \u2014 they need not total 100. The rating drives\r\n                  the ranking, the study plan and how much of each planned\r\n                  sitting a chapter gets. A chapter you leave out falls\r\n                  back to its share of the bank and is marked \"not rated\r\n                  yet\". Empty the map and importance is never mentioned.\r\nRESUMING A SITTING\r\n  The position, the filter in force and every answer given are written to\r\n  localStorage under the same quizId key as mastery and flags. Closing the\r\n  tab, reloading or coming back days later reopens on the same question,\r\n  with a bar at the top offering \"Start from the beginning\".\r\n  Progress is per quizId, so subjects resume independently of each other.\r\n  Building a focused set or a mock clears the point, since that is a new\r\n  sitting by definition.\r\n\r\n  4. chapterQuestions    your bank, in the usual schema:\r\n                  { id, chapter, question, options[], correct, explanation }\r\n                  Chapter strings must match the importance map exactly.\r\n                  Add an optional  year: '2022'  (or exam: 'CRT 2022') to any\r\n                  item and a navy PYQ tag prints beside the question count.\r\n                  Items without it show a grey \"Concept\" tag \u2014 set\r\n                  CFG.showConceptTag = false to hide that instead.\r\n\r\nLOOK OF THE PAGE \u2014 four switches at the top of CFG\r\n  paperMode     serif type, hanging-indent numbering, (a)(b)(c)(d) 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as bordered cards, matching the other pages *\/\r\n.cdrill .opts{display:flex;flex-direction:column;gap:9px}\r\n.cdrill .opt{font-family:var(--serif) !important;padding:12px 16px;border:1.5px solid var(--line);\r\n  border-radius:12px;cursor:pointer;display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:12px;transition:all .25s;\r\n  background:#fff;text-align:left;width:100%;-webkit-user-select:none;user-select:none}\r\n.cdrill .opt .txt{font-family:var(--serif) !important;font-size:18.5px !important;line-height:1.6;\r\n  color:#161b26;flex:1;min-width:0}\r\n.cdrill .opt:hover:not(:disabled){border-color:#5F86F0;background:#F6F9FF;transform:translateX(4px)}\r\n.cdrill .opt:disabled{cursor:default;opacity:1;transform:none}\r\n.cdrill .key{min-width:34px;font-family:var(--serif) !important;font-weight:600;font-size:17.3px !important;\r\n  color:#161b26;flex-shrink:0;line-height:1.6}\r\n.cdrill .opt.sel{border-color:var(--blue-700);background:#EFF5FF;box-shadow:0 0 0 1px var(--blue-700)}\r\n.cdrill .opt.sel::after{content:\"Selected\";font-family:'Plus Jakarta Sans',sans-serif;font-weight:800;\r\n  font-size:10.5px;letter-spacing:.08em;text-transform:uppercase;color:var(--blue-800);align-self:center;white-space:nowrap}\r\n.cdrill .opt.right{border-color:var(--ok);background:#F0FDF6;box-shadow:0 0 0 1px var(--ok)}\r\n.cdrill .opt.right .key{color:#086945}\r\n.cdrill .opt.wrong{border-color:var(--bad);background:#FEF4F4;box-shadow:0 0 0 1px var(--bad)}\r\n.cdrill .opt.wrong .key{color:#A81F2B}\r\n.cdrill .mark{margin-left:auto;font-family:'Plus Jakarta Sans',sans-serif;font-weight:800;font-size:10.5px;\r\n  letter-spacing:.08em;text-transform:uppercase;white-space:nowrap;align-self:center}\r\n.cdrill .mark.r{color:var(--ok)} .cdrill .mark.w{color:var(--bad)}\r\n@media(prefers-reduced-motion:reduce){.cdrill .opt:hover:not(:disabled){transform:none}}\r\n.cdrill .hint{margin:12px 0 0;font-size:13.5px;font-weight:600;color:#8A6206;background:var(--gold-bg);\r\n  border:1px solid #F2DFAE;border-radius:10px;padding:10px 14px}\r\n.cdrill .actions{display:flex;gap:9px;flex-wrap:wrap;margin-top:18px;align-items:center}\r\n.cdrill .btn{padding:11px 20px;border-radius:11px;font-weight:700;font-size:14px;background:var(--blue-700);color:#fff;transition:.15s}\r\n.cdrill .btn:hover{background:var(--blue-800)}\r\n.cdrill .btn:disabled{opacity:.4;cursor:not-allowed}\r\n.cdrill .btn.ghost{background:var(--paper);border:1.5px solid var(--line);color:var(--ink)}\r\n.cdrill .btn.ghost:hover{border-color:var(--blue-700);color:var(--blue-800);background:var(--blue-50)}\r\n.cdrill .flagbtn{display:flex;align-items:center;gap:7px;padding:11px 18px;border-radius:11px;font-weight:700;font-size:14px;\r\n  border:1.5px solid var(--line);background:var(--paper);color:var(--slate);margin-left:auto;transition:.15s}\r\n.cdrill .flagbtn:hover{border-color:var(--gold);color:#8A6206;background:var(--gold-bg)}\r\n.cdrill .flagbtn[aria-pressed=true]{border-color:var(--gold);background:linear-gradient(180deg,var(--gold-lt),var(--gold));color:#3A2A02}\r\n.cdrill .kbd{display:inline-block;font-family:ui-monospace,Menlo,monospace;font-size:10.5px;padding:3px 6px;background:#fff;\r\n  border:1px solid var(--line);border-bottom-width:2px;border-radius:4px;font-weight:700}\r\n.cdrill .keys{margin-top:14px;padding-top:12px;border-top:1px dashed var(--line);font-size:11.5px;color:var(--slate);\r\n  display:flex;gap:14px;flex-wrap:wrap;font-weight:600}\r\n@media(max-width:700px){.cdrill .keys{display:none}}\r\n\r\n.cdrill .verdict{display:flex;align-items:center;gap:10px;font-weight:800;font-size:14px;margin:20px 0 0}\r\n.cdrill .verdict.r{color:var(--ok)} .cdrill .verdict.w{color:var(--bad)}\r\n.cdrill .expl{margin-top:12px;border:1px solid var(--line);border-left:4px solid var(--gold);border-radius:0 12px 12px 0;\r\n  background:#FCFDFF;padding:16px 18px;font-size:14.2px;line-height:1.68}\r\n.cdrill .expl .body{font-family:'Newsreader',Georgia,serif;font-size:16px;line-height:1.7}\r\n.cdrill .expl b{color:var(--blue-800)}\r\n.cdrill .expl-h{font-size:11px;letter-spacing:.14em;text-transform:uppercase;color:var(--slate);font-weight:800;margin-bottom:8px}\r\n\r\n  font-weight:600;font-size:13px;color:var(--blue-800);transition:.14s}\r\n.cdrill .chip:hover:not(:disabled){background:var(--blue-700);border-color:var(--blue-700);color:#fff}\r\n.cdrill .ai-out{margin-top:12px;background:var(--paper);border:1px solid var(--line);border-radius:10px;padding:14px 16px;\r\n  font-size:14px;line-height:1.65}\r\n.cdrill .ai-out b{color:var(--blue-800)}\r\n.cdrill .offline{margin-top:12px;padding-top:10px;border-top:1px dashed #CBD8F6;font-size:11.5px;color:var(--slate);line-height:1.5}\r\n.cdrill .dots span{display:inline-block;width:6px;height:6px;border-radius:99px;background:var(--blue-700);margin-right:4px;animation:cdb 1.1s infinite}\r\n.cdrill .dots span:nth-child(2){animation-delay:.16s} .cdrill .dots span:nth-child(3){animation-delay:.32s}\r\n@keyframes cdb{0%,80%{opacity:.25;transform:translateY(0)}40%{opacity:1;transform:translateY(-3px)}}\r\n\r\n\/* ---------- rail ---------- *\/\r\n.cdrill .rail{display:grid;gap:16px;align-content:start}\r\n.cdrill .rail .card{padding:16px}\r\n.cdrill .rail h3{margin:0;font-size:11px;letter-spacing:.14em;text-transform:uppercase;color:var(--slate);font-weight:800}\r\n.cdrill .score{display:flex;align-items:baseline;gap:8px;margin:10px 0 4px}\r\n.cdrill .score b{font-size:32px;font-weight:800;letter-spacing:-.03em}\r\n.cdrill .score i{font-style:normal;color:var(--slate);font-size:13px;font-weight:600}\r\n.cdrill .bar{height:7px;border-radius:99px;background:var(--wash);overflow:hidden;margin-top:10px}\r\n.cdrill .bar>i{display:block;height:100%;background:linear-gradient(90deg,var(--ok),#37B37E);border-radius:99px;transition:width .4s}\r\n.cdrill .mini{display:flex;justify-content:space-between;font-size:12.5px;color:var(--slate);margin-top:8px;font-weight:600}\r\n.cdrill .streak{display:flex;gap:4px;margin-top:12px}\r\n.cdrill .streak i{flex:1;height:26px;border-radius:5px;background:var(--wash);border:1px solid var(--line)}\r\n.cdrill .streak i.r{background:var(--ok-bg);border-color:#A9DEC6}\r\n.cdrill .streak i.w{background:var(--bad-bg);border-color:#F3C2C6}\r\n.cdrill .nav-head{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;gap:10px;padding:13px 16px;\r\n  border-bottom:1px solid var(--line);flex-wrap:nowrap}\r\n.cdrill .nav-head b{font-size:11px;letter-spacing:.14em;text-transform:uppercase;color:var(--slate);font-weight:800}\r\n.cdrill .navtoggle{flex:none;white-space:nowrap;min-width:56px;text-align:center;\r\n  font-size:12px;font-weight:800;color:var(--blue-800);padding:5px 12px;border-radius:7px;\r\n  border:1px solid var(--line);background:var(--paper);letter-spacing:.02em;transition:.14s}\r\n.cdrill .nav-head b{min-width:0;overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis;white-space:nowrap}\r\n.cdrill .navtoggle:hover{border-color:var(--blue-700);background:var(--blue-50)}\r\n.cdrill .navgrid{display:grid;grid-template-columns:repeat(6,minmax(0,1fr));gap:6px;\r\n  padding:14px 16px 12px;max-height:238px;overflow-y:auto;overflow-x:hidden}\r\n.cdrill .navgrid::-webkit-scrollbar{width:6px}\r\n.cdrill .navgrid::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb{background:#CBD5E1;border-radius:99px}\r\n.cdrill .navgrid::-webkit-scrollbar-track{background:transparent}\r\n.cdrill .nq{position:relative;box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;min-width:0;height:34px;padding:0;margin:0;\r\n  border-radius:8px;border:1px solid var(--line);background:var(--paper);\r\n  font-family:'Plus Jakarta Sans',system-ui,sans-serif;font-weight:700;font-size:11.5px;line-height:1;\r\n  color:var(--slate);display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;overflow:visible;\r\n  transition:background .12s,border-color .12s,color .12s;font-variant-numeric:tabular-nums;letter-spacing:-.02em}\r\n.cdrill .nq:hover{border-color:var(--blue-700);color:var(--blue-800);background:var(--blue-50)}\r\n@media(max-width:960px){.cdrill .navgrid{grid-template-columns:repeat(10,minmax(0,1fr))}}\r\n@media(max-width:520px){.cdrill .navgrid{grid-template-columns:repeat(7,minmax(0,1fr))}}\r\n.cdrill .nq.r{background:var(--ok-bg);border-color:#8FD3B6;color:#086945}\r\n.cdrill .nq.w{background:var(--bad-bg);border-color:#F0AEB4;color:#A81F2B}\r\n.cdrill .nq.cur{border-color:var(--blue-700);background:var(--blue-700);color:#fff}\r\n.cdrill .nq .fl{position:absolute;top:-5px;right:-4px;font-size:9.5px;line-height:1;\r\n  filter:drop-shadow(0 0 2px #fff)}\r\n.cdrill .nq.mastered::after{content:\"\";position:absolute;bottom:3px;left:50%;transform:translateX(-50%);\r\n  width:4px;height:4px;border-radius:99px;background:var(--ok)}\r\n.cdrill .legend{display:flex;gap:12px;flex-wrap:wrap;font-size:10.5px;color:var(--slate);font-weight:600;\r\n  padding:10px 16px 14px;border-top:1px solid var(--line);margin-top:4px}\r\n.cdrill .legend i{display:inline-block;width:9px;height:9px;border-radius:3px;margin-right:5px;vertical-align:-1px}\r\n\r\n\/* ---------- performance ---------- *\/\r\n.cdrill .perf{padding:24px 24px 32px;display:grid;gap:34px}\r\n.cdrill .ph{margin:0 0 10px;font-size:11px;letter-spacing:.14em;text-transform:uppercase;color:var(--slate);font-weight:800}\r\n\r\n\/* ---------- performance blocks ---------- *\/\r\n.cdrill .pblock{border:1px solid var(--line);border-radius:16px;background:var(--paper);overflow:hidden}\r\n.cdrill .pbh{display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:16px;padding:20px 24px 18px;\r\n  background:linear-gradient(180deg,#FBFCFF,#F6F9FF);border-bottom:1px solid var(--line)}\r\n.cdrill .pbh .txt{flex:1;min-width:0}\r\n.cdrill .pbh h4{font-size:17px;font-weight:800;letter-spacing:-.015em;color:var(--ink);margin:0 0 7px;\r\n  display:flex;align-items:center;gap:9px}\r\n.cdrill .pbh h4 .dot{width:7px;height:7px;border-radius:99px;background:var(--gold);flex:none}\r\n.cdrill .pbh p{font-size:13px;color:var(--slate);line-height:1.6;margin:0}\r\n.cdrill .pbh .pbtag{flex:none;font-size:10.5px;font-weight:800;letter-spacing:.07em;text-transform:uppercase;\r\n  color:var(--blue-800);background:var(--blue-100);border-radius:99px;padding:6px 13px;white-space:nowrap}\r\n.cdrill .bars{padding:8px 24px 18px}\r\n.cdrill .subhead{display:flex;align-items:baseline;gap:10px;flex-wrap:wrap;padding:18px 24px 2px;\r\n  border-top:1px solid #EEF2F9;margin-top:6px}\r\n.cdrill .subhead:first-of-type{border-top:0;margin-top:0}\r\n.cdrill .subhead h5{font-size:12.5px;font-weight:800;color:var(--ink);letter-spacing:.01em;margin:0}\r\n.cdrill .subhead span{font-size:11.8px;color:var(--slate);font-weight:600}\r\n.cdrill .hero2{display:grid;grid-template-columns:260px 1fr;gap:18px}\r\n@media(max-width:860px){.cdrill .hero2{grid-template-columns:1fr}}\r\n.cdrill .ring-card{background:linear-gradient(150deg,var(--blue-900),var(--blue-800) 70%,var(--blue-700));border-radius:var(--r);\r\n  padding:24px 20px;color:#fff;text-align:center;display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:center}\r\n.cdrill .ring{position:relative;width:150px;height:150px}\r\n.cdrill .ring svg{transform:rotate(-90deg)}\r\n.cdrill .ring .bg{fill:none;stroke:rgba(255,255,255,.14);stroke-width:11}\r\n.cdrill .ring .fg{fill:none;stroke:var(--gold-lt);stroke-width:11;stroke-linecap:round;transition:stroke-dashoffset 1s ease}\r\n.cdrill .ring-txt{position:absolute;inset:0;display:flex;flex-direction:column;align-items:center;justify-content:center}\r\n.cdrill .ring-txt b{font-size:40px;font-weight:800;color:var(--gold-lt);letter-spacing:-.03em;line-height:1}\r\n.cdrill .ring-txt span{font-size:9.5px;letter-spacing:.12em;text-transform:uppercase;color:#BFDBFE;margin-top:5px;font-weight:700}\r\n.cdrill .verdict2{margin-top:14px;font-size:13.4px;color:#DBEAFE;line-height:1.55}\r\n.cdrill .verdict2 b{color:#fff}\r\n.cdrill .coach{border:1px solid var(--line);border-radius:var(--r);padding:18px 20px;background:var(--paper)}\r\n.cdrill .coach h4{font-size:14.5px;font-weight:800;margin-bottom:12px;display:flex;gap:8px;align-items:center}\r\n.cdrill .reco{display:flex;gap:12px;padding:11px 0;border-bottom:1px dashed var(--line);align-items:flex-start}\r\n.cdrill .reco:last-child{border-bottom:0}\r\n.cdrill .reco .ic{width:30px;height:30px;border-radius:8px;display:grid;place-items:center;font-size:13px;flex:none;margin-top:1px}\r\n.cdrill .reco .ic.hot{background:var(--bad-bg);color:var(--bad)}\r\n.cdrill .reco .ic.warm{background:var(--gold-bg);color:#8A6206}\r\n.cdrill .reco .ic.cool{background:var(--blue-100);color:var(--blue-800)}\r\n.cdrill .reco .ic.good{background:var(--ok-bg);color:var(--ok)}\r\n.cdrill .reco p{font-size:13.8px;line-height:1.55}\r\n.cdrill .reco .go{margin-left:auto;flex:none;background:var(--blue-50);color:var(--blue-800);border:1px solid #D4E2FB;\r\n  border-radius:8px;padding:6px 12px;font-size:11.5px;font-weight:800;white-space:nowrap;transition:.15s}\r\n.cdrill .reco .go:hover{background:var(--blue-700);color:#fff}\r\n.cdrill .planner{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#FFFDF6,#FFF8E8);border:1px solid #EADFC2;border-left:4px solid var(--gold);\r\n  border-radius:0 var(--r) var(--r) 0;padding:18px 20px;display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;gap:18px;flex-wrap:wrap}\r\n.cdrill .planner h4{font-size:17px;font-weight:800;margin-bottom:5px;letter-spacing:-.01em}\r\n.cdrill .planner p{font-size:13px;color:var(--slate);line-height:1.55;max-width:62ch}\r\n.cdrill .pbtns{display:flex;gap:10px;flex-wrap:wrap}\r\n.cdrill .pbtn{padding:11px 18px;border:1.5px solid var(--gold);border-radius:11px;background:#fff;color:#8A6206;\r\n  font-weight:800;font-size:13.5px;display:flex;gap:7px;align-items:center;white-space:nowrap;transition:.15s}\r\n.cdrill .pbtn:hover{background:var(--gold-bg)}\r\n.cdrill .pbtn.primary{background:linear-gradient(180deg,var(--gold-lt),var(--gold));color:#3A2A02;border-color:var(--gold)}\r\n.cdrill .kpis{display:grid;grid-template-columns:repeat(auto-fit,minmax(150px,1fr));gap:12px}\r\n.cdrill .kpi{border:1px solid var(--line);border-radius:12px;padding:15px;background:linear-gradient(180deg,#fff,var(--blue-50))}\r\n.cdrill .kpi b{display:block;font-size:26px;font-weight:800;letter-spacing:-.03em}\r\n.cdrill .kpi span{font-size:11.5px;color:var(--slate);font-weight:700;text-transform:uppercase;letter-spacing:.06em}\r\n.cdrill .tblwrap{overflow-x:auto;border:1px solid var(--line);border-radius:12px;background:#fff}\r\n.cdrill table.perf-t{border-collapse:collapse;width:100%;font-size:13px;min-width:760px}\r\n.cdrill table.perf-t th,.cdrill table.perf-t td{padding:10px;border-bottom:1px solid #EEF2F9;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle}\r\n.cdrill table.perf-t thead th{background:var(--blue-900);color:#fff;font-weight:700;font-size:11px;letter-spacing:.05em;text-transform:uppercase}\r\n.cdrill table.perf-t th:first-child,.cdrill table.perf-t td:first-child{text-align:left;padding-left:14px}\r\n.cdrill table.perf-t td:first-child{font-weight:700;max-width:280px;line-height:1.35;background:#FBFCFE}\r\n.cdrill .sub{display:block;font-size:10.6px;color:var(--slate);font-weight:600;margin-top:3px}\r\n.cdrill .tbar{height:6px;border-radius:99px;background:var(--wash);overflow:hidden;min-width:80px}\r\n.cdrill .tbar>i{display:block;height:100%;border-radius:99px}\r\n.cdrill .tag{display:inline-block;font-size:10.4px;font-weight:800;padding:3px 9px;border-radius:99px;text-transform:uppercase;letter-spacing:.04em}\r\n.cdrill .tag.hot{background:var(--bad-bg);color:var(--bad)}\r\n.cdrill .tag.warm{background:var(--gold-bg);color:#8A6206}\r\n.cdrill .tag.ok{background:var(--blue-100);color:var(--blue-800)}\r\n.cdrill .tag.good{background:var(--ok-bg);color:var(--ok)}\r\n.cdrill .tag.na{background:#F1F5F9;color:var(--slate)}\r\n.cdrill .mini-go{border:1px solid var(--line);border-radius:8px;padding:5px 10px;font-size:11.2px;font-weight:800;color:var(--blue-800);transition:.15s}\r\n.cdrill .mini-go:hover{background:var(--blue-700);color:#fff;border-color:var(--blue-700)}\r\n.cdrill .lrow{display:grid;grid-template-columns:minmax(150px,1.2fr) 2.4fr 96px;gap:18px;align-items:center;\r\n  padding:12px 10px;border-radius:9px;transition:background .13s;margin:0 -10px}\r\n.cdrill .lrow:hover{background:#FAFCFF}\r\n.cdrill .lrow+.lrow{border-top:1px solid #F1F5FB}\r\n@media(max-width:620px){.cdrill .lrow{grid-template-columns:1fr auto;row-gap:6px}.cdrill .lrow .ltrack{grid-column:1\/-1}}\r\n.cdrill .lname{font-size:13.4px;font-weight:700;line-height:1.35}\r\n.cdrill .lsub{display:block;font-size:10.8px;font-weight:600;color:var(--slate);margin-top:4px}\r\n.cdrill .ltrack{background:#EEF2F9;border-radius:99px;height:11px;overflow:hidden;\r\n  box-shadow:inset 0 1px 2px rgba(16,32,74,.05)}\r\n.cdrill .lfill{height:100%;border-radius:99px;transition:width .8s cubic-bezier(.22,.9,.28,1)}\r\n.cdrill .lval{text-align:right;font-size:16px;font-weight:800;letter-spacing:-.02em}\r\n.cdrill .lval small{display:block;font-size:10px;font-weight:700;color:var(--slate);text-transform:uppercase;letter-spacing:.05em;margin-top:2px}\r\n.cdrill .split{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr;gap:16px}\r\n@media(max-width:860px){.cdrill .split{grid-template-columns:1fr}}\r\n.cdrill .panel{border:1px solid var(--line);border-radius:12px;padding:16px 18px}\r\n.cdrill .rev{display:flex;align-items:center;gap:10px;width:100%;text-align:left;background:#FAFBFE;border-left:3px solid var(--gold);\r\n  border-radius:8px;padding:10px 12px;margin-bottom:8px;font-size:12.6px;transition:.15s}\r\n.cdrill .rev:hover{background:var(--gold-bg);transform:translateX(3px)}\r\n.cdrill .rev .n{font-weight:800;color:#8A6206;flex:none}\r\n.cdrill .rev .t{flex:1;color:var(--slate);white-space:nowrap;overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}\r\n.cdrill .rev .d{background:var(--gold);color:#3A2A02;padding:2px 8px;border-radius:99px;font-size:10.2px;font-weight:800;white-space:nowrap}\r\n.cdrill .danger{border:1px dashed #F3C2C6;border-radius:12px;background:#FFFAFA;padding:16px 18px;\r\n  display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;gap:14px;flex-wrap:wrap}\r\n.cdrill .danger p{font-size:13px;color:var(--slate);flex:1;min-width:220px;line-height:1.6}\r\n.cdrill .danger b{color:var(--bad)}\r\n.cdrill .dbtn{padding:11px 20px;background:#fff;border:1.5px solid #F3C2C6;border-radius:11px;color:var(--bad);\r\n  font-size:13px;font-weight:800;white-space:nowrap;transition:.15s}\r\n.cdrill .dbtn:hover{background:var(--bad);border-color:var(--bad);color:#fff}\r\n.cdrill .empty{text-align:center;padding:40px 20px;color:var(--slate)}\r\n.cdrill .empty b{display:block;color:var(--ink);font-size:16px;margin-bottom:6px}\r\n.cdrill .toast{position:fixed;bottom:26px;left:50%;transform:translateX(-50%);background:var(--blue-900);color:#fff;\r\n  padding:12px 22px;border-radius:11px;font-weight:700;font-size:13.5px;z-index:9999;display:none;box-shadow:var(--shadow)}\r\n.cdrill .toast.show{display:block}\r\n.cdrill .toast.ok{background:var(--ok)}\r\n\r\n\/* ---------- content protection ---------- *\/\r\n.cdrill{-webkit-user-select:none;-moz-user-select:none;-ms-user-select:none;user-select:none;\r\n  -webkit-touch-callout:none;-webkit-tap-highlight-color:transparent}\r\n\/* inputs must stay usable, or the search box cannot be edited *\/\r\n.cdrill input,.cdrill textarea,.cdrill select{-webkit-user-select:text;user-select:text}\r\n.cdrill.allow-select{-webkit-user-select:text;user-select:text}\r\n.cdrill img,.cdrill svg{-webkit-user-drag:none;user-drag:none;pointer-events:none}\r\n.cdrill .navtoggle,.cdrill .tab,.cdrill button{-webkit-user-drag:none}\r\n\/* screen obscured while the window is not in front *\/\r\n.cdrill.veiled .qbody,.cdrill.veiled .perf,.cdrill.veiled .chaplist,.cdrill.veiled .yearlist{\r\n  filter:blur(9px);transition:filter .12s}\r\n.cdrill .veilmsg{position:absolute;inset:0;display:none;align-items:center;justify-content:center;\r\n  background:rgba(244,247,253,.72);z-index:40;font-weight:800;font-size:13.5px;color:var(--blue-900);\r\n  text-align:center;padding:20px;border-radius:var(--r)}\r\n.cdrill.veiled .veilmsg{display:flex}\r\n.cdrill{position:relative}\r\n\/* what a print or PDF export gets instead of the paper *\/\r\n.cdrill-printblock{display:none}\r\n@media print{\r\n  .cdrill{display:none!important}\r\n  .cdrill-printblock{display:block!important;padding:60px 40px;text-align:center;\r\n    font-family:'Plus Jakarta Sans',system-ui,sans-serif;color:#12246E}\r\n  .cdrill-printblock h2{font-size:20px;font-weight:800;margin:0 0 10px}\r\n  .cdrill-printblock p{font-size:13.5px;color:#5B6B85;line-height:1.7;max-width:60ch;margin:0 auto}\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* ---------- mobile ---------- *\/\r\n@media(max-width:640px){\r\n  .cdrill .wrap{padding:0 14px}\r\n\r\n  \/* hero: tighter, and the stat tiles share the row evenly *\/\r\n  .cdrill .hero{padding-top:18px}\r\n  .cdrill .hero h1{font-size:19px}\r\n  .cdrill .hero p{font-size:12.6px;margin-bottom:14px}\r\n  .cdrill .hstats{gap:7px}\r\n  .cdrill .hstat{flex:1 1 0;min-width:0;padding:8px 10px;text-align:center}\r\n  .cdrill .hstat b{font-size:17px}\r\n  .cdrill .hstat span{font-size:8.8px;letter-spacing:.06em}\r\n\r\n  \/* tabs scroll sideways instead of wrapping onto two lines *\/\r\n  .cdrill .tabs{margin-top:16px;gap:5px;flex-wrap:nowrap;overflow-x:auto;scrollbar-width:none;\r\n    -webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}\r\n  .cdrill .tabs::-webkit-scrollbar{display:none}\r\n  .cdrill .tab{flex:none;padding:10px 15px;font-size:12.6px;gap:6px;white-space:nowrap}\r\n  .cdrill .tab[aria-selected=true]{padding-bottom:13px}\r\n\r\n  \/* THE FIX: pills were shrinking to fit instead of scrolling, which cut\r\n     every label in half. flex:none makes the row scroll as intended. *\/\r\n  .cdrill .filters .wrap{padding-top:11px;padding-bottom:11px;gap:8px;\r\n    -webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}\r\n  .cdrill .pill-f{flex:none;padding:8px 14px;font-size:12.6px;gap:6px}\r\n  .cdrill .pill-f .n{font-size:10.5px;padding:2px 7px}\r\n\r\n  \/* toolbar stacks *\/\r\n  .cdrill .grid{padding:14px 0 40px;gap:14px}\r\n  .cdrill .toolbar{gap:8px;padding-bottom:12px}\r\n  .cdrill .search{flex:1 1 100%;min-width:0}\r\n  .cdrill .tgl{flex:1;justify-content:center;padding:9px 12px;font-size:12.6px}\r\n\r\n  \/* question card *\/\r\n  .cdrill .qhead{padding:11px 14px;gap:8px}\r\n  .cdrill .qcount{font-size:15px;width:100%}\r\n  .cdrill .qmeta{gap:6px}\r\n  .cdrill .badge-ch{max-width:100%;font-size:11px;padding:5px 11px}\r\n  .cdrill .badge-m,.cdrill .badge-src,.cdrill .qtag{font-size:10.6px;padding:4px 10px}\r\n  .cdrill .qbody{padding:16px 14px 18px}\r\n  .cdrill .qsheet{padding:15px 15px 16px;border-radius:0 9px 9px 0}\r\n  .cdrill .stem,.cdrill .qsheet .lead,.cdrill .qsheet .intro,.cdrill .qsheet .close,\r\n  .cdrill .stmts li,.cdrill .opt .txt{font-size:16.6px !important;line-height:1.6}\r\n  .cdrill .lists{grid-template-columns:1fr;gap:18px}\r\n  .cdrill .opt{padding:11px 13px;gap:9px}\r\n  .cdrill .key{min-width:28px;font-size:16px !important}\r\n  .cdrill .opt.sel::after{display:none}\r\n  .cdrill .actions{gap:7px}\r\n  .cdrill .btn{flex:1;padding:11px 14px;font-size:13.4px;text-align:center}\r\n  .cdrill .flagbtn{margin-left:0;flex:1 1 100%;justify-content:center;padding:11px 14px}\r\n  .cdrill .expl{padding:14px 15px}\r\n  .cdrill .expl .body{font-size:15.4px}\r\n\r\n  \/* chapter list and navigator *\/\r\n  .cdrill .chaphead{padding:10px 14px;gap:8px}\r\n  .cdrill .chaphead .meta{margin-left:0;flex:1 1 100%;white-space:normal}\r\n  .cdrill .chapchip{padding:10px 14px;gap:7px}\r\n  .cdrill .chapchip .cn{font-size:12.2px}\r\n  .cdrill .yearlist{padding:14px;gap:8px}\r\n  .cdrill .ychip{flex:1 1 calc(33.333% - 6px);min-width:0;padding:10px 8px}\r\n  .cdrill .navgrid{grid-template-columns:repeat(8,minmax(0,1fr));max-height:none}\r\n  .cdrill .rail .card{padding:14px}\r\n\r\n  \/* performance and analytics *\/\r\n  .cdrill .perf{padding:16px 14px 24px;gap:22px}\r\n  .cdrill .pbh{padding:16px 15px 14px;gap:10px}\r\n  .cdrill .pbh h4{font-size:15.4px}\r\n  .cdrill .pbh p{font-size:12.4px}\r\n  .cdrill .bars{padding:6px 15px 14px}\r\n  .cdrill .hero2{gap:14px}\r\n  .cdrill .ring-card{padding:20px 16px}\r\n  .cdrill .coach{padding:15px}\r\n  .cdrill .reco{gap:10px}\r\n  .cdrill .reco p{font-size:13px}\r\n  .cdrill .reco .go{margin-left:0;flex:1 1 100%;margin-top:6px}\r\n  .cdrill .planner{padding:15px;gap:12px}\r\n  .cdrill .pbtns{width:100%;gap:8px}\r\n  .cdrill .pbtn{flex:1 1 100%;justify-content:center;padding:12px 14px}\r\n  .cdrill .kpis{grid-template-columns:repeat(2,minmax(0,1fr));gap:9px}\r\n  .cdrill .kpi{padding:12px}\r\n  .cdrill .kpi b{font-size:22px}\r\n  .cdrill .kpi span{font-size:10.4px}\r\n  .cdrill .panel{padding:14px}\r\n  .cdrill .danger{padding:14px}\r\n  .cdrill .dbtn{width:100%}\r\n  .cdrill .cyc{padding:20px 14px 14px;gap:8px}\r\n  .cdrill .cycbar{min-width:42px}\r\n  .cdrill .toast{left:14px;right:14px;transform:none;text-align:center;bottom:16px}\r\n}\r\n@media(max-width:380px){\r\n  .cdrill .hstat b{font-size:15.5px}\r\n  .cdrill .navgrid{grid-template-columns:repeat(6,minmax(0,1fr))}\r\n  .cdrill .ychip{flex:1 1 calc(50% - 5px)}\r\n  .cdrill .kpis{grid-template-columns:1fr}\r\n}\r\n\/* ===================================================================\r\n   UPSC PAPER SKIN  \u2014  scoped to .cdrill.paper\r\n   Remove the \"paper\" class on #cdRoot (or set CFG.paperMode = false)\r\n   to get the original card look back. Nothing above is overwritten.\r\n   =================================================================== *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper{\r\n  --pk-ink:#14161a; --pk-rule:#2b2f36; --pk-sheet:#fdfdfb; --pk-tint:#f4f6fa;\r\n  --pk-serif:'Source Serif 4','Charter','Bitstream Charter','Century Schoolbook',Georgia,serif;\r\n}\r\n\/* ---- the sheet ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .qbody{background:var(--pk-sheet);padding:34px clamp(20px,4vw,54px) 26px}\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet{background:transparent;border:0;padding:0;border-radius:0}\r\n\/* ---- question number: hanging indent, as the booklet sets it ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet .lead{position:relative;padding-left:3.1em}\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet .intro,\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet .close{padding-left:3.1em}\r\n.cdrill.paper .qno{position:absolute;left:0;top:0;width:2.5em;margin:0;text-align:left;\r\n  color:var(--pk-ink);font-weight:700;font-family:var(--pk-serif);font-variant-numeric:tabular-nums}\r\n\/* ---- body type ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet .lead,\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet .intro,\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet .close,\r\n.cdrill.paper .stem{font-family:var(--pk-serif) !important;font-size:17.5px !important;\r\n  line-height:1.62;font-weight:400;color:var(--pk-ink);text-align:justify;hyphens:auto;-webkit-hyphens:auto}\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet .close{text-align:left}\r\n\/* ---- numbered statements ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .stmts{margin:10px 0 0;padding-left:3.1em}\r\n.cdrill.paper .stmts li{grid-template-columns:2.5em 1fr;gap:0;align-items:baseline;margin:0 0 5px}\r\n.cdrill.paper .stmts li::before{font-family:var(--pk-serif);font-size:17.5px;font-weight:400;\r\n  color:var(--pk-ink);font-variant-numeric:tabular-nums}\r\n.cdrill.paper .stmts li span{font-family:var(--pk-serif);font-size:17.5px;line-height:1.62;color:var(--pk-ink)}\r\n\/* ---- options: printed lines, not cards ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .opts{display:block;margin-top:20px;padding-left:3.1em;gap:0}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt{border:0 !important;background:transparent !important;box-shadow:none !important;\r\n  border-radius:4px;padding:5px 10px 5px 0;margin:0 0 3px;gap:0;align-items:baseline;transition:background .12s}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt:hover:not(:disabled){background:var(--pk-tint) !important;transform:none}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt .key{min-width:2.5em;font-family:var(--pk-serif) !important;font-size:17.5px !important;\r\n  font-weight:400;color:var(--pk-ink)}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt .txt{font-family:var(--pk-serif) !important;font-size:17.5px !important;\r\n  line-height:1.62;color:var(--pk-ink);text-align:left}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt.sel{background:var(--pk-tint) !important;box-shadow:inset 3px 0 0 var(--pk-rule) !important}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt.sel::after{display:none}\r\n\/* after checking \u2014 a rule in the margin and a glyph, as a script is marked *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt.right{background:transparent !important;box-shadow:inset 3px 0 0 #0F7A52 !important}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt.wrong{background:transparent !important;box-shadow:inset 3px 0 0 #B3261E !important}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt.right .key,.cdrill.paper .opt.right .txt{color:#0F7A52;font-weight:600}\r\n.cdrill.paper .opt.wrong .key,.cdrill.paper .opt.wrong .txt{color:#B3261E}\r\n.cdrill.paper .mark{font-family:var(--pk-serif);font-size:13px;font-weight:600;letter-spacing:0;\r\n  text-transform:none;padding-left:14px}\r\n.cdrill.paper .mark.r::before{content:\"\\2713  \"}\r\n.cdrill.paper .mark.w::before{content:\"\\2717  \"}\r\n\/* ---- tables inside a stem (the item-analysis question) ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet table{border-collapse:collapse;margin:12px 0 12px 3.1em;\r\n  font-family:var(--pk-serif);font-size:16px}\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet table td{border:1px solid var(--pk-rule);padding:5px 12px;text-align:center}\r\n.cdrill.paper .qsheet table tr td:first-child{text-align:left}\r\n\/* ---- booklet footer ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .paperfoot{margin:30px 0 0;padding-top:12px;border-top:1px solid #d8d5cc;\r\n  font-family:var(--pk-serif);font-size:13.5px;letter-spacing:.04em;color:#5a5f68;\r\n  display:flex;justify-content:space-between}\r\n.cdrill:not(.paper) .paperfoot{display:none}\r\n\/* ---- chrome kept, quietened ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper .qhead{background:#f7f8f6;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e0d7}\r\n.cdrill.paper .qcount{font-family:var(--pk-serif);font-weight:600}\r\n.cdrill.paper .expl{background:#fff}\r\n\/* ---- mobile ---- *\/\r\n@media(max-width:700px){\r\n  .cdrill.paper .qbody{padding:22px 16px 18px}\r\n  .cdrill.paper .qsheet .lead,.cdrill.paper .qsheet .intro,.cdrill.paper .qsheet .close,\r\n  .cdrill.paper .stmts li span,.cdrill.paper .opt .key,.cdrill.paper .opt .txt{font-size:16px !important}\r\n  .cdrill.paper .qsheet .lead,.cdrill.paper .qsheet .intro,.cdrill.paper .qsheet .close,\r\n  .cdrill.paper .stmts,.cdrill.paper .opts{padding-left:2.4em}\r\n  .cdrill.paper .qno{width:2em}\r\n  .cdrill.paper .opt .key{min-width:2em}\r\n  .cdrill.paper .qsheet table{margin-left:0;font-size:14px}\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* ===================================================================\r\n   PAGE TURN  \u2014  fires only when the question actually changes.\r\n   Disabled automatically under prefers-reduced-motion by the global\r\n   rule near the top of this stylesheet.\r\n   =================================================================== *\/\r\n.cdrill .card{overflow-x:hidden}\r\n.cdrill .qbody{position:relative;backface-visibility:hidden}\r\n\r\n\/* the shading that sweeps across a leaf as it lies flat *\/\r\n.cdrill .qbody::after{\r\n  content:\"\";position:absolute;inset:0;pointer-events:none;opacity:0;\r\n  background:linear-gradient(90deg,rgba(20,22,26,.16),rgba(20,22,26,0) 42%);\r\n}\r\n.cdrill .qbody.turn-b::after{\r\n  background:linear-gradient(270deg,rgba(20,22,26,.16),rgba(20,22,26,0) 42%);\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* forward \u2014 the next leaf swings down on the spine at the left *\/\r\n.cdrill .qbody.turn-f{\r\n  transform-origin:left center;\r\n  animation:pgTurnF .34s cubic-bezier(.24,.72,.32,1) both;\r\n}\r\n.cdrill .qbody.turn-f::after{animation:pgShade .34s ease-out both}\r\n\r\n\/* back \u2014 mirrored, pivoting on the right *\/\r\n.cdrill .qbody.turn-b{\r\n  transform-origin:right center;\r\n  animation:pgTurnB .34s cubic-bezier(.24,.72,.32,1) both;\r\n}\r\n.cdrill .qbody.turn-b::after{animation:pgShade .34s ease-out both}\r\n\r\n@keyframes pgTurnF{\r\n  0%  {transform:perspective(1600px) rotateY(-24deg) translateX(14px);opacity:.25}\r\n  60% {opacity:1}\r\n  100%{transform:perspective(1600px) rotateY(0) translateX(0);opacity:1}\r\n}\r\n@keyframes pgTurnB{\r\n  0%  {transform:perspective(1600px) rotateY(24deg) translateX(-14px);opacity:.25}\r\n  60% {opacity:1}\r\n  100%{transform:perspective(1600px) rotateY(0) translateX(0);opacity:1}\r\n}\r\n@keyframes pgShade{\r\n  0%{opacity:1} 100%{opacity:0}\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* ===================================================================\r\n   BADGE-SRC  \u2014  the PYQ \/ Concept tag beside the question count\r\n   =================================================================== *\/\r\n.cdrill .badge-src{font-weight:800;font-size:11.5px;padding:5px 12px;border-radius:99px;\r\n  white-space:nowrap;letter-spacing:.02em}\r\n.cdrill .badge-src.pyq{background:linear-gradient(135deg,#16305F,#22468A);color:#fff}\r\n.cdrill .badge-src.con{background:#E4ECFB;color:#22468A;border:1px solid #CBD8F6}\r\n\r\n\/* ===================================================================\r\n   PAPER STOCK  \u2014  .cdrill.paper.stock\r\n   Real book paper, not a photocopy: a warm off-white sheet with a very\r\n   fine fibre grain, a soft edge shading where the page curves away, and\r\n   crisp ink. Nothing grey, nothing dirty. All CSS, no images.\r\n   =================================================================== *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock{\r\n  --pk-ink  : #121418;\r\n  --pk-sheet: #fbf9f4;          \/* warm off-white, the colour of book stock *\/\r\n}\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .qbody{\r\n  background:\r\n    \/* fibre grain \u2014 two offset hairline weaves, barely visible *\/\r\n    repeating-linear-gradient(  0deg, rgba(120,105,80,.020) 0 1px, transparent 1px 3px),\r\n    repeating-linear-gradient( 90deg, rgba(120,105,80,.016) 0 1px, transparent 1px 4px),\r\n    \/* the faint warmth a sheet picks up towards its edges *\/\r\n    radial-gradient(125% 90% at 50% 42%, #fdfcf9 0%, #fbf9f4 58%, #f5f1e8 100%);\r\n  box-shadow:\r\n    inset 0 1px 0 rgba(255,255,255,.9),          \/* the lit top edge   *\/\r\n    inset 0 -14px 22px -18px rgba(120,105,80,.20); \/* the page falling away *\/\r\n}\r\n\/* crisp ink \u2014 no bleed, no smudge *\/\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .qsheet .lead,\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .qsheet .intro,\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .qsheet .close,\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .stmts li span,\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .opt .key,\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .opt .txt,\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .qno{color:var(--pk-ink);text-shadow:none}\r\n\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .opt:hover:not(:disabled){background:rgba(255,255,255,.7) !important}\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .opt.sel{background:rgba(255,255,255,.92) !important}\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .paperfoot{border-top:1px solid rgba(120,105,80,.22);color:#6b6459}\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .qhead{background:#f6f3ec;border-bottom:1px solid #e6e0d3}\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .expl{background:#fffefb}\r\n.cdrill.paper.stock .qsheet table td{border-color:#3a3630}\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\/* ---- resume bar ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill .resumebar{\r\n  display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;gap:14px;flex-wrap:wrap;\r\n  margin:0;padding:11px 18px;\r\n  background:linear-gradient(180deg,#EEF3FF,#E4ECFB);\r\n  border-bottom:1px solid #CBD8F6;\r\n  font-size:13.5px;color:#22468A;\r\n}\r\n.cdrill .resumebar b{font-weight:800}\r\n.cdrill .rb-btn{\r\n  border:1px solid #B9CBF2;background:#fff;color:#22468A;\r\n  font:inherit;font-weight:700;font-size:12.5px;\r\n  padding:6px 14px;border-radius:99px;cursor:pointer;white-space:nowrap;\r\n}\r\n.cdrill .rb-btn:hover{background:#F5F8FF;border-color:#8FAEE8}\r\n.cdrill.paper .resumebar{\r\n  background:#f2efe6;border-bottom:1px solid #ddd7c7;color:#4a4437;\r\n  font-family:var(--pk-serif);font-size:14px;\r\n}\r\n.cdrill.paper .rb-btn{border-color:#cfc7b3;color:#4a4437;font-family:var(--pk-serif)}\r\n@media(max-width:700px){ .cdrill .resumebar{font-size:12.5px;padding:10px 14px} }\r\n\r\n\/* ---- the QUESTION in bold \u2014 stem, its statements and any table in it.\r\n        The options stay at normal weight, so the eye separates what is\r\n        being asked from what is being chosen between. ---- *\/\r\n.cdrill.boldq .qsheet .lead,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .qsheet .intro,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .qsheet .close,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .qsheet .stem,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .stmts li span,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .stmts li::before,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .qsheet table td{font-weight:700 !important}\r\n.cdrill.boldq .qno{font-weight:800 !important}\r\n\/* options explicitly held at normal weight *\/\r\n.cdrill.boldq .opt .key,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .opt .txt{font-weight:400 !important}\r\n\/* except the one marked correct after checking, which keeps its emphasis *\/\r\n.cdrill.boldq .opt.right .key,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .opt.right .txt{font-weight:600 !important}\r\n\/* the match-the-following grid, where present *\/\r\n.cdrill.boldq .mtab th,\r\n.cdrill.boldq .mtab td{font-weight:700 !important}\r\n\/* the explanation is untouched \u2014 none of the selectors above reach it,\r\n   so its <b> tags keep working normally *\/\r\n<\/style>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"cdrill\" id=\"cdRoot\">\r\n\r\n  <header class=\"hero\">\r\n    <div class=\"wrap\">\r\n      <div class=\"eyebrow\" id=\"cdEyebrow\">CSS ADDA \u00b7 PromotionExams.com<\/div>\r\n      <h1 id=\"cdTopic\">Chapter-wise Test Series<\/h1>\r\n      <p id=\"cdSub\">Chapter drills with a planner that builds your next sitting for you.<\/p>\r\n      <div class=\"hstats\">\r\n        <div class=\"hstat\"><b class=\"tnum\" id=\"hQ\">0<\/b><span>Questions<\/span><\/div>\r\n        <div class=\"hstat\"><b class=\"tnum\" id=\"hCh\">0<\/b><span>Chapters<\/span><\/div>\r\n        <div class=\"hstat\"><b class=\"tnum\" id=\"hMastered\">0%<\/b><span>Mastered<\/span><\/div>\r\n        <div class=\"hstat\"><b class=\"tnum\" id=\"hReady\">\u2014<\/b><span>Readiness<\/span><\/div>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n      <div class=\"tabs\" role=\"tablist\">\r\n        <button class=\"tab\" role=\"tab\" aria-selected=\"true\" data-tab=\"quiz\">\u270f\ufe0f Practice<\/button>\r\n        <button class=\"tab\" role=\"tab\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"perf\">\ud83d\udcca My Performance <span class=\"pill hide\" id=\"perfPill\">!<\/span><\/button>\r\n      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aria-label=\"Choose chapter\"><\/div>\r\n        <\/section>\r\n\r\n        <section class=\"card hide\" id=\"emptyCard\">\r\n          <div class=\"qhead\"><span class=\"qcount\">Nothing to show<\/span><\/div>\r\n          <div class=\"empty\" id=\"emptyBody\"><\/div>\r\n        <\/section>\r\n\r\n        <section class=\"card\" id=\"qCard\">\r\n          <div class=\"qhead\">\r\n            <span class=\"qcount\" id=\"qCount\">Question 1 of 1<\/span>\r\n            <span class=\"qmeta\">\r\n              <span class=\"badge-src\" id=\"qSrc\">Concept<\/span>\r\n              <span class=\"badge-m\" id=\"qMastery\">Not seen yet<\/span>\r\n              <span class=\"badge-ch\"><span id=\"qChap\">Chapter<\/span><\/span>\r\n              <span id=\"qTags\" class=\"qtags\"><\/span>\r\n            <\/span>\r\n          <\/div>\r\n          <div class=\"qbody\">\r\n            <p class=\"stem\" id=\"qStem\"><\/p>\r\n            <div class=\"opts\" id=\"qOpts\"><\/div>\r\n            <div 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<\/div>\r\n        <\/section>\r\n      <\/div>\r\n\r\n      <aside class=\"rail\">\r\n        <section class=\"card\" id=\"navCard\" style=\"padding:0\">\r\n          <div class=\"nav-head\"><b id=\"navTitle\">Navigator<\/b><button class=\"navtoggle\" id=\"navToggle\">Hide<\/button><\/div>\r\n          <div class=\"navgrid\" id=\"navGrid\"><\/div>\r\n          <div class=\"legend\">\r\n            <span><i style=\"background:var(--ok-bg);border:1.5px solid #8FD3B6\"><\/i>Correct<\/span>\r\n            <span><i style=\"background:var(--bad-bg);border:1.5px solid #F0AEB4\"><\/i>Wrong<\/span>\r\n            <span><i style=\"background:var(--ok)\"><\/i>Mastered<\/span>\r\n          <\/div>\r\n        <\/section>\r\n        <div class=\"card\">\r\n          <h3>This session<\/h3>\r\n          <div class=\"score\"><b id=\"sPct\">\u2014<\/b><i id=\"sFrac\">0 of 0 correct<\/i><\/div>\r\n          <div class=\"bar\"><i id=\"sBar\" style=\"width:0\"><\/i><\/div>\r\n          <div class=\"mini\"><span id=\"sSeen\">0 attempted<\/span><span id=\"sLeft\">0 left here<\/span><\/div>\r\n          <div class=\"streak\" id=\"streak\"><\/div>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n        <div class=\"card\">\r\n          <h3 id=\"wHead\">Share on screen<\/h3>\r\n          <div class=\"score\"><b id=\"wPct\" style=\"color:#8A6206\">\u2014<\/b><i id=\"wUnit\">of this bank<\/i><\/div>\r\n          <p style=\"margin:8px 0 0;font-size:12.8px;color:var(--slate);line-height:1.55\" id=\"wNote\"><\/p>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n        <div class=\"card hide\" id=\"srcCard\">\r\n          <h3>Source text<\/h3>\r\n          <p style=\"margin:9px 0 12px;font-size:12.8px;color:var(--slate);line-height:1.55\">Every explanation here is drawn from the full text of the subject. Open it when a citation needs checking.<\/p>\r\n          <a class=\"btn\" id=\"srcLink\" href=\"#\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\" style=\"display:block;text-align:center;text-decoration:none\">\ud83d\udcd6 Read the source<\/a>\r\n        <\/div>\r\n      <\/aside>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n\r\n    <!-- ============ PERFORMANCE ============ -->\r\n    <div class=\"hide\" id=\"viewPerf\">\r\n      <section class=\"card\" style=\"margin:20px 0 60px\">\r\n        <div class=\"qhead\"><span class=\"qcount\">My Performance<\/span><span class=\"badge-w\" id=\"perfCount\">0 attempted<\/span><\/div>\r\n        <div class=\"perf\" id=\"perfBody\"><\/div>\r\n      <\/section>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n  <\/div>\r\n\r\n  <div class=\"veilmsg\" id=\"veilMsg\">Paused \u2014 bring this window back to the front to continue<\/div>\r\n  <div class=\"toast\" id=\"toast\"><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<div class=\"cdrill-printblock\">\r\n  <h2>This test series is not available in print<\/h2>\r\n  <p>The questions, explanations and your progress are licensed for use on\r\n     PromotionExams.com and cannot be printed or saved as a PDF. Please\r\n     work through them on screen.<\/p>\r\n<\/div>\r\n\r\n<script>\r\n(function(){\r\n\"use strict\";\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   1. CONFIGURATION  \u2190 EDIT PER SUBJECT\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst CFG = {\r\n  quizId : 'subject-chapterwise',   \/\/ unique per subject \u2014 this is the progress key,\r\n  paperMode   : true,               \/\/ true \u2192 UPSC booklet look; false \u2192 original card look\r\n  bookletCode : '',                 \/\/ e.g. 'JHGD-U-OFX'. Blank \u2192 only the page number prints\r\n  numberQuestions : false,          \/\/ false \u2192 every stem opens with 'Q.'  \u00b7  true \u2192 1. 2. 3.\r\n  boldQuestion    : true,           \/\/ the question in bold; options stay normal\r\n  pyqLabel        : 'PYQ',          \/\/ text before the year on the tag\r\n  showConceptTag  : true,           \/\/ items with no year show a grey 'Concept' tag\r\n  paperTexture    : true,           \/\/ warm paper stock with a fine grain\r\n                                    \/\/ so change it for every new page you publish\r\n  topic  : 'Measurement & Evaluation in Education',          \/\/ e.g. 'CCS (Conduct) Rules, 1964'\r\n  eyebrow: '',                      \/\/ e.g. 'UPSC SO \/ Steno LDCE \u00b7 Paper II' \u2014 leave blank to hide\r\n  sub    : 'Chapter drills with a planner that builds your next sitting for you.',\r\n\r\n  \/* --- SOURCE PAGE ---------------------------------------------------\r\n     The page on your site that carries the full text of this subject.\r\n     A \"Read the source\" card then appears in the rail. Leave it blank\r\n     and the card disappears.                                            *\/\r\n  sourceUrl   : '',                 \/\/ e.g. 'https:\/\/promotionexams.com\/your-source-page\/'\r\n  sourceLabel : 'full source text', \/\/ shown on the link\r\n\r\n  \/* --- IMPORTANCE ----------------------------------------------------\r\n     You set the importance of each chapter yourself, in chapterImportance\r\n     below. It drives the ranking, the study plan and the planner \u2014 the\r\n     bigger the number, the more of your next sitting that chapter gets.\r\n     It is never described as exam weightage, so it is safe on a subject\r\n     with no previous year papers.\r\n     Leave the whole map empty and the page falls back silently to each\r\n     chapter's share of the bank, and stops mentioning importance at all. *\/\r\n\r\n  masteryThreshold : 3,     \/\/ clean correct answers before a question counts as mastered\r\n  weakThreshold    : 1,     \/\/ wrong attempts before a question is flagged weak\r\n\r\n  priorAccuracy : 0.30,     \/\/ expected-score model: shrink raw accuracy toward this\r\n  priorStrength : 6,\r\n  retention     : { baseDays:3, growth:2.5, riskBelow:0.70 },\r\n\r\n  sessionSize : 25,         \/\/ Focused set\r\n  mockSize    : 50          \/\/ Mock paper\r\n};\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   2. CHAPTER IMPORTANCE  \u2190 you set this by hand\r\n   Keys do NOT have to match your chapter names exactly. Anything that\r\n   starts with a chapter or appendix number is matched on that number\r\n   alone, so 'Ch 2' finds 'CH 2: GENERAL OUTLINES OF THE SYSTEM OF\r\n   ACCOUNTS', and 'Apndx 5' finds 'APPENDIX 5: PRINCIPLES AND RULES...'.\r\n   Chapter, Chap, CH, Ch-2, 2. \u2014 all read the same. For appendices:\r\n   Appendix, Apndx, Appx, Annex, Annexure, in digits or roman numerals.\r\n   A key with no number falls back to a loose text match.\r\n   Numbers are relative: they need NOT total 100. A chapter you leave\r\n   out is given its share of the bank instead and is marked \"not rated\r\n   yet\" in the performance table.\r\n   Empty this map altogether to switch importance off everywhere.\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst chapterImportance = {\r\n  'Ch 1' : 30,\r\n  'Ch 2' : 45,\r\n  'Ch 3' : 25\r\n  \/\/ 'Apndx 1' : 25,   \u2190 appendices work the same way\r\n};\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   3. QUESTION BANK  \u2190 PASTE YOUR BANK HERE\r\n   { id, chapter, question, options[], correct, explanation }\r\n     id          unique within its chapter\r\n     chapter     must match a key in chapterImportance exactly\r\n     correct     0-indexed\r\n     explanation may contain HTML; cite the rule or paragraph in <b> tags\r\n   A stem may carry \"\\n1. ...\" statement lines or a \"List-I \/ List-II\"\r\n   block \u2014 both are laid out automatically, and so is a plain stem.\r\n   The three below are only samples so the page renders on first open.\r\n   Delete them.\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst chapterQuestions = [\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 1,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Definitions of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The process of assigning symbols to the dimensions of a phenomenon in order to characterise the status of that phenomenon as precisely as possible is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Evaluation\",\r\n      \"Appraisal\",\r\n      \"Accreditation\",\r\n      \"Measurement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Measurement<\/b><br><br><b>J.M. Bradfield<\/b> defined measurement as the assignment of symbols to the dimension of a phenomenon so as to characterise its <b>status<\/b> as precisely as possible.<br><br><b>The trap is option (A).<\/b> Bradfield's companion definition of <b>evaluation<\/b> uses almost identical opening words but ends differently \u2014 symbols are assigned to characterise the <b>worth or value<\/b> of the phenomenon, usually with reference to social, cultural and scientific standards. <b>'Status' signals measurement; 'worth or value' signals evaluation.<\/b><br><br>Appraisal and accreditation are not technical terms in this classification.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 2,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Definitions of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The assignment of symbols to a phenomenon in order to characterise its worth or value, usually with reference to some social, cultural and scientific standards, is the accepted definition of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Measurement\",\r\n      \"Testing\",\r\n      \"Evaluation\",\r\n      \"Examination\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Evaluation<\/b><br><br>This is <b>J.M. Bradfield's<\/b> definition of evaluation. The operative phrase is <b>'worth or value ... with reference to some social, cultural and scientific standards'<\/b>. The reference to external standards is what converts description into judgement.<br><br><b>Measurement (A)<\/b> characterises the <i>status<\/i> of a phenomenon, not its worth. <b>Testing (B)<\/b> is one method of collecting the data, a part of measurement. <b>Examination (D)<\/b> is used for measuring and evaluating educational achievement alone, and is therefore narrower than evaluation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 3,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Definitions of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that whatever exists at all exists in some quantity, and whatever exists in some quantity is capable of being measured, is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"J.M. Bradfield\",\r\n      \"R.L. Ebel\",\r\n      \"N.E. Gronlund\",\r\n      \"E.L. Thorndike\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) E.L. Thorndike<\/b><br><br>Thorndike's dictum is the foundational assumption of the whole measurement movement: if a trait exists it exists in degree, and degree can be quantified. It is what licenses the measurement of abstract traits such as intelligence and attitude.<br><br><b>Bradfield (A)<\/b> supplied the formal definitions of measurement and evaluation. <b>Gronlund (C)<\/b> stated that measurement results are a score or numerical value \u2014 a quantitative description of the pupil. <b>Ebel (B)<\/b> listed the competencies a teacher needs in educational measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 4,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essentials of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following:<br>1. Identification and definition of the attribute that is to be measured<br>2. Determination of the set of operations by which the attribute is made perceivable<br>3. Establishment of a procedure for translating observations into quantitative statements<br>4. Assignment of a value judgement to the quantified observations<br>Which of the above are essentials of measurement in any field?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>Measurement in any field involves exactly three essentials: <b>defining the attribute<\/b>, <b>operationalising it<\/b> so that it can be perceived, and <b>translating the observation into a quantitative statement<\/b> of degree, extent or amount.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> A value judgement is the defining ingredient of <b>evaluation<\/b>, not of measurement. Measurement stops at the quantitative description; the moment worth is assigned, the process has become evaluation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 5,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors of Measurement and Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not counted among the four factors of measurement?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The object, person or activity whose characteristic is to be measured\",\r\n      \"The characteristic that is to be measured\",\r\n      \"The norms against which the obtained result is analysed\",\r\n      \"The tools and devices used for measuring the characteristic\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) The norms against which the obtained result is analysed<\/b><br><br>The four factors of measurement are: the <b>object, person or activity<\/b>; the <b>characteristic<\/b> to be measured; the <b>tools and devices<\/b> of measurement; and the <b>person who measures<\/b>.<br><br>Norms enter only at the next stage. Evaluation carries the same four factors and adds two more \u2014 the <b>norms<\/b> on the basis of which measurement results are analysed, and the <b>logical, mathematical or statistical devices<\/b> by which that analysis is carried out. Evaluation therefore has <b>six<\/b> factors in all.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 6,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors of Measurement and Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Over and above the four factors of measurement, the process of evaluation involves two additional factors. These are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The examiner's experience and the duration of the test\",\r\n      \"The syllabus prescribed and the marking scheme adopted\",\r\n      \"The norms of analysis and the devices used for that analysis\",\r\n      \"The entry behaviour of the pupil and the mode of instruction\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) The norms of analysis and the devices used for that analysis<\/b><br><br>Evaluation adds a fifth factor \u2014 the <b>standards or norms<\/b> (social, cultural or scientific) on whose basis the measurement result is analysed \u2014 and a sixth \u2014 the <b>logical, mathematical or statistical devices<\/b> with which the analysis is performed.<br><br>These two additions are exactly what distinguishes evaluation from measurement. Measurement records the score; evaluation places that score against a norm and pronounces on it. The other options name administrative details, not factors in the analytical scheme.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 7,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"With reference to mental measurement, consider the following statements:<br>1. It is relative in nature and admits of no absolute zero.<br>2. A single fixed set of tools is applicable to all categories of persons.<br>3. It is both qualitative and quantitative in nature.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Mental measurement \u2014 also called educational or psychological measurement \u2014 is always <b>relative<\/b>. A pupil scoring zero has not thereby been shown to possess zero ability.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> It carries both qualitative and quantitative elements.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717<\/b> The claim is reversed. It is <b>physical measurement<\/b> that has a fixed, universal set of tools; for mental measurement the same instrument may not suit different types of persons, and the tools are selected to fit age and purpose.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 8,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The distinguishing feature of physical measurement, as against educational measurement, is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"its results are always interpreted against published norms\",\r\n      \"it dispenses with the need for standardised instruments\",\r\n      \"it is confined to traits that vary within a single group\",\r\n      \"its measuring instruments begin from an absolute zero\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) its measuring instruments begin from an absolute zero<\/b><br><br>Physical measurement is of objects having <b>absolute existence<\/b> \u2014 height, weight, length. Every instrument used starts from <b>zero<\/b>, the results are accurate and purely quantitative, and the tools are standard the world over.<br><br>Educational measurement has no such zero, which is why its results can only be interpreted relatively. Option (A) describes standardised testing generally, not the physical\/mental divide; options (B) and (C) invert the position.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 9,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Variables in Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following characteristics of persons:<br>1. Complexion<br>2. Religion<br>3. Intelligence quotient<br>4. Caste<br>Which of the above are qualitative variables?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 4 only<\/b><br><br><b>Qualitative variables<\/b> are those which can be perceived but cannot be measured in definite units \u2014 complexion, caste, religion and sex are the standard illustrations. They permit classification only.<br><br><b>Intelligence quotient (3) is quantitative<\/b>, because it is expressed in definite units obtained from a test. Height, weight and IQ are the classic quantitative variables.<br><br>A caution worth carrying: a characteristic is a <b>variable<\/b> only where the group is not uniform on it. Sex is a variable in a mixed class but a constant in an all-boys class.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 10,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Variables in Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is a discrete variable?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Time taken by a candidate to complete a test\",\r\n      \"Number of pupils enrolled in a school\",\r\n      \"Height of the pupils seated in a class\",\r\n      \"Weight of a school bag carried daily\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Number of pupils enrolled in a school<\/b><br><br><b>Discrete variables<\/b> are always measured in <b>whole numbers<\/b> and arise from counting. A school may have 640 or 641 pupils; 640\u00b75 is impossible. Their units of measurement are therefore exact numbers.<br><br><b>Continuous variables<\/b> can take any value between two whole numbers and are limited only by the precision of the instrument \u2014 time, height and weight all qualify, since 170\u00b71 cm and 170\u00b712 cm are equally meaningful.<br><br><b>The working rule:<\/b> if you <b>count<\/b> it, it is discrete; if you <b>measure<\/b> it, it is continuous.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 11,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Variables in Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The units used in the measurement of continuous variables are correctly described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"exact numbers, since no fractional part can arise\",\r\n      \"approximate numbers, since a fractional part is always present\",\r\n      \"arbitrary numbers, since the zero point is fixed by convention\",\r\n      \"ordinal numbers, since only rank order is conveyed\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) approximate numbers, since a fractional part is always present<\/b><br><br>A continuous variable can assume any value between two whole numbers, so a recorded value is never truly exact \u2014 it is an <b>approximation<\/b> limited by the fineness of the instrument. A height recorded as 170 cm stands for a band around 170, not a point.<br><br><b>Exact numbers (A)<\/b> belong to <b>discrete<\/b> variables, which are counted and are always whole. Option (C) confuses continuity with the interval scale's arbitrary zero; option (D) confuses it with level of measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 12,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements distinguishing qualitative from quantitative measurement:<br>1. The basis of qualitative measurement is generally a norm, whereas that of quantitative measurement is a unit.<br>2. The norms of qualitative measurement are universal, whereas the units of quantitative measurement vary from place to place.<br>3. Qualitative measurement admits of no situation of zero, whereas quantitative measurement rests on zero.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Qualitative measurement rests on <b>norms<\/b>; quantitative measurement on <b>units<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> A child's intelligence can never be zero, whereas a weight of 40 kg is precisely 40 units above zero.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717 \u2014 the two halves have been swapped.<\/b> It is the <b>units<\/b> of quantitative measurement that are <b>universal<\/b>; the <b>norms<\/b> of qualitative measurement are <b>not<\/b> universal, since they vary with the observer and the society. Reversal of a single clause is the standard device in this format.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 13,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Qualitative and Quantitative Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Describing a pupil as 'very intelligent' rather than assigning an intelligence quotient of 140 illustrates:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"ipsative measurement\",\r\n      \"qualitative measurement\",\r\n      \"normative measurement\",\r\n      \"absolute measurement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Qualitative measurement<\/b><br><br>Perceiving a characteristic <b>in the form of a quality<\/b> \u2014 very intelligent, average, dull \u2014 is qualitative measurement. Expressing the same characteristic <b>in the form of a quantity<\/b> \u2014 an IQ of 140, 120 or 110 \u2014 is quantitative measurement.<br><br><b>Normative (C)<\/b>, <b>ipsative (A)<\/b> and <b>absolute (D)<\/b> measurement belong to a different classification altogether, based on the nature of the tool and the results it yields, not on whether the description is verbal or numerical.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 14,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Absolute, Normative and Ipsative Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Measurement in which the scale begins at zero, recording positive values above it and negative values below it, is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Normative measurement\",\r\n      \"Ipsative measurement\",\r\n      \"Absolute measurement\",\r\n      \"Comparative measurement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Absolute measurement<\/b><br><br>Absolute measurement has a genuine zero from which the scale runs both ways. <b>Temperature<\/b> is the standard illustration: it may be zero, above zero or below zero.<br><br><b>The important limitation:<\/b> such measurement is possible only for <b>physical<\/b> variables. Educational and psychological variables admit of no absolute zero, since a pupil scoring zero has merely failed to answer the questions set, not been shown to possess no ability. Because an absolute zero exists, results of absolute measurement may be analysed <b>mathematically<\/b> \u2014 40 degrees is genuinely twice 20 degrees.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 15,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Absolute, Normative and Ipsative Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Measurement in which the marks obtained by one person are not affected by those obtained by another, and in which no absolute zero is possible, is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Absolute measurement\",\r\n      \"Normative measurement\",\r\n      \"Ipsative measurement\",\r\n      \"Ordinal measurement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Normative measurement<\/b><br><br>Two features define it: scores are <b>independent of one another<\/b>, and there is <b>no absolute zero<\/b>. Achievement testing is the everyday example \u2014 one pupil's 60 does not constrain another's score, and a zero does not establish an absence of ability.<br><br>Because the zero is arbitrary, results cannot be handled mathematically. A pupil scoring 60 does not know twice as much as one scoring 30. Such results are analysed instead through <b>measures of central tendency and dispersion<\/b>.<br><br><b>Ipsative measurement (C)<\/b> is the opposite case: there the scores <i>are<\/i> mutually constrained.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 16,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Absolute, Normative and Ipsative Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In which one of the following types of measurement are the mean and the standard deviation of the scores of every person necessarily equal?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Absolute measurement\",\r\n      \"Normative measurement\",\r\n      \"Ipsative measurement\",\r\n      \"Interval measurement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Ipsative measurement<\/b><br><br>Ipsative measurement, a term introduced by <b>Raymond Cattell<\/b>, uses <b>forced-choice items<\/b>: the respondent must rank the statements put before him as 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on. Since every respondent distributes the <b>same set of ranks<\/b>, the total, the mean and the standard deviation are <b>identical for everyone<\/b>.<br><br>The consequence is that ipsative scores are <b>intra-individual<\/b> \u2014 they show which trait is strongest <i>within<\/i> a person, but cannot be used to compare one person with another.<br><br>In <b>normative measurement (B)<\/b> the scores are free to vary independently, so no such constraint arises.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 17,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Absolute, Normative and Ipsative Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Type of measurement : Feature<br>1. Absolute measurement : Scale commences from a true zero<br>2. Ipsative measurement : Respondent is compelled to choose among items<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Absolute measurement is defined by a scale starting at zero, with values recorded above and below it. Temperature is the standard case, and such measurement is available only for physical variables.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2713<\/b> Ipsative measurement rests on the <b>forced-choice item<\/b>. The respondent must assign preferences 1, 2, 3, 4 among the statements offered, and having given a rank to one statement cannot give it to another.<br><br>The three-fold scheme \u2014 absolute, normative and ipsative \u2014 classifies measurement by the <b>tool used and the results it yields<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 18,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Steps of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following steps of the process of measurement in their correct sequence:<br>1. Administration of the selected tool<br>2. Selection of a suitable tool or technique<br>3. Obtaining and recording the results<br>4. Determination and definition of the trait or objective to be measured\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 1 \u2013 2 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>Measurement is completed in <b>four steps<\/b>, in this order:<br><b>(i) Determination and defining<\/b> of the trait, aim or objective to be measured;<br><b>(ii) Selection<\/b> of a suitable tool or technique;<br><b>(iii) Use or administration<\/b> of that tool;<br><b>(iv) Results and records.<\/b><br><br><b>Why the first step must come first:<\/b> without a clear definition of what is to be measured, no suitable instrument can be chosen, and without a suitable instrument nothing can be measured at all. Every later step depends on it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 19,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Steps of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Considered purely as a sequence of functional steps, the process of measurement comprises:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"two steps, whereas evaluation comprises four\",\r\n      \"three steps, whereas evaluation comprises six\",\r\n      \"four steps, whereas evaluation comprises five\",\r\n      \"five steps, whereas evaluation comprises eight\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) three steps, whereas evaluation comprises six<\/b><br><br>Viewed functionally, measurement has three steps \u2014 <b>selection or construction<\/b> of a suitable tool, its <b>use<\/b>, and <b>recording<\/b> of the result.<br><br>Evaluation carries all three and adds three more: <b>selection and use of suitable norms<\/b> for analysing the result, <b>analysis<\/b> of the result against those norms, and <b>prediction, suggestion or guidance<\/b> on the basis of that analysis.<br><br>This is the arithmetic behind the standing proposition that <b>measurement is the first step of evaluation and a part of it<\/b>, not a synonym for it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 20,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Functions of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following functions of mental measurement:<br>1. Prognosis<br>2. Diagnosis<br>3. Research<br>4. Certification<br>Which of the above were identified by Cronbach as the main functions under which all applications of mental measurement may be classified?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Lee J. Cronbach (1949)<\/b> classified all applications of mental measurement under three heads:<br>\u2022 <b>Prognosis<\/b> \u2014 prediction of future behaviour; it carries the administrative uses of classification, selection, promotion and gradation, and underlies guidance and counselling.<br>\u2022 <b>Diagnosis<\/b> \u2014 identification of the weaknesses in a pupil's learning, establishing a <b>cause-and-effect<\/b> relationship rather than a simple predictive one, and enabling remedial instruction.<br>\u2022 <b>Research<\/b> \u2014 verification of scientific hypotheses; the least used of the three.<br><br><b>Certification (4)<\/b> is a purpose served by summative evaluation, not one of Cronbach's three functions.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 21,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Functions of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following distinguishes the diagnostic function of measurement from its prognostic function?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It establishes a cause-and-effect relationship rather than a simple relationship\",\r\n      \"It is applied before instruction begins rather than in the course of instruction\",\r\n      \"It relies on norms drawn from a national sample rather than from a local group\",\r\n      \"It yields a single total score rather than a profile of the separate sub-skills\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) It establishes a cause-and-effect relationship rather than a simple relationship<\/b><br><br>Both functions involve prediction, which is why they are easily confused. The separating feature is that <b>diagnosis establishes causation<\/b> \u2014 it asks <i>why<\/i> the pupil is failing \u2014 whereas <b>prognosis implies only a simple relationship<\/b> between a present score and a future outcome.<br><br>Prognosis reveals the pupil's <b>level<\/b>; diagnosis identifies the <b>weakness<\/b> in learning so that remedial instruction can be prepared.<br><br>Option (D) reverses the truth: it is precisely the <b>diagnostic<\/b> instrument that yields a profile of sub-skills.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 22,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods and Tools of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"For measuring traits such as honesty, punctuality and truthfulness, which one of the following is the most dependable technique?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Standardised achievement testing\",\r\n      \"Observation\",\r\n      \"Projective technique\",\r\n      \"Checklist of syllabus coverage\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Observation<\/b><br><br>Traits such as honesty, punctuality, persistence and truthfulness <b>can hardly be measured objectively through tests<\/b>, since they are displayed in conduct over time rather than in responses to items. Observation \u2014 participant or non-participant, and supported by an observation schedule \u2014 is the appropriate technique.<br><br><b>Achievement tests (A)<\/b> measure attainment in subject matter. <b>Projective techniques (C)<\/b> such as the Thematic Apperception Test reach the sub-conscious and pre-conscious mind and are used for personality, not for habitual conduct. Option (D) is an administrative instrument.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 23,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods and Tools of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Instrument)<br>A. Rating scale<br>B. Checklist<br>C. Thematic Apperception Test<br>D. Interest inventory<br><br>List II (Characteristic feature)<br>1. Records presence or absence of an item by a tick or cross<br>2. Reaches the sub-conscious mind through ambiguous stimuli<br>3. Records the degree of a trait on a five-, seven- or nine-point continuum<br>4. Elicits preferences among activities and occupations\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-3, C-4, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4<\/b><br><br><b>A-3 Rating scale<\/b> takes the opinion of teachers, parents or judges on a trait <b>along a scale<\/b>, commonly of 5, 7, 9 or 11 points.<br><b>B-1 Checklist<\/b> is a series of items requiring only a <b>yes\/no<\/b> response, popular for appraising school buildings, textbooks and instructional procedures.<br><b>C-2 Thematic Apperception Test<\/b> is a <b>projective technique<\/b>, ambiguous and subjective, reflecting the sub-conscious and pre-conscious mind.<br><b>D-4 Interest inventory<\/b> measures interest, as personality inventories measure personality traits.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> anchor on C-2, which is unmistakable, and two options fall away at once.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 24,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Measuring Tool\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Objectivity of a test, in its technical sense, refers to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the alignment of every item with the prescribed syllabus of the course\",\r\n      \"the item requiring a single definite answer and the scoring being independent of the scorer\",\r\n      \"the freedom of the instrument from any reference to the performance of a norm group\",\r\n      \"the coverage of the whole content domain in proportion to the teaching time given to it\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the item requiring a single definite answer and the scoring being independent of the scorer<\/b><br><br>Objectivity has <b>two aspects<\/b>: <b>item objectivity<\/b>, meaning each item admits of one definite answer, and <b>scoring objectivity<\/b>, meaning the test fetches the same score by whomsoever it is marked.<br><br>It is for this reason that ambiguous questions, double-barrelled questions, questions with double negatives and essay-type questions are avoided where objectivity is required.<br><br>Option (D) describes <b>content validity<\/b>, secured through a table of specifications; option (C) describes criterion-referencing.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 25,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Measuring Tool\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The degree to which a test can be successfully applied by teachers and school administrators within the time and resources available is referred to as its:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Validity\",\r\n      \"Comparability\",\r\n      \"Usability\",\r\n      \"Objectivity\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Usability<\/b><br><br>Usability, also called practicability, concerns whether the instrument can actually be worked in the school \u2014 ease of administration, ease of scoring, ease of interpretation, economy of time and cost, and ready availability.<br><br>The <b>Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale<\/b> is the standard illustration of the distinction: an excellent test on technical grounds, but difficult to administer, and therefore low on usability.<br><br><b>Comparability (B)<\/b> is a separate quality \u2014 it requires either an equivalent parallel form or adequate norms, so that a score can be read against a common base.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 26,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Measuring Tool\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A test possesses comparability when scores obtained from it can be interpreted against a common base of accepted meaning. This quality is established through:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"an equivalent parallel form of the test, or adequate norms\",\r\n      \"a table of specifications and a detailed marking scheme\",\r\n      \"an item analysis yielding difficulty and discrimination indices\",\r\n      \"a re-test administered to the same group after an interval\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) an equivalent parallel form of the test, or adequate norms<\/b><br><br>Comparability is secured by <b>two methods<\/b>: the availability of an <b>equivalent (parallel) form<\/b> of the test, and the availability of <b>adequate norms<\/b>. Either allows a score to be read against something outside the immediate group.<br><br><b>Option (B)<\/b> secures content validity and objectivity of scoring. <b>Option (C)<\/b> improves the quality of individual items. <b>Option (D)<\/b> is the test-retest method of estimating reliability. All are desirable, but none establishes a common base of interpretation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 27,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The formulation 'Evaluation = quantitative description + qualitative description + value judgement' conveys that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"measurement and evaluation are interchangeable expressions\",\r\n      \"evaluation is confined to the cognitive domain of learning\",\r\n      \"evaluation subsumes measurement and adds an interpretive element to it\",\r\n      \"value judgement may be dispensed with where the description is numerical\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) evaluation subsumes measurement and adds an interpretive element to it<\/b><br><br>In this formulation the <b>quantitative description is the measurement<\/b> component; the <b>qualitative description is the non-measurement<\/b> component; and the <b>value judgement<\/b> is what converts description into evaluation.<br><br>The relationship is therefore one of <b>whole and part<\/b>. Measurement is the first step of evaluation, not a synonym for it \u2014 which is why a bare score, unanalysed, has no significance in education.<br><br><i>This is the formulation tested directly in the 2022 Principal paper, where 'graphical description' was offered as the intruder.<\/i>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 28,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the characteristics of evaluation:<br>1. It is a continuous process.<br>2. It is purely objective and free from any element of judgement.<br>3. It derives its data from measurement.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Evaluation is a systematic and <b>continuous<\/b> process, not an event at the close of instruction.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> It <b>gets its data from measurement<\/b>, then adds meaning to that data rather than merely determining magnitude.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717<\/b> The opposite holds. Evaluation is expressly described as involving <b>subjective judgement<\/b> and as being <b>philosophical in nature<\/b>; it involves values and purposes. It is <b>measurement<\/b> that is the more precise and objective of the two.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 29,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Evaluation based on social and cultural norms is regarded as subjective, whereas evaluation based on scientific norms is regarded as objective. The reason for this distinction is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"social and cultural norms are not definite and are applied according to individual view\",\r\n      \"social and cultural norms cannot be expressed in any numerical or symbolic form at all\",\r\n      \"scientific norms are laid down by statutory authorities and are therefore binding on all\",\r\n      \"scientific norms apply only to physical variables and never to educational human traits\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) social and cultural norms are not definite and are applied according to individual view<\/b><br><br>Two circumstances make evaluation on such norms subjective: the norms are <b>not fully clear or definite<\/b>, and different persons <b>construe and apply them according to their own views<\/b>. Scientific norms, being clear and definite in themselves, yield objective evaluation.<br><br>Option (C) invents a statutory basis that does not exist. Option (D) is false \u2014 scientific norms are routinely applied to educational traits. Option (B) is beside the point; clarity, not numerical form, is what governs.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 30,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Aspects of the Evaluation Process\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The process of evaluation is said to consist of three aspects. Which one of the following is not among them?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Quantitative measurement\",\r\n      \"Qualitative assessment\",\r\n      \"Teachers' opinion\",\r\n      \"External moderation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) External moderation<\/b><br><br>The three aspects are <b>quantitative measurement<\/b>, <b>qualitative assessment<\/b> and <b>teachers' opinion<\/b>.<br><br>Quantitative measurement gives the overall achievement level but does not disclose an individual child's difficulties, and therefore needs supplementing by qualitative assessment \u2014 the teacher's observation and records of the non-scholastic side. The teacher's opinion, formed from both, gives the <b>comprehensive picture<\/b> of progress.<br><br>External moderation is a device of examination administration, not an element of the evaluation process in this scheme.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 31,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measurement versus Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements:<br>1. Measurement is content-oriented, whereas evaluation is objective-oriented.<br>2. Measurement is an end in itself, whereas evaluation is only a means to that end.<br>3. Measurement may not be an essential part of education, whereas evaluation is an integral part of it.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Measurement attaches to content; evaluation attaches to objectives.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> Measurement is not necessarily a part of education, whereas evaluation is its <b>integral and necessary part<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717 \u2014 the terms are inverted.<\/b> The accepted position is the reverse: <b>measurement is a means and not an end in itself, while evaluation is an end in itself<\/b>. Inverting one clause of an otherwise correct proposition is the commonest device in this format, and the candidate must read for direction, not merely for vocabulary.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 32,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measurement versus Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that measurement answers the question 'how much' while evaluation answers the question 'what value' is illustrated by which one of the following?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A pupil has scored 56 marks in mathematics, the class mean being 48 marks\",\r\n      \"A pupil has scored 50 per cent in mathematics and has passed in the second division\",\r\n      \"A pupil has answered 28 of the 50 items on a mathematics test correctly\",\r\n      \"A pupil has been ranked eleventh in mathematics in a class of forty pupils\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) A pupil has scored 50 per cent in mathematics and has therefore passed in the second division<\/b><br><br>Only this option carries <b>both halves<\/b>. The 50 per cent is the <b>measurement<\/b>; classification into the second division is the <b>value judgement<\/b> made by reference to a standard, and that is the <b>evaluation<\/b>.<br><br><b>Options (A), (C) and (D)<\/b> stop at quantitative description. A raw score, a count of correct answers and a rank position all report <i>how much<\/i>; none pronounces on <i>what value<\/i>. Note that a rank, though comparative, is still a description until a standard is applied to it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 33,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measurement versus Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Process)<br>A. Measurement<br>B. Evaluation<br>C. Testing<br>D. Examination<br><br>List II (Description)<br>1. Broad process covering policy, curriculum, methods and personnel, ending in prediction and suggestion<br>2. Assignment of symbols to characterise the status of a trait in words, symbols or units<br>3. Employed for the measurement and evaluation of educational achievement alone<br>4. One among several methods by which measurement is carried out\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-1, C-3, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3<\/b><br><br><b>A-2 Measurement<\/b> characterises the <b>status<\/b> of a trait.<br><b>B-1 Evaluation<\/b> is the broadest of the four, taking in educational policy, planning, objectives, curriculum, teaching methods, administration and the activities of teachers and guardians, and closing with prediction and suggestion.<br><b>C-4 Testing<\/b> is <b>only one of the methods<\/b> of measurement \u2014 a part of a part.<br><b>D-3 Examination<\/b> is confined to <b>educational achievement<\/b>.<br><br><b>The nesting to remember:<\/b> testing \u2282 measurement \u2282 evaluation, with examination a species of achievement measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 34,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measurement versus Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following statements correctly represents the relation between educational evaluation and examination?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Examination is broader, since it certifies achievement for the whole system\",\r\n      \"Evaluation is broader, since examination is confined to educational achievement\",\r\n      \"The two are coextensive, differing only in the authority that conducts them\",\r\n      \"Examination is a form of measurement and lies outside evaluation altogether\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Evaluation is broader, since examination is confined to educational achievement<\/b><br><br>Educational evaluation covers educational policy, planning, objectives, curriculum, teaching methods, administration, the activities of teachers and guardians, and the pupil's intelligence, interest, aptitude and personality \u2014 closing with suggestions and predictions. <b>Examination is used for the measurement and evaluation of educational achievement only.<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D) is the subtle error.<\/b> Examination is indeed a mode of measurement, but measurement is the <b>first step<\/b> of evaluation, so examination lies <i>within<\/i> evaluation, not outside it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 35,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measurement versus Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation that the emphasis in measurement falls upon a single aspect of subject-matter achievement or a specific skill, whereas the emphasis in evaluation falls upon broad personality changes and the major objectives of an educational programme, is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Wrightstone\",\r\n      \"Bradfield\",\r\n      \"Cronbach\",\r\n      \"Glaser\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Wrightstone<\/b><br><br>Wrightstone's contrast is the classical statement of the difference in <b>scope<\/b>: testing a child in mathematics measures mathematical ability and nothing more, disclosing nothing of his interests, attitudes, work habits or social adaptability. Evaluation reaches those.<br><br><b>Bradfield (B)<\/b> gave the formal definitions of measurement and evaluation. <b>Cronbach (C)<\/b> gave the three functions of mental measurement. <b>Glaser (D)<\/b> is associated with the <b>basic teaching model<\/b>, in which evaluation appears as the <b>feedback function<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 36,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measurement versus Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the basic teaching model, evaluation appears as which one of the following components?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Entry behaviour\",\r\n      \"Instructional objectives\",\r\n      \"Feedback function\",\r\n      \"Instructional procedure\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Feedback function<\/b><br><br>In <b>Glaser's<\/b> basic model of teaching, the step at which the effectiveness of instruction is judged is designated the <b>feedback function<\/b>. Its purpose is not certification but the <b>improvement of the instructional procedure<\/b> \u2014 the success or failure of teaching being traced back to strategies, tactics and aids.<br><br>The other three options are the remaining components of the same model. <b>Entry behaviour (A)<\/b> is what the pupil brings to the instruction; <b>instructional objectives (B)<\/b> state the intended outcome; <b>instructional procedure (D)<\/b> is the teaching itself.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 37,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scope of Measurement and Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the scope of educational measurement:<br>1. It extends to the usefulness of the curriculum and of teaching methods.<br>2. It extends to the activities of administrators, teachers and guardians.<br>3. It is confined to the scholastic achievement of pupils expressed in marks.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Educational measurement now extends to the aims of education, the usefulness of the curriculum and of teaching methods, the basis of educational policy, and the educational activities of administrators, teachers and guardians, besides the intelligence, interest, aptitude, attitude and personality of pupils.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> This is the popular but mistaken narrowing. <b>There is no area in the field of education that is not now subject to measurement.<\/b> Confining measurement to marks is precisely the misconception the wider definition was framed to correct.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 38,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Need for Measurement and Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following purposes belongs to evaluation rather than to measurement?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Ascertaining the intelligence of pupils at the time of admission\",\r\n      \"Recording the marks obtained by pupils on an achievement test\",\r\n      \"Analysing educational objectives and suggesting timely change in them\",\r\n      \"Administering an aptitude test to a class before streaming\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Analysing educational objectives and suggesting timely change in them<\/b><br><br>Only this option involves <b>analysis against a norm followed by a suggestion<\/b>, which is the distinguishing work of evaluation. The stated needs of evaluation include testing the utility of educational objectives, judging the effect of the curriculum and of teaching methods, and recommending improvement.<br><br><b>Options (A), (B) and (D)<\/b> are all needs of <b>measurement<\/b> \u2014 ascertaining ability at admission, recording achievement, and administering tests for classification. They gather evidence; they do not appraise it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 39,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Purposes of Measurement and Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Bringing pupils appropriately into the learning sequence and streaming them according to ability or subject is the purpose described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Certification\",\r\n      \"Placement\",\r\n      \"Stimulation of learning\",\r\n      \"Improvement of teaching\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Placement<\/b><br><br>Placement involves positioning the pupil correctly in the instructional sequence and classifying or streaming pupils by ability or subject.<br><br>The remaining purposes of measurement and evaluation are distinct: <b>selection<\/b> for general, professional, technical or commercial courses; <b>certification<\/b>, which attests that a stated level of performance has been reached; <b>stimulating learning<\/b>, through motivation, feedback and suggested practice; and <b>improving teaching<\/b>, by reviewing the effectiveness of the arrangements made.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 40,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Steps of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the evaluation of educational achievement, the step that immediately follows the analysis of measurement results is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"administration of the performance test\",\r\n      \"clarification of the teaching objectives\",\r\n      \"framing of suggestions on the basis of that analysis\",\r\n      \"marking and recording of scores on the answer script\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) framing of suggestions on the basis of that analysis<\/b><br><br>The sequence runs: clarification of teaching objectives \u2192 selection of a suitable performance test or practical work \u2192 its administration \u2192 marking and recording of scores \u2192 <b>analysis of the measurement results<\/b> \u2192 <b>suggestions on the basis of that analysis<\/b> \u2192 evaluation of the effect of those suggestions.<br><br>Options (A), (B) and (D) all name steps that come <b>before<\/b> the analysis. The distinguishing feature of the evaluation cycle is that it does not stop at the suggestion \u2014 it returns to <b>test the effect<\/b> of the suggestion, which is what makes the process continuous.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 41,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The evaluation through which the entry behaviour of a pupil is assessed in order to fix his position in the instructional sequence is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Formative evaluation\",\r\n      \"Diagnostic evaluation\",\r\n      \"Placement evaluation\",\r\n      \"Summative evaluation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Placement evaluation<\/b><br><br>Placement evaluation assesses <b>entry behaviour<\/b>. It asks whether the pupil already possesses the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned instruction, to what extent he has already attained its goals, and which mode of instruction would suit him best. A <b>B.Ed. entrance test<\/b> is the standard illustration.<br><br><b>Formative (A)<\/b> monitors progress during instruction; <b>diagnostic (B)<\/b> locates persistent difficulties left unresolved by formative correctives; <b>summative (D)<\/b> certifies attainment at the close.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 42,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Diagnostic evaluation differs from formative evaluation in that it addresses:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"learning difficulties that persist after formative correctives have been applied\",\r\n      \"the position of the pupil in relation to the remainder of the class group\",\r\n      \"the entry behaviour of the pupil before the planned instruction commences\",\r\n      \"the certification of attainment reached at the close of a course of study\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) learning difficulties that persist after formative correctives have been applied<\/b><br><br>Diagnostic evaluation is concerned with the <b>persistent learning difficulties left unresolved by the corrective prescriptions of formative assessment<\/b>. The teacher resorts to detailed diagnosis only when varied methods have already been tried and the difficulty remains.<br><br>Its instruments are correspondingly specialised \u2014 specially prepared diagnostic tests and observational techniques, and in appropriate cases vision and hearing tests, since a persistent reading difficulty may have a physical cause.<br><br>Options (B), (C) and (D) describe norm-referencing, placement and summative evaluation respectively.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 43,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements:<br>1. Formative evaluation determines the level of achievement in a small task learned over a short duration.<br>2. Summative evaluation permits broad generalisation and covers large content areas.<br>3. Remedial teaching ordinarily follows summative evaluation.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Formative evaluation covers a <b>small task over a short duration<\/b>, gives limited generalisation and touches a limited content area and ability.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> Summative evaluation covers a <b>major task learned over a longer duration<\/b>, permits broad generalisations and spans large content areas.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> <b>No remedial teaching is given after summative evaluation.<\/b> Its results are used for the merit list, for pass, fail and promotion decisions and for awarding degrees or diplomas. Remediation belongs to formative and diagnostic evaluation, which are conducted while there is still time to act.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 44,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not an instrument ordinarily employed in summative evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Achievement test administered at the close of the course\",\r\n      \"Viva voce examination conducted by an outside expert\",\r\n      \"Project evaluation carried out by a panel of experts\",\r\n      \"Preliminary draft circulated for the approval of specialists\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Preliminary draft circulated for expert approval<\/b><br><br>The tools of summative evaluation are the <b>achievement test, rating scales, project evaluation by experts, interviews and the viva voce<\/b>, all employed at the close of a topic, unit, class or course to judge the final product.<br><br>Option (D) belongs to <b>programme-level formative evaluation<\/b>, where a proposed policy, curriculum or teaching method is drafted, each step analysed, and the approval of specialists obtained through interview, questionnaire or rating scale <b>before<\/b> the scheme is given final shape. The distinction between judging a finished product and shaping an unfinished one is the whole of the formative-summative divide.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 45,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Internal and External Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The principal merit claimed for external evaluation is that it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"eliminates the element of bias from the evaluation system\",\r\n      \"permits remedial teaching to be organised for weaker pupils\",\r\n      \"enables the teacher to identify his own weak areas\",\r\n      \"allows the syllabus to be adjusted to the pace of the class\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) eliminates the element of bias from the evaluation system<\/b><br><br>In external evaluation the examiner is drawn from outside and is never the teacher of the pupils being examined \u2014 board examinations, viva conducted by an outside expert, and annual examinations for which the paper is set outside the school.<br><br><b>Options (B), (C) and (D)<\/b> state the merits of <b>internal evaluation<\/b>, in which the teacher and the examiner are the same person. Class tests, unit tests and weekly, monthly and quarterly tests are its forms; they help trace pupil progress, organise remediation and reveal to the teacher his own weak areas.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 46,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The classification of educational objectives into cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains was proposed by Benjamin Bloom and his associates in:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1948\",\r\n      \"1956\",\r\n      \"1964\",\r\n      \"1969\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1956<\/b><br><br>Bloom and his co-workers <b>began work in 1948<\/b>, and the classification was <b>developed and published in 1956<\/b> as Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.<br><br>The other dates are the genuine competitors and each belongs elsewhere: <b>1948 (A)<\/b> is when the work commenced; <b>1964 (C)<\/b> is when <b>Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia<\/b> classified the affective domain; <b>1969 (D)<\/b> is when <b>R.H. Dave<\/b> gave the classification of the psychomotor domain that is most commonly reproduced in Indian syllabi.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 47,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Domain : Authors of its classification<br>1. Affective domain : Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia<br>2. Psychomotor domain : Anderson and Cruikshank<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> The affective domain was classified in <b>1964<\/b> by <b>D.R. Krathwohl, B.S. Bloom and B.B. Masia<\/b>, in five hierarchical categories.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2717<\/b> The psychomotor domain has been classified by several writers \u2014 <b>Simpson (1966)<\/b>, <b>R.H. Dave (1969)<\/b> and <b>Harrow (1972)<\/b> among them. <b>Lorin W. Anderson, David R. Krathwohl and Kathleen A. Cruikshank<\/b> belong to a different work altogether: the <b>2001 revision of the cognitive taxonomy<\/b>, published as <i>A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing<\/i>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 48,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In R.H. Dave's classification of the psychomotor domain, the level at which the performer's act becomes automatic and appears effortless to the observer is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Precision\",\r\n      \"Manipulation\",\r\n      \"Articulation\",\r\n      \"Naturalisation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Naturalisation<\/b><br><br>Dave's five categories run in ascending order of complexity: <b>Initiation-observation \u2192 Manipulation \u2192 Precision \u2192 Articulation \u2192 Naturalisation.<\/b><br><br><b>Naturalisation<\/b> is the highest, and is rarely attained: the act becomes automatic and natural, and the performance looks effortless.<br><br>The three distractors are the genuine competitors. <b>Manipulation (B)<\/b> is performing selected steps and following directions; <b>Precision (A)<\/b> is controlling faults and eliminating errors so as to reproduce the skill accurately; <b>Articulation (C)<\/b> is the addition of novel features to the performance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 49,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following categories of the affective domain in ascending order of complexity:<br>1. Organisation<br>2. Receiving<br>3. Valuing<br>4. Responding\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 3 \u2013 1\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 3 \u2013 4 \u2013 1\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 3 \u2013 1\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 2 \u2013 4 \u2013 3 \u2013 1<\/b><br><br>Krathwohl's hierarchy runs <b>Receiving \u2192 Responding \u2192 Valuing \u2192 Organisation \u2192 Characterisation by a value complex<\/b>.<br><br><b>Receiving<\/b> is attention, awareness and willingness to attend \u2014 a precondition of all learning. <b>Responding<\/b> is active participation, represented by interest. <b>Valuing<\/b> proceeds through value acceptance, value preference and value commitment. <b>Organisation<\/b> resolves conflicts between values and builds an enduring value system. <b>Characterisation<\/b>, the highest, is a value system that governs conduct.<br><br>Only Receiving can occupy the first position, which disposes of option (C) at once.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 50,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The three sequential steps through which value inculcation proceeds at the 'valuing' level of the affective domain are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"value awareness, value analysis and value transmission\",\r\n      \"value acceptance, value preference and value commitment\",\r\n      \"value receiving, value organisation and value characterisation\",\r\n      \"value clarification, value comparison and value internalisation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) value acceptance, value preference and value commitment<\/b><br><br>Character formation at the valuing level proceeds through these three steps in order. The pupil first <b>accepts<\/b> a value, then <b>prefers<\/b> it over competing values, and finally becomes <b>committed<\/b> to it \u2014 at which point it guides his own conduct.<br><br>The classic school illustration is that a class taught by several teachers observes the values each practises, and through repeated observation and analysis the pupils build values of their own on the basis of preference, acceptance and commitment.<br><br>The other options recombine terminology drawn from adjacent levels of the same hierarchy.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 51,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the revised taxonomy published in 2001, the category formerly named 'Synthesis' was renamed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Analysing\",\r\n      \"Evaluating\",\r\n      \"Creating\",\r\n      \"Applying\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Creating<\/b><br><br>The 2001 revision by <b>Anderson, Krathwohl and Cruikshank<\/b> converted every category from a noun to a verb: Knowledge \u2192 Remembering, Comprehension \u2192 Understanding, Application \u2192 Applying, Analysis \u2192 Analysing, <b>Synthesis \u2192 Creating<\/b>, Evaluation \u2192 Evaluating.<br><br><b>The reason for the change:<\/b> the categories describe forms of <b>thinking<\/b>, and thinking being an active process is better represented by verbs than by nouns. 'Knowledge' in particular was a <i>product<\/i> of thinking rather than a form of it.<br><br><b>A point that decides many items:<\/b> the revision also <b>reordered<\/b> the top two, so that <b>Creating<\/b>, not Evaluating, is now highest.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 52,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the three domains of educational objectives:<br>1. Achievement in one domain influences achievement in another.<br>2. Within each domain the categories are arranged in a hierarchical order of increasing complexity.<br>3. The three domains are separated by watertight compartments.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> The domains are interrelated and mutually influencing, and each is ordered hierarchically \u2014 learning at a higher level depends on having acquired the prerequisite knowledge and skills at the lower level.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> The settled proposition is exactly the opposite: <b>the three domains are not divided by any watertight compartment.<\/b><br><br>The practical consequence follows from statement 2: an objective at the analysis level cannot be attained by a pupil who has not first reached knowledge, understanding and application.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 53,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment and the Teacher's Role\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the determinations that assessment is intended to make?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The extent to which an objective has been achieved\",\r\n      \"The effectiveness of the learning experiences provided\",\r\n      \"The extent to which the goals of teaching have been accomplished\",\r\n      \"The relative standing of the school against neighbouring institutions\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) The relative standing of the school against neighbouring institutions<\/b><br><br>Assessment is the process of determining three things: <b>the extent to which an objective is achieved<\/b>, <b>the effectiveness of the learning experiences provided in the classroom<\/b>, and <b>how well the goals of teaching have been accomplished<\/b>.<br><br>The governing principle is that assessment is <b>integrated with the whole task of teaching and learning, and its purpose is to improve learning rather than merely to measure achievement<\/b>. Ranking institutions against one another serves an administrative purpose and forms no part of that definition.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 54,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment and the Teacher's Role\",\r\n    \"question\": \"At which stage of the instructional cycle does assessment first enter?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"At the planning stage, when teaching objectives are identified\",\r\n      \"At the delivery stage, when learning experiences are provided\",\r\n      \"At the recording stage, when scores are entered in the register\",\r\n      \"At the reporting stage, when results are communicated to parents\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) At the planning stage, when teaching objectives are identified<\/b><br><br>Assessment enters <b>at the planning stage<\/b>, because objectives supply the starting point on which all learning experiences are based, and those experiences are in turn the material of assessment.<br><br>The four essential steps are stated as: <b>identification of educational objectives; determination of the experiences pupils must have to attain them; knowing the pupils well enough to design appropriate experiences; and assessing the degree to which the objectives are attained.<\/b><br><br>To place assessment only at the end is to mistake one of its occasions for its whole range.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 55,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment and the Teacher's Role\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In selecting learning experiences, which one of the following considerations is not among those prescribed?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Whether they are directly related to the goals\",\r\n      \"Whether they are meaningful and satisfying to the learners\",\r\n      \"Whether they are appropriate to the maturity of the learners\",\r\n      \"Whether they can be delivered without recourse to teaching aids\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Whether they can be delivered without recourse to teaching aids<\/b><br><br>Three considerations govern the selection of learning experiences: <b>relation to the goals<\/b>, <b>meaningfulness and satisfaction to the learner<\/b>, and <b>appropriateness to the learner's maturity<\/b>.<br><br>A learning experience is not the same as the content of instruction or as what the teacher does \u2014 <b>a pupil learns what he does<\/b>, and change comes from many experiences reinforcing one another, repeated in increasing complexity over time. Economy of aids is an administrative constraint, not a criterion of selection.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 56,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Purposes of Examination\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Examinations designed to determine the capacity and fitness of a candidate to pursue higher courses of general or professional study are called:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Competitive examinations\",\r\n      \"Qualifying examinations\",\r\n      \"Diagnostic examinations\",\r\n      \"Moderating examinations\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Qualifying examinations<\/b><br><br>Examinations serving this purpose are termed <b>entrance or qualifying examinations<\/b>. Their object is to establish fitness for admission to a higher course.<br><br><b>Competitive examinations (A)<\/b> serve a different listed purpose \u2014 <b>selection by competition<\/b>, to appoint the best candidates to public service or to award prizes and scholarships. The distinction is real: a qualifying examination measures against a standard, while a competitive one ranks candidates against each other for a limited number of places.<br><br>The remaining options are not classifications by purpose at all.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 57,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Purposes of Examination\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following purposes of examinations is served by external examinations rather than by internal examinations?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Providing uniformity of standard across institutions\",\r\n      \"Acting as an incentive to sustained study\",\r\n      \"Helping in the diagnosis of specific weak points\",\r\n      \"Enabling the teacher to review his methods of teaching\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Providing uniformity of standard across institutions<\/b><br><br><b>External examinations facilitate the problem of uniformity of standards<\/b> attained by pupils of different institutions, precisely because the paper and the examiner come from outside the school.<br><br>The other three purposes are served as well or better by internal examination. <b>Diagnosis (C)<\/b> and <b>review of teaching method (D)<\/b> require the teacher's own knowledge of the class and the freedom to act on the result; <b>incentive (B)<\/b> operates in both, but is exercised continuously through class and unit tests.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 58,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Testing and Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Written examinations are preferred to oral and practical examinations for judging pupils' achievement chiefly because they possess:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"greater reliability\",\r\n      \"greater content coverage\",\r\n      \"greater administrative economy\",\r\n      \"greater predictive validity\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) greater reliability<\/b><br><br>Written tests remain the most acceptable form of achievement testing <b>because of their better reliability<\/b> as compared with oral and practical tests, notwithstanding their limitations.<br><br>The division of labour among the three is settled: <b>written tests<\/b> are more reliable for outcomes in the <b>cognitive<\/b> domain; <b>practical examinations<\/b> are more dependable for the <b>psychomotor<\/b> domain; and <b>personality tests, interest inventories and attitude scales<\/b> are more relevant for the <b>affective<\/b> domain.<br><br>Oral testing suffers from subjectivity, inter-examiner variance and the time span required.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 59,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Testing and Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding oral examinations:<br>1. Inter-examiner variance is among the chief difficulties in using them in external examinations.<br>2. One of their purposes is to probe further the evidence gathered through written examination.<br>3. Their principal advantage is that they can be administered to a large group at one time.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Subjectivity in assessment, the number of examiners required, the time span and <b>inter-examiner variance<\/b> are the recognised difficulties.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> Two purposes are stated: to test oral skills that written examinations cannot reach, and <b>to confirm and probe further the evidence gathered through the written examination<\/b> \u2014 the viva.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> The reverse holds. The <b>time span<\/b> required is itself listed among the difficulties, since oral testing must proceed candidate by candidate.<br><br>Their continuing value lies in instruction \u2014 diagnosis, feedback, readiness testing and review of lessons.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 60,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the expression 'Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation', the word 'comprehensive' refers to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the frequency with which evaluation is conducted through the year\",\r\n      \"the coverage of the scholastic and the non-scholastic areas alike\",\r\n      \"the participation of teachers, pupils and parents in the process\",\r\n      \"the use of both internal and external examiners for the same pupil\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the coverage of the scholastic and the non-scholastic areas alike<\/b><br><br>The two words carry different burdens. <b>Comprehensive<\/b> refers to the <b>assessment of achievement in all three domains<\/b> \u2014 cognitive, affective and psychomotor \u2014 that is, the scholastic and the non-scholastic areas together. <b>Continuous<\/b> refers to evaluation on a regular basis throughout the year, education itself being a continuous process in formal and informal settings.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the trap<\/b>: it correctly describes 'continuous' and is offered to catch the candidate who reads only the first word of the stem.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 61,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the reasons stated for adopting continuous and comprehensive evaluation in Indian schools?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Ensuring that learning in schools is not confined to rote methods\",\r\n      \"Making the examination system more flexible and testing a wider range of capabilities\",\r\n      \"Ensuring that classroom knowledge is relevant to life outside the school\",\r\n      \"Providing a common merit list for admission to higher secondary streams\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Providing a common merit list for admission to higher secondary streams<\/b><br><br>Four reasons are given: learning must not be confined to <b>rote methods<\/b>; the examination system must be <b>more flexible<\/b> and test a wider range of capabilities; the curriculum must <b>enrich the individual as a whole<\/b> besides promoting academic learning; and <b>classroom knowledge must be relevant to life outside<\/b>.<br><br>A merit list is the object of <b>summative and norm-referenced<\/b> assessment, and pulls in the opposite direction. The stated aim of this scheme is that <b>the pupil's competition is with himself and not with others<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 62,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the benefit of continuous and comprehensive evaluation to teachers:<br>1. It indicates how the evaluation procedure itself may be improved.<br>2. It enables planned remedial steps to be framed for competencies in which pupils lag.<br>3. It removes the need for the teacher to select instructional media for the classroom.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> The scheme empowers teachers by giving pointers on improving the evaluation procedure and by enabling <b>planned remedial steps<\/b> where pupils have not mastered a competency.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 the position is inverted.<\/b> A third stated benefit is that teachers can <b>select and deploy media such as audio-visual aids<\/b>, particularly for subjects that cannot be grasped through theory alone. The scheme informs that selection; it does not dispense with it.<br><br>Teachers are also encouraged to take decisions on the learning process, efficiency, quality and accountability.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 63,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Definitions of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The definition of evaluation as the process of gathering and interpreting evidence on change in the behaviour of all pupils as they progress through school is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Hanna\",\r\n      \"Bradfield\",\r\n      \"Wrightstone\",\r\n      \"Cronbach\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Hanna<\/b><br><br>Hanna's definition is distinctive in three respects: it makes evaluation a matter of <b>change<\/b> rather than of level, it extends to <b>all<\/b> pupils rather than to those tested, and it runs across the whole span of schooling rather than a single occasion.<br><br><b>Bradfield (B)<\/b> defined evaluation as the assignment of symbols to characterise worth or value against social, cultural and scientific standards. <b>Wrightstone (C)<\/b> contrasted the narrow emphasis of measurement with the broad emphasis of evaluation. <b>Cronbach (D)<\/b> defined validity, not evaluation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 64,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Evaluation has been described as a relatively new technical term introduced to designate:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a more comprehensive concept than is implied in conventional test and examination\",\r\n      \"a statistical procedure for converting raw scores into standard scores\",\r\n      \"an administrative process for certifying pupils at the close of a course\",\r\n      \"a substitute for measurement in the assessment of scholastic attainment\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) a more comprehensive concept than is implied in conventional test and examination<\/b><br><br>The characterisation is <b>Wright Stone's<\/b>, and it records why the term entered the field at all \u2014 the older vocabulary of testing and examination was too narrow for what was being attempted.<br><br><b>Option (D) states the position the definition denies.<\/b> Evaluation does not <b>replace<\/b> measurement; it <b>subsumes<\/b> it, measurement being the first step and evaluation the analysis of its results against norms. The relation is one of whole and part.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 65,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 1: MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION \u2014 CONCEPT, NEED, SCOPE AND DISTINCTION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Concepts of Measurement & Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Purposes of Examination\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following purposes served by examinations:<br>1. Providing the authorities an occasion to measure the efficiency of teachers and of the institution<br>2. Inducing pupils to study every subject, including those they find dull<br>3. Certifying the competency of qualified doctors, engineers and scientists for a technological society<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are among the stated purposes, and a fourth of the same character is that examinations <b>link schools with each other and with the world<\/b>.<br><br>They also give teachers an occasion to learn <b>whether their own methods of teaching are appropriate<\/b>, and give parents an occasion to know where their wards stand and whether the money spent on them is being properly used.<br><br>The frank qualification attached to certification is worth noting: the system certifies the presence of such competence <b>'even if inadequately'<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 66,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Properties of Measurement Scales\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The property of a measurement scale by virtue of which each value on it carries a unique meaning is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Magnitude\",\r\n      \"Absolute zero\",\r\n      \"Equal intervals\",\r\n      \"Identity\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Identity<\/b><br><br>The four properties of measurement scales are:<br>\u2022 <b>Identity<\/b> \u2014 each value carries a unique meaning<br>\u2022 <b>Magnitude<\/b> \u2014 values stand in an ordered relationship, some larger and some smaller<br>\u2022 <b>Equal intervals<\/b> \u2014 the distance between 1 and 2 equals that between 19 and 20<br>\u2022 <b>Absolute zero<\/b> \u2014 a true zero below which no value exists<br><br><b>Identity is the minimum condition<\/b> and is satisfied even by the nominal scale, which is why every scale possesses it. Each higher scale adds one further property to those below it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 67,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Properties of Measurement Scales\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Scale : Properties possessed<br>1. Ordinal scale : Identity and magnitude<br>2. Interval scale : Identity, magnitude, equal intervals and absolute zero<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"1 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> The ordinal scale has <b>identity and magnitude<\/b>. Each value has a unique meaning and stands in an ordered relationship to every other, but the intervals are not equal.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2717<\/b> The interval scale has identity, magnitude and <b>equal intervals<\/b> \u2014 but <b>not<\/b> an absolute zero. Adding the fourth property is precisely what makes a scale a <b>ratio<\/b> scale.<br><br><b>The cumulative build:<\/b> nominal has identity; ordinal adds magnitude; interval adds equal intervals; ratio adds the absolute zero.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 68,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nominal Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The nominal scale of measurement is also known by which one of the following names?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Ranking level\",\r\n      \"Derived level\",\r\n      \"Comparative level\",\r\n      \"Classification level\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Classification level<\/b><br><br>The nominal scale is the <b>lowest level of measurement<\/b> and is also called the <b>classification level<\/b>, because objects or events are sorted into separate groups on the basis of an attribute and each group is given a name, number or code for identification.<br><br>Its defining feature is <b>internal homogeneity<\/b> \u2014 all members within a group resemble one another while differing entirely from those of another group.<br><br><b>'Ranking' (A) points to the ordinal scale<\/b>, where the arrangement is hierarchical rather than merely categorical.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 69,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nominal Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The feature of a nominal group whereby all its members resemble one another while differing entirely from those of another group is called:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Internal consistency\",\r\n      \"Internal homogeneity\",\r\n      \"Restriction of range\",\r\n      \"Comparability\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Internal homogeneity<\/b><br><br>Internal homogeneity is the chief feature of a nominal group. Two cricket teams distinguished by the colours of their dress, urban and rural pupils, and men and women are the standard illustrations.<br><br><b>Internal consistency (A) is the deliberate trap<\/b> \u2014 it is a species of <b>reliability<\/b>, estimated by the split-half method or by Kuder-Richardson and Cronbach's alpha, and has nothing to do with the classification of scales.<br><br><b>Restriction of range (C)<\/b> is the condition that lowers reliability in a homogeneous group; <b>comparability (D)<\/b> is a quality of a good test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 70,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nominal Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following statistical operations alone is available at the nominal level of measurement?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Counting\",\r\n      \"Ranking\",\r\n      \"Computation of the mean\",\r\n      \"Computation of the standard deviation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Counting<\/b><br><br>The <b>only statistical operation available at the nominal level is counting<\/b>, which is why this level is regarded as of little importance for research purposes.<br><br>The consequence follows directly: the <b>mode<\/b> \u2014 the most frequently occurring category \u2014 is the only measure of central tendency permissible for nominal data, since it requires nothing more than the ability to count.<br><br><b>Ranking (B)<\/b> becomes available at the ordinal level. <b>Mean (C)<\/b> and <b>standard deviation (D)<\/b> require equal intervals and are available only from the interval level upward.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 71,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nominal Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following instances:<br>1. Postal index numbers allotted for the distribution of mail<br>2. Numbers worn by football players on their jerseys<br>3. Codes assigned to different banks for identification<br>4. Positions awarded to pupils on the basis of marks obtained<br>Which of the above are instances of nominal measurement?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>Postal index numbers, jersey numbers and bank codes are all numbers used <b>purely as labels<\/b>. They classify without conveying order or magnitude, and arithmetic upon them is meaningless.<br><br><b>Item 4 is ordinal<\/b>, not nominal. Positions awarded on the basis of marks arrange pupils in a <b>hierarchical order<\/b> \u2014 first is better than second and second than third \u2014 so the property of magnitude is present.<br><br><b>The decisive question<\/b> in every such item is whether the numbers merely name, or also rank.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 72,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Ordinal Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the ordinal scale, which two methods are ordinarily employed for arranging objects?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Linear method and paired comparison method\",\r\n      \"Direct method and assumed mean method\",\r\n      \"Percentile method and stanine method\",\r\n      \"Equal-appearing interval method and summated rating method\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Linear method and paired comparison method<\/b><br><br>The <b>linear method<\/b> simply arranges objects in sequence according to rank. The <b>paired comparison method<\/b> compares every member of the group with every other member in pairs.<br><br>The number of pairs required is given by <b>nC\u2082 = n(n \u2212 1) \/ 2<\/b>.<br><br>The other options belong elsewhere. <b>(B)<\/b> names two methods of computing the mean; <b>(C)<\/b> names types of derived score; <b>(D)<\/b> names Thurstone's and Likert's techniques of <b>attitude scaling<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 73,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Ordinal Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the paired comparison method, the number of pairs required for a group of 10 members is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"20\",\r\n      \"45\",\r\n      \"50\",\r\n      \"90\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 45<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> nC\u2082 = n(n \u2212 1) \/ 2<br><br><b>Substituting n = 10:<\/b><br>nC\u2082 = 10 \u00d7 9 \/ 2 = 90 \/ 2 = <b>45<\/b><br><br><b>The trap is option (D), 90<\/b>, obtained by computing n(n \u2212 1) and omitting the division by two. That figure counts each pair <b>twice<\/b> \u2014 once as A against B and again as B against A \u2014 whereas a comparison of A with B is the same comparison as B with A.<br><br>The formula also shows why the method becomes impracticable for large groups: doubling the group size roughly quadruples the number of comparisons.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 74,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Ordinal Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chief limitation of the ordinal scale is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"it does not permit the objects measured to be arranged in any order at all\",\r\n      \"it does not disclose the actual magnitude of the difference between two individuals\",\r\n      \"it cannot be applied to human traits, being confined to physical quantities\",\r\n      \"it requires the presence of a true zero point before it can be brought into use\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) it does not disclose the actual magnitude of the difference between two individuals<\/b><br><br>Although the median, percentiles and rank correlation may be computed on ordinal data to distinguish between two individuals, <b>the scale does not clarify the actual difference between them<\/b>. This is stated as its chief limitation, and it is why the ordinal scale is not accepted as highly valid or reliable for research.<br><br>The point is easily seen in ranking by examination position: the gap between the first and second pupil may be twenty marks and that between the second and third only one mark, yet both gaps are recorded as a single rank.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 75,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Ordinal Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Selecting the best industrialist of the year \u2014 Ordinal scale\",\r\n      \"Arranging fruits according to taste and flavour \u2014 Ordinal scale\",\r\n      \"Awarding trophies to players on the basis of performance \u2014 Ordinal scale\",\r\n      \"Allotting separate identification codes to railway divisions \u2014 Ordinal scale\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Allotting separate identification codes to railway divisions \u2014 Ordinal scale<\/b><br><br>Identification codes allotted to railway divisions are <b>labels<\/b>. They classify without ranking, and therefore belong to the <b>nominal scale<\/b>.<br><br>The other three are genuine ordinal instances, since each involves <b>arrangement in hierarchical order<\/b> on the basis of an attribute: selection of the best industrialist, ranking of fruits by taste and flavour, and the award of trophies by performance.<br><br><b>The test to apply:<\/b> ask whether removing the ordering would destroy the information. For a code it would not; for a rank it would.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 76,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Interval Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A thermometer records measurements on which one of the following scales?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Nominal scale\",\r\n      \"Ordinal scale\",\r\n      \"Interval scale\",\r\n      \"Ratio scale\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Interval scale<\/b><br><br>A thermometer satisfies the requirements of the interval scale exactly: the distance between 98\u00b0F and 99\u00b0F is the same as that between 107\u00b0F and 108\u00b0F, so the <b>intervals are equal<\/b>; but the zero is <b>arbitrary<\/b>. A reading of 97\u00b0F shows the absence of fever, not the absence of bodily heat.<br><br>Because the zero is arbitrary, measurement on this scale is <b>relative and not absolute<\/b>, and ratio statements are invalid.<br><br>The same reasoning applies to the calendar and the clock \u2014 hour, week, month and year are all cited as interval-scale quantities.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 77,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Interval Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the interval scale:<br>1. Its lack of an exact zero point makes measurement upon it relative rather than absolute.<br>2. The mean, the percentiles and the standard deviation may all be computed upon it.<br>3. Scores arranged at equal distances upon it constitute its constant unit.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are correct, and together they state the whole character of the scale.<br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> The absence of an exact zero makes the measurement relative: a pupil scoring zero is not thereby shown to be wholly ignorant of the subject.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> Several statistical calculations become available at this level, including the <b>mean, percentiles and standard deviation<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> Although there is no absolute zero, the <b>scores arranged at equal distances are treated as the constant unit<\/b> of the scale \u2014 which is exactly what licenses those statistics.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 78,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Interval Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Awarding pupils marks of 40, 38, 52 and 64 in an examination illustrates which type of measurement?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Nominal measurement\",\r\n      \"Ordinal measurement\",\r\n      \"Interval measurement\",\r\n      \"Ratio measurement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Interval measurement<\/b><br><br>Marks awarded in an examination are measured in unit numbers with an <b>equal difference between any two consecutive units<\/b> \u2014 the step from 40 to 41 matches that from 38 to 39. But there is <b>no unit of zero expressing absence of the trait<\/b>: a pupil scoring zero has failed to answer the questions set, not been shown to possess no ability in the subject.<br><br>Interval measurement is better than nominal and ordinal, though still not fully appropriate \u2014 and it is <b>the type most used in the field of education<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 79,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Ratio Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The zero point of the ratio scale is correctly described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"an arbitrary point fixed by convention for computational ease\",\r\n      \"a point related to the zero amount of the attribute being measured\",\r\n      \"the lowest score actually obtained by any member of the group\",\r\n      \"the point at which the distribution attains its maximum frequency\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) a point related to the zero amount of the attribute being measured<\/b><br><br>The presence of an <b>exact or true zero point<\/b> is the chief feature of the ratio scale, and that zero is <b>not arbitrary<\/b> \u2014 it corresponds to the complete absence of the attribute. It is treated as the initial point of the scale.<br><br>It is this feature that makes ratio statements meaningful. If three pupils are awarded 10, 20 and 40 on such a scale, the second possesses the attribute in <b>double<\/b> and the third in <b>fourfold<\/b> measure.<br><br>Option (A) describes the <b>interval<\/b> scale's zero; options (C) and (D) describe the minimum and the mode.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 80,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Ratio Scale\",\r\n    \"question\": \"If the intelligence quotient of one pupil is 150 and that of another is 100, the statement that the first is one and a half times as intelligent as the second is invalid because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"intelligence quotient is measured on an interval scale and has no true zero\",\r\n      \"intelligence quotient is measured on an ordinal scale and conveys rank alone\",\r\n      \"the two quotients were obtained from different intelligence tests\",\r\n      \"the intelligence quotient is a discrete rather than a continuous variable\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) intelligence quotient is measured on an interval scale and has no true zero<\/b><br><br>Ratio measurement is available for <b>physical traits<\/b> and not for <b>abstract<\/b> ones. Weights of 60 kg and 20 kg do stand in a ratio of 3 : 1, because weight has a true zero. Intelligence has none, so the intelligence of the first pupil may be more or less than one and a half times that of the second.<br><br><b>Option (B) is the near miss.<\/b> The IQ scale does more than rank \u2014 it has equal intervals, which is why the mean and standard deviation of IQ scores are routinely computed. What it lacks is the absolute zero.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 81,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Instance : Scale of measurement<br>1. Distance in kilometres between two towns : Ratio scale<br>2. Numbers allotted to the zones of a metropolitan city : Nominal scale<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Distance is a physical quantity with an <b>absolute zero<\/b>, so the ratio between the distances of any two places may be computed and a statement of how many times farther one place is than another is meaningful.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2713<\/b> Numbers allotted to the zones of a city function as <b>labels for classification<\/b>. Zone 3 is not more than Zone 1, and the numbers cannot be added or averaged.<br><br><b>The decisive question in each case:<\/b> does the number denote a quantity of an attribute, or merely identify a category?\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 82,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Scale)<br>A. Nominal<br>B. Ordinal<br>C. Interval<br>D. Ratio<br><br>List II (Illustration)<br>1. Length of cloth measured in metres<br>2. Merit positions of candidates in a beauty contest<br>3. Blood groups recorded in a school register<br>4. Calendar year of an event\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-2, C-4, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1<\/b><br><br><b>A-3 Nominal<\/b> \u2014 blood groups are categories with no order and no magnitude.<br><b>B-2 Ordinal<\/b> \u2014 merit positions in a contest convey rank without equal intervals.<br><b>C-4 Interval<\/b> \u2014 the calendar year has equal intervals but an <b>arbitrary zero<\/b>; the year 2000 is not twice the year 1000.<br><b>D-1 Ratio<\/b> \u2014 length in metres has a true zero, so 40 metres is genuinely twice 20 metres.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> anchor on the two extremes. Blood groups can only be nominal and metres can only be ratio, which settles the item without examining the middle pair.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 83,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the four scales of measurement in ascending order of the accuracy of the inferences that may be drawn from them:<br>1. Interval<br>2. Nominal<br>3. Ratio<br>4. Ordinal\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 3 \u2013 1\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>The four levels are arranged in a definite order: <b>nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio<\/b>. The lower level is the easier to measure, but the measurement it yields is open to doubt; the higher level is more complex, but the inferences drawn from it are more accurate.<br><br><b>The proposition to carry:<\/b> <b>accuracy of measurement depends on its level.<\/b> As the level rises, more statistical operations become permissible \u2014 from counting alone at the nominal level to the full range of arithmetic at the ratio level.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 84,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements:<br>1. Each scale of measurement carries its own rules, characteristics and statistical techniques.<br>2. A statistic appropriate to a higher scale may safely be applied to data of a lower scale.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Each scale has a single objective, and its rules, theory, characteristics, limitations and statistical techniques differ entirely from those of the other levels.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717 \u2014 the permission runs only one way.<\/b> As the scale rises, more statistics become permissible; but <b>a statistic appropriate to a higher scale must never be applied to a lower one<\/b>. Computing a mean of blood-group codes, or of merit positions, produces a number without meaning.<br><br>This is the rule behind the settled mapping: mode for nominal, median for ordinal, mean for interval and ratio.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 85,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil obtains zero marks in an achievement test in mathematics. The correct inference is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the pupil possesses no ability whatever in mathematics\",\r\n      \"the pupil has failed to answer any of the questions actually set\",\r\n      \"the test lacked content validity for the group tested\",\r\n      \"the measurement was made on a ratio rather than an interval scale\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the pupil has failed to answer any of the questions actually set<\/b><br><br>A zero on an achievement test signifies only that <b>none of the questions asked was answered correctly<\/b>. The pupil may well be able to answer other questions on the same subject, so his knowledge cannot be taken as nil.<br><br>This single proposition carries several consequences that recur throughout the syllabus: achievement scores lie on an <b>interval<\/b> and not a ratio scale; educational measurement is <b>relative, not absolute<\/b>; and a pupil scoring 80 does not know twice as much as one scoring 40.<br><br>Option (D) states the opposite of what the zero establishes.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 86,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following statements regarding the number of items answered correctly on a test is correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Both the count of correct answers and the knowledge it represents are ratio quantities\",\r\n      \"The count of correct answers is a ratio quantity, but the knowledge it represents is not\",\r\n      \"The count of correct answers is an ordinal quantity, since it conveys rank alone\",\r\n      \"The count of correct answers is a nominal quantity, since the items are merely labelled\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) The count of correct answers is a ratio quantity, but the knowledge it represents is not<\/b><br><br>The <b>count<\/b> has a true zero \u2014 zero correct answers is a genuine absence of the thing counted \u2014 and equal intervals, so 12 correct is twice 6 correct.<br><br>But the <b>construct<\/b> the count is taken to represent is at best <b>interval<\/b>. A pupil scoring zero does not have zero knowledge, and one scoring 16 does not know twice as much as one scoring 8.<br><br><b>The distinction is the whole point:<\/b> the count is ratio; the attribute it measures is not. This is why proportional statements about achievement are never legitimate.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 87,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following:<br>1. Number of pupils present in a class on a given day<br>2. Time taken by a candidate to complete a paper<br>3. Temperature of a classroom recorded in degrees Celsius<br>4. Weight that a pupil is able to lift<br>Which of the above are measured on a ratio scale?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 4 only<\/b><br><br>Attendance, time and weight all possess a <b>true zero<\/b>: no pupils present, no time elapsed, no weight lifted. Ratio statements upon them are therefore valid \u2014 a candidate taking 40 minutes has taken twice as long as one taking 20.<br><br><b>Item 3 is the exception.<\/b> Temperature in degrees Celsius has an <b>arbitrary zero<\/b>, fixed at the freezing point of water rather than at the absence of heat. A room at 30\u00b0C is not twice as warm as one at 15\u00b0C.<br><br>Note that attendance, though <b>discrete<\/b>, is still ratio \u2014 continuity and level of measurement are separate questions.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 88,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Non-comparative scaling is distinguished from comparative scaling by the fact that in it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"items are directly set against one another for the respondent to choose between\",\r\n      \"each item is scaled independently of every other item in the set presented\",\r\n      \"the respondent must distribute a fixed set of ranks among the items offered\",\r\n      \"the scale is constructed from norms drawn from a large representative sample\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) each item is scaled independently of every other item<\/b><br><br>In <b>comparative scaling<\/b> items are set directly against one another \u2014 'do you prefer beverage A or beverage B?' In <b>non-comparative scaling<\/b> each item is scaled on its own, and the questions asked tend to be more subjective, such as the reason for preferring one thing over another.<br><br><b>Option (C) is the trap.<\/b> A fixed set of ranks distributed among items describes the <b>forced-choice item<\/b> of <b>ipsative<\/b> measurement \u2014 related in spirit, but a different classification, resting on the tool used rather than on the manner of scaling.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 89,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not correct with reference to the classification of measurement into levels?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The classification into four levels is attributed to S.S. Stevens\",\r\n      \"The interval level is the one most used in the field of education\",\r\n      \"The ordinal level is regarded as the least appropriate type of measurement\",\r\n      \"Measurement at a lower level is easier to carry out but yields less dependable inferences\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) The ordinal level is regarded as the least appropriate type of measurement<\/b> \u2014 this is the statement that is <b>not<\/b> correct.<br><br>It is the <b>nominal<\/b> level that is described as <b>the least appropriate type of measurement<\/b>, being qualitative and very ordinary in its approach. The ordinal level, though limited, is better than the nominal.<br><br>The other three statements hold. <b>S.S. Stevens<\/b> divided measurement into four levels; <b>interval measurement is the type most used in education<\/b>; and accuracy of inference rises with the level, while ease of measurement falls.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 90,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Classifying pupils as urban or rural on the basis of place of residence, and as belonging to the primary, middle or higher stage on the basis of level of education, are both instances of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"ordinal measurement, since the categories are inter-related\",\r\n      \"nominal measurement, since a classification is allotted on the basis of a characteristic\",\r\n      \"interval measurement, since the categories are equally spaced\",\r\n      \"ratio measurement, since a category may contain no pupils at all\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) nominal measurement, since a classification is allotted on the basis of a characteristic<\/b><br><br>In nominal measurement a particular characteristic is observed and a classification, name or symbol is allotted on its basis \u2014 naming pupils as boys or girls by sex, urban or rural by place, or primary, middle and higher by stage of education.<br><br><b>Option (D) contains a genuine confusion worth naming:<\/b> an empty <b>category<\/b> is not an absolute zero. The absolute zero of the ratio scale is a point on a scale of quantity denoting absence of the attribute, not the emptiness of a class.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 91,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Classifying pupils as of high, medium or low intelligence on the basis of the quantity of intelligence they possess is an instance of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"nominal measurement, since names are being allotted to groups\",\r\n      \"ordinal measurement, since the classifications made are inter-related\",\r\n      \"interval measurement, since intelligence is measured in unit numbers\",\r\n      \"ratio measurement, since the classification proceeds from a fixed base\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) ordinal measurement, since the classifications made are inter-related<\/b><br><br>In ordinal measurement the <b>quantity<\/b> of a characteristic is measured and a classification allotted on that basis. The classifications are <b>inter-related<\/b>: pupils of high intelligence stand above those of medium intelligence, and those of medium above those of low.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the trap<\/b>, and it is a good one \u2014 names <i>are<\/i> being allotted. But nominal measurement allots names to groups that stand in <b>no order<\/b>. The presence of a defensible ordering among the three categories is what raises this to the ordinal level.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 92,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements:<br>1. The ratio scale comprises all the features of the other three scales.<br>2. In physical measurement there is always an absolute zero point.<br>3. All four basic arithmetical operations may be applied to data on the ratio scale.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are correct, and together they define the highest level of measurement.<br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> The ratio scale is the highest level and <b>comprises all the features of all the other scales<\/b>, adding the true zero.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> Metre, kilometre, gram, litre and millimetre all begin from an absolute zero.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> Each unit on the scale expresses a definite amount of the attribute, so <b>all the basic operations may be applied<\/b>.<br><br>The limitation is one of subject matter, not of arithmetic: ratio measurement is available for physical variables and not for abstract ones.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 93,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A school administrator proposes to compute the arithmetic mean of a set of scores. The data must be assumed to lie at least at which level of measurement?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Nominal\",\r\n      \"Ordinal\",\r\n      \"Interval\",\r\n      \"Ratio\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Interval<\/b><br><br>The arithmetic mean requires <b>addition and division<\/b>, and these operations presuppose that the units are <b>equal<\/b> \u2014 which is the defining property of the interval scale. The mean of interval data is therefore legitimate, and so is that of ratio data.<br><br><b>The word 'at least' governs the item.<\/b> Ratio would also serve, but it is not the minimum condition, so option (D) claims more than the question asks.<br><br>Below the interval level the operation collapses: ordinal data have unequal intervals, and nominal data are labels on which arithmetic has no meaning.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 94,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following statements regarding a variable and its group is correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A characteristic that is a variable for one group may be a constant for another\",\r\n      \"A characteristic once identified as a variable remains a variable in every group\",\r\n      \"Only quantitative characteristics can function as variables\",\r\n      \"A variable must be capable of taking any value between two whole numbers\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A characteristic that is a variable for one group may be a constant for another<\/b><br><br>A variable is a characteristic on which the members of a group are <b>not uniform<\/b>. Sex is a variable in a mixed group of boys and girls, since the group can be divided upon it; but within a group of boys alone it is a <b>constant<\/b>. Similarly, weight ceases to be a variable in a group deliberately composed of persons of equal weight.<br><br><b>Option (C)<\/b> is wrong because qualitative characteristics such as caste and religion are variables. <b>Option (D)<\/b> describes a <b>continuous<\/b> variable only, excluding discrete ones.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 95,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Instance : Scale of measurement<br>1. Marks awarded to pupils in a unit test : Interval scale<br>2. Order in which candidates submit their answer scripts : Interval scale<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Marks are recorded in unit numbers with equal differences between consecutive units, but the zero is arbitrary \u2014 the standard interval-scale case, and the one most common in education.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2717<\/b> The order of submission is <b>ordinal<\/b>, not interval. It conveys <b>rank alone<\/b>: the candidate submitting first finished before the second, but the numbers say nothing of how much sooner. The gap between the first and second may be a minute and that between the second and third half an hour.<br><br><b>The absence of equal intervals is what bars the higher classification.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 96,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that measurement on a scale lacking an exact zero point is relative rather than absolute has which one of the following direct consequences for educational measurement?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Achievement scores cannot be analysed by statistical methods at all\",\r\n      \"Achievement scores cannot be compared between two pupils of the same class\",\r\n      \"Proportional statements about achievement between two pupils are invalid\",\r\n      \"Achievement scores cannot be converted into percentages for reporting\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Proportional statements about achievement between two pupils are invalid<\/b><br><br>Because educational measures are relative, a pupil scoring 60 cannot be said to have double the ability of one scoring 30. The true relation may be more or less than double, and no proportional statement is warranted.<br><br><b>Options (A) and (B) overstate the consequence.<\/b> Relative measures are precisely what <b>statistical methods<\/b> \u2014 measures of central tendency and dispersion \u2014 were developed to analyse, and comparison between pupils remains entirely legitimate. What is barred is the assertion of a <b>ratio<\/b>, not the making of a comparison.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 97,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 2: SCALES OF MEASUREMENT \u2014 NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL AND RATIO\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scales of Measurement\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the Fahrenheit scale of temperature:<br>1. It is made up of equal units, so that the difference between 40 and 50 degrees equals that between 50 and 60 degrees.<br>2. It possesses the property of absolute zero, since temperature cannot fall below zero.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> This is the standard illustration of <b>equal intervals<\/b>, and it is why the Fahrenheit scale is offered as the perfect example of an interval scale.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717 \u2014 and the reason given is itself false.<\/b> Temperature on this scale <b>can<\/b> fall below zero, which is exactly what shows the zero to be arbitrary. Absolute zero, by contrast, is a point <b>below which no value exists<\/b> \u2014 as with weight, where an object may be weightless but cannot have negative weight.<br><br>A statement supported by a false reason is still a false statement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 98,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Basis of Classification\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Placement, formative, diagnostic and summative evaluation are distinguished from one another chiefly on the basis of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the domain of the personality that each of them reaches\",\r\n      \"the agency by which the evaluating instrument has been constructed\",\r\n      \"the statistical technique employed in analysing the scores obtained\",\r\n      \"the stage of instruction at which each is used and the decision it serves\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the stage of instruction at which each is used and the decision it serves<\/b><br><br>The four types are functional categories, marked out by <b>when<\/b> the evaluation is conducted and <b>what decision it supports<\/b>: placement before instruction, formative and diagnostic during it, summative at its close.<br><br>Option (B) points to the <b>internal\/external<\/b> classification, which cuts across all four. Option (A) points to the taxonomy of objectives, and option (C) to norm-referenced and criterion-referenced interpretation \u2014 both separate axes altogether.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 99,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Basis of Classification\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Type of evaluation)<br>A. Placement<br>B. Formative<br>C. Diagnostic<br>D. Summative<br><br>List II (Governing question)<br>1. Are the pupil's cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains forming properly as teaching proceeds?<br>2. What is causing the difficulty that has remained after correctives were applied?<br>3. Does the pupil possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned instruction?<br>4. To what extent have the instructional objectives finally been achieved?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-3, C-4, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4<\/b><br><br><b>A-3 Placement<\/b> asks about <b>entry behaviour<\/b> \u2014 whether the pupil is ready to begin.<br><b>B-1 Formative<\/b> monitors the <b>ongoing formation<\/b> of knowledge and understanding across all three domains.<br><b>C-2 Diagnostic<\/b> asks <b>why<\/b> a difficulty persists after formative correctives have failed.<br><b>D-4 Summative<\/b> judges the <b>final product<\/b>.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> the word 'begin' fixes A-3 and 'finally' fixes D-4, which settles the item without examining the middle pair.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 100,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Placement Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following questions:<br>1. Does the pupil possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned instruction?<br>2. To what extent has the pupil already developed the understanding and skills that are the goals of the planned instruction?<br>3. Do the pupil's interests, work habits and personality characteristics indicate that one mode of instruction might be better than another?<br>Which of the above are questions asked by placement evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are the stated questions of placement evaluation, and together they show that it does more than test prerequisites.<br><br>Question 1 concerns <b>readiness<\/b>; question 2 concerns <b>prior mastery of the goals themselves<\/b> \u2014 a pupil who has already attained them should not be made to repeat the sequence; question 3 concerns <b>suitability of the instructional mode<\/b>.<br><br>The two goals of placement assessment follow directly: to fix for each pupil his <b>position in the instructional sequence<\/b> and the <b>mode of instruction most beneficial to him<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 101,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Placement Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The two goals of placement assessment are to determine, for each pupil:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"his rank in the class group and the remedial support that he will require\",\r\n      \"his persistent learning difficulties and the causes that are found to underlie them\",\r\n      \"his level of attainment and the grade to be awarded at the close of the course\",\r\n      \"his position in the instructional sequence and the mode of instruction suited to him\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) his position in the instructional sequence and the mode of instruction suited to him<\/b><br><br>Both goals are prospective \u2014 they settle <b>where the pupil should start<\/b> and <b>how he should be taught<\/b>, before instruction begins.<br><br>Option (C) states the object of <b>summative<\/b> evaluation and option (B) that of <b>diagnostic<\/b> evaluation. Option (A) mixes norm-referenced ranking with remediation, neither of which is a placement function.<br><br>The characteristic instrument is an entrance test \u2014 the <b>B.Ed. entrance examination<\/b> being the standard illustration of placement evaluation in practice.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 102,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Placement Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In placement evaluation, admission to a new course is granted on the basis of the pupil's:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"performance in the immediately preceding terminal examination\",\r\n      \"attendance, conduct and co-curricular participation\",\r\n      \"intelligence, attitude, motivation and aptitude\",\r\n      \"score on a criterion-referenced mastery test of the new course content\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) intelligence, attitude, motivation and aptitude<\/b><br><br>Placement evaluation admits pupils to new courses <b>according to their intelligence, attitude, motivation and aptitude<\/b> \u2014 that is, on the traits that predict how well they will cope with what is to come.<br><br><b>Option (D) is the plausible near miss.<\/b> Placement does ask how far the pupil has already attained the goals of the planned instruction, but the decision rests on the wider set of traits, not on a mastery test of content not yet taught. Option (A) confuses placement with promotion on past achievement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 103,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Formative evaluation is described as a monitoring type of evaluation because it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"certifies the level finally attained by the pupil at the end of the session\",\r\n      \"compares the pupil's attainment with that of a national norm group\",\r\n      \"records the pupil's entry behaviour before the instruction commences\",\r\n      \"tracks the progress of pupils during the class, course or session\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) tracks the progress of pupils during the class, course or session<\/b><br><br>Formative evaluation is expressly a <b>monitoring<\/b> type of evaluation, used to follow the progress of pupils <b>while instruction is in progress<\/b>. Feedback is then given to pupils so that they may proceed accordingly.<br><br>Its aim is stated plainly: <b>improving the quality of the teaching-learning process<\/b>, not certifying it. Option (A) states the summative function, option (C) the placement function and option (B) the object of norm-referenced testing.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 104,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following questions:<br>1. Whether the objectives of teaching a particular topic, course or curriculum are being achieved<br>2. Whether the learner's scholastic and non-scholastic areas of personality are developing properly<br>3. Whether the merit position of the learner in the group has improved over the year<br>Which of the above are questions that formative evaluation answers?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Formative evaluation asks whether the objectives of teaching a topic, content, course or curriculum are being achieved; whether the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains are forming properly; whether scholastic and non-scholastic areas are developing; and whether progress is satisfactory.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Merit position in the group is <b>ranking<\/b>, the object of norm-referenced and summative assessment. Formative evaluation is concerned with where the learner stands <b>in relation to the objective<\/b>, not in relation to his classmates.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 105,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The formative-summative distinction in evaluation was introduced in 1967 by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Benjamin Bloom\",\r\n      \"Norman Gronlund\",\r\n      \"Michael Scriven\",\r\n      \"Robert Ebel\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Michael Scriven<\/b><br><br>Scriven introduced the distinction in <b>1967<\/b>. <b>Benjamin Bloom<\/b> then applied it to classroom teaching, and it is through Bloom's work that it entered school practice \u2014 which is why option (A) is the strongest distractor and why the two names are so often confused.<br><br><b>Gronlund (B)<\/b> is associated with the formulation that evaluation equals quantitative description plus qualitative description plus value judgement. <b>Ebel (D)<\/b> is associated with the interpretation of the discrimination index and with the competencies a teacher needs in measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 106,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following expressions correctly captures the purpose of formative evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Assessment of learning\",\r\n      \"Assessment against learning\",\r\n      \"Assessment by learning\",\r\n      \"Assessment for learning\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Assessment for learning<\/b><br><br>Formative evaluation is <b>assessment for learning<\/b>: it exists to improve the learning while it is still in progress. <b>Assessment of learning (A)<\/b> describes <b>summative<\/b> evaluation, which certifies what has been learned once the learning is over.<br><br>The preposition carries the whole distinction. Assessment <i>for<\/i> learning feeds forward into the next step of teaching; assessment <i>of<\/i> learning looks back and pronounces.<br><br>A third expression, <b>assessment as learning<\/b>, is used of self-assessment, where the act of judging one's own work is itself the learning.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 107,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Self-assessment and diagnostic assessment are correctly regarded as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"instruments of placement assessment used before instruction\",\r\n      \"types of summative assessment serving specific purposes\",\r\n      \"types of formative assessment serving specific purposes\",\r\n      \"devices of external evaluation used by visiting examiners\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) types of formative assessment serving specific purposes<\/b><br><br>Both are species of formative assessment. <b>Self-assessment<\/b> turns the learner's own judgement into a source of feedback; <b>diagnostic assessment<\/b> narrows the focus to the causes of a persisting difficulty. Each serves a specific purpose within the general formative aim of improving learning while it is still under way.<br><br>The classification matters because it explains why diagnostic evaluation is often treated as an extension of formative evaluation rather than as an independent stage \u2014 it takes over precisely where the formative correctives have failed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 108,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Formative assessment is stated to be suitable chiefly where the results are to be used:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"internally, by those involved in the learning process\",\r\n      \"externally, by employers and admitting institutions\",\r\n      \"by statutory boards for the award of certificates\",\r\n      \"by inspecting officers for grading the institution\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) internally, by those involved in the learning process<\/b><br><br>Formative assessment is most appropriate where the results are used <b>internally by pupils, teachers and learning-support staff<\/b>. Summative assessment, by contrast, is most appropriate for <b>succinctly communicating a pupil's abilities to external interested parties<\/b>.<br><br>This is the practical rule that decides which instrument to use: <b>ask who will read the result<\/b>. An audience inside the classroom needs information that can be acted upon; an audience outside it needs a compact and comparable statement of attainment.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 109,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding formative evaluation in the classroom:<br>1. It determines the level of achievement in a small task learned over a short duration.<br>2. It gives limited generalisation and covers a limited content area and ability.<br>3. It is ordinarily counted towards the final grade awarded to the pupil.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Formative evaluation deals with a <b>small task over a short duration<\/b>, permits only <b>limited generalisation<\/b>, and covers a limited content area and ability. It is conducted regularly during the class, course or session.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Formative results are <b>usually not counted<\/b> towards the final grade. Counting them would convert the exercise into a summative one and defeat its purpose, since pupils would then conceal difficulty rather than disclose it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 110,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The feedback given after a formative assessment is designed to enable the learner to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"compare his performance with that of the highest scorer in the class\",\r\n      \"estimate the grade he is likely to obtain in the final examination\",\r\n      \"decide whether to continue with the course or to withdraw from it\",\r\n      \"identify areas for further study and thereby improve future performance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) identify areas for further study and thereby improve future performance<\/b><br><br>Formative assessment assists the learning process by <b>providing feedback to the learner<\/b>, which is used to highlight areas needing further study and so to raise future performance.<br><br>The feedback runs in <b>two directions<\/b>: to the learner, so that gaps may be closed, and to the teacher, so that method and pace may be adjusted. Options (A) and (B) are comparative and predictive uses that belong to norm-referenced summative testing, and both work against the formative purpose.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 111,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Diagnostic evaluation is resorted to when:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the pupil is about to be admitted to a fresh course of instruction in the subject\",\r\n      \"the instructional objectives of the whole course have been achieved by the class\",\r\n      \"the pupil continues to face difficulty though alternative methods have been tried\",\r\n      \"the class as a whole has performed above the standard that was expected of it\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the pupil continues to face difficulty though alternative methods have been tried<\/b><br><br>Diagnostic evaluation is concerned with the <b>persistent learning difficulties left unresolved by the corrective prescriptions of formative assessment<\/b>. The teacher takes recourse to detailed diagnosis only when varied methods and techniques have already been tried and the difficulty remains.<br><br><b>The sequence is important:<\/b> formative first, diagnosis only if formative correctives fail. Reaching for a diagnostic test at the first sign of weakness is a misuse of an expensive instrument.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 112,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The aim of diagnostic assessment is stated to be:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"to grade pupils according to the severity of the weaknesses found in each of them\",\r\n      \"to certify that a stated level of competence has been reached by the pupil\",\r\n      \"to compare the attainment of one class with that of another in the same subject\",\r\n      \"to determine the causes of persistent learning problems and plan remedial action\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) to determine the causes of persistent learning problems and plan remedial action<\/b><br><br>The definition has <b>two limbs<\/b>, and both must be present: establishing the <b>cause<\/b>, and framing the <b>remedy<\/b>. A diagnosis that stops at naming the weakness has done only half the work.<br><br>This is also what separates diagnosis from prognosis. The <b>diagnostic function establishes a cause-and-effect relationship<\/b>, whereas prognosis implies only a simple predictive relationship between a present score and a future outcome.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 113,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following instruments:<br>1. Specially prepared diagnostic tests<br>2. Observational techniques<br>3. Vision and hearing tests<br>Which of the above are employed in diagnostic evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>Diagnostic evaluation involves the use of <b>specially prepared diagnostic tests and various observational techniques<\/b>, and expressly extends to <b>vision tests, hearing tests<\/b> and tests of how the pupil approaches a reading assignment \u2014 whether he leans on pictures, on sound, on context clues, or skips over unfamiliar words.<br><br><b>The reason for the physical tests is the logic of diagnosis itself.<\/b> Since the object is to find the <b>cause<\/b>, a persistent reading difficulty may prove to be sensory rather than intellectual, and no amount of remedial teaching would reach it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 114,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Diagnostic tests are also known by which one of the following names?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Prognostic tests\",\r\n      \"Power tests\",\r\n      \"Mastery tests\",\r\n      \"Analytical tests\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Analytical tests<\/b><br><br>Diagnostic tests are so called because they break performance down into its parts: the <b>correct answer discloses a strength and the wrong answer a weakness<\/b>, so that a profile rather than a total emerges.<br><br><b>Option (A) is a genuine competitor and worth separating carefully.<\/b> Diagnostic tests are said to serve <b>two purposes \u2014 prognostic and diagnostic \u2014 which are complementary<\/b>; prognosis concerns the pupil's likely progress in the subject, diagnosis the causes of his poor attainment. The two functions belong to the same instrument, but 'prognostic test' is not another name for it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 115,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a diagnostic test, the principal interest of the examiner lies in the pupil's performance on:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the paper taken as a whole, expressed as a single total score for the subject\",\r\n      \"the items on which the average of the class lies closest to fifty per cent\",\r\n      \"the items of highest difficulty, which serve to separate out the ablest pupils\",\r\n      \"individual items, or small groups of items that are highly similar to one another\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) individual items, or small groups of items that are highly similar to one another<\/b><br><br>In a diagnostic test the interest is in performance <b>item by item<\/b>, or on small clusters of closely similar items, because it is only at that level of detail that the exact point of breakdown becomes visible.<br><br>Two consequences follow. First, <b>a diagnostic test does not yield a total score<\/b> for the subject. Second, <b>marks are not assigned for correct answers<\/b> \u2014 it is the <b>wrong answers that supply the basis for identifying the causes of failure<\/b>. Option (C) describes the aim of a norm-referenced selection test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 116,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements:<br>1. Any test that yields more than a single overall score is in a sense diagnostic.<br>2. Diagnostic tests are qualitative rather than quantitative in character.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> A test undertakes to provide a picture of strengths and weaknesses, so any instrument yielding more than one score is diagnostic in some degree. Even two part-scores \u2014 one for arithmetic computation and one for arithmetic reasoning \u2014 permit the statement that the pupil did better at computation than at reasoning.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> It follows that diagnostic tests are <b>qualitative, not quantitative<\/b>. They describe the pattern of performance rather than measure its quantity, and they do not produce a total for the subject.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 117,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following statements regarding the relation between diagnosis and remedial work is correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Remedial work functions only once the point at which mastery breaks down is located\",\r\n      \"Remedial work should precede diagnosis so that the pupil is not discouraged by it\",\r\n      \"Remedial work is unnecessary where the diagnostic test yields a single total score\",\r\n      \"Remedial work is effective only where the diagnosis is stated in broad general terms\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Remedial work functions only once the point at which mastery breaks down is located<\/b><br><br>The rule follows from how learning proceeds: on the whole a child <b>learns to do what he practises<\/b>, so practice must be directed at the exact point of failure.<br><br><b>Option (D) states the opposite of the governing principle.<\/b> Diagnosis must be more exact than a broad statement of general functions \u2014 it is not enough to find that a child cannot read silently. <b>The more specific the diagnostic information, the more exactly the remedial material can be made to fit the need.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 118,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Effective diagnostic material in a school subject can be prepared only after:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the norms of a representative sample have been published\",\r\n      \"the pupils have been streamed according to their terminal examination results\",\r\n      \"the reliability coefficient of the achievement test has been established\",\r\n      \"the skills contributing to success in that subject have been isolated and identified\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the skills contributing to success in that subject have been isolated and identified<\/b><br><br><b>Good diagnosis must parallel the process of good teaching<\/b>, and both rest on the same analysis. Teaching a child to add involves not only automatic response to the basic combinations but control of attention span and carrying from one column to the next; silent reading comprehension is a composite of word meanings, meaning from sentences, organisation of units into wholes and rapid location of material.<br><br>Until those component skills are named, neither teaching nor diagnosis can be aimed at anything in particular.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 119,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic and Achievement Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is a point of distinction between an achievement test and a diagnostic test?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The achievement test provides an overall score but does not supply the reason for a poor score\",\r\n      \"The achievement test assigns marks for wrong answers whereas the diagnostic test does not\",\r\n      \"The achievement test is administered before instruction whereas the diagnostic test follows it\",\r\n      \"The achievement test is qualitative whereas the diagnostic test is quantitative\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) The achievement test provides an overall score but does not supply the reason for a poor score<\/b><br><br>Achievement tests give overall scores on the basis of correct answers, wrong answers being assigned zero. <b>They do not disclose the reason for a low score<\/b> \u2014 they establish <i>that<\/i> a pupil is weak, not <i>where<\/i> or <i>why<\/i>.<br><br><b>Option (D) is inverted:<\/b> it is the <b>diagnostic<\/b> test that is qualitative. Option (B) misstates the position \u2014 no test awards marks for wrong answers; in the diagnostic test the wrong answers are used as <b>evidence of cause<\/b> rather than for scoring.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 120,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is a distinguishing feature of summative evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It is followed by remedial teaching for the pupils found weak\",\r\n      \"It is confined to the cognitive domain and excludes the affective domain\",\r\n      \"It is conducted regularly through the course to monitor progress\",\r\n      \"The process of certification is carried out on the basis of its results\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) The process of certification is carried out on the basis of its results<\/b><br><br>Summative evaluation is conducted at the end of a course, semester, class or topic to judge the <b>quality of the final product<\/b> and the extent to which instructional objectives have been achieved. Certification proceeds on its results, which also reflect the effectiveness of the <b>curriculum transaction process<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the trap and is expressly wrong:<\/b> <b>no remedial teaching is given after summative evaluation<\/b>. By then the opportunity to act has passed \u2014 which is the standing criticism of the type.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 121,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following uses of the results of summative evaluation:<br>1. Preparation of the merit list<br>2. Decisions on pass, fail and promotion<br>3. Award of degrees and diplomas<br>4. Adjustment of the pace of teaching while the course is in progress<br>Which of the above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>Summative results are used for <b>preparing the merit list, finalising position, taking decisions of pass, fail and promotion, and awarding degrees or diplomas<\/b>. Every one of these is a decision taken <i>about<\/i> the pupil once the teaching is over.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> Adjusting the pace of teaching while the course is running is the work of <b>formative<\/b> evaluation, which alone is conducted at a stage when such adjustment is still possible.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 122,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the important tools of summative evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Achievement test administered at the close\",\r\n      \"Viva voce conducted at the end of the course\",\r\n      \"Project evaluation carried out by experts\",\r\n      \"Anecdotal record maintained through the term\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Anecdotal record maintained through the term<\/b><br><br>The important tools of summative evaluation are the <b>achievement test, rating scales, project evaluation by experts, interviews and the viva voce examination<\/b> \u2014 instruments applied at the close of instruction to judge a finished product.<br><br>An anecdotal record is built up <b>continuously<\/b> as behaviour is observed, and belongs to the qualitative, non-testing side of continuous evaluation. Its whole value lies in its accumulation over time, which is precisely what a terminal instrument cannot capture.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 123,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding summative evaluation in the classroom:<br>1. It determines the level of achievement in a major task learned over a longer duration.<br>2. It covers large content areas and abilities and permits broad generalisations.<br>3. It is administered at intervals through the course so that difficulties may be corrected in time.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Summative evaluation concerns a <b>major task over a longer duration<\/b>, spans <b>large content areas and abilities<\/b>, and yields <b>broad generalisations<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> It is conducted <b>at the end<\/b> of the course, session or programme, not at intervals through it. The clause about correcting difficulties in time is the giveaway: the recognised disadvantage of summative evaluation is that it <b>comes too late, when learning difficulties can no longer be rectified<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 124,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is stated as a disadvantage of summative evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It is judgemental in nature and therefore discloses the worth of a programme\",\r\n      \"It comes too late, when learning difficulties can no longer be rectified\",\r\n      \"It relies primarily on qualitative methods that are heavy in their use of time\",\r\n      \"It cannot be used for communicating with parents and other outside stakeholders\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) It comes too late, when learning difficulties can no longer be rectified<\/b><br><br>Two disadvantages are stated: it arrives too late for remediation, and it is <b>concerned only with end results<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) is an advantage, not a disadvantage<\/b> \u2014 being judgemental is what allows summative evaluation to show the worth or value of a programme. <b>Option (C) is the limitation of formative evaluation<\/b>, which is time and labour intensive and leans on qualitative methods. <b>Option (D) is reversed:<\/b> communicating with parents and outside bodies is expressly listed among its advantages.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 125,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following advantages claimed for summative evaluation:<br>1. It permits pupils to be selected into placement streams on the basis of their test results.<br>2. It serves as a useful tool for guidance and counselling.<br>3. It is used to evaluate the effectiveness of teachers.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated advantages. Because summative evaluation is <b>judgemental<\/b>, it discloses worth or value, and that judgement can then be put to several uses: <b>decision-making<\/b>, so that pupils are placed in classes according to their results; <b>guidance and counselling<\/b>; <b>communication with parents and outside bodies<\/b> assisting the education sector; and <b>appraisal of the effectiveness of teachers<\/b>.<br><br>Note that item 1 shows the types are not sealed off from one another \u2014 a summative result at one stage becomes the placement input for the next.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 126,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative versus Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Feature)<br>A. Time of conduct<br>B. Extent of generalisation<br>C. Content coverage<br>D. Principal use of the result<br><br>List II (Formative evaluation)<br>1. Limited content area and ability<br>2. During the class, semester or session<br>3. Feedback and correction of learning<br>4. Limited generalisation\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3<\/b><br><br>Each feature is paired with the formative position, and the summative counterpart is its opposite in every case: conducted <b>at the end<\/b>; <b>broad<\/b> generalisation; <b>large<\/b> content areas and abilities; and results used for <b>grades and ranking<\/b>.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> B and C are the pair most easily confused, since 'limited' appears in both. Fix them by the noun \u2014 <b>generalisation<\/b> goes with B, <b>content area<\/b> with C \u2014 and the item resolves at once.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 127,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative versus Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Type of evaluation : Frame of reference ordinarily used<br>1. Formative evaluation : Criterion-referenced<br>2. Summative evaluation : Norm-referenced<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Formative evaluation asks whether the pupil has reached the objective, which is a <b>criterion-referenced<\/b> question. Every pupil could in principle satisfy it.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2713<\/b> Summative evaluation issues in grades, merit lists and promotion decisions, and is therefore <b>often norm-referenced<\/b> \u2014 it locates the pupil within the group.<br><br><b>Read the qualifier carefully.<\/b> The association is a tendency, not a rule: a mastery examination at the end of a course is summative yet criterion-referenced.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 128,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative versus Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that the distinction between formative and summative evaluation is not always helpful rests on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"both are conducted by the same examiner in the same institution\",\r\n      \"formative evaluation can produce early outcome measures that serve as interim markers of programme effects\",\r\n      \"summative evaluation is always preceded by a placement test of entry behaviour\",\r\n      \"both employ identical instruments and differ only in the time of administration\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) formative evaluation can produce early outcome measures that serve as interim markers of programme effects<\/b><br><br>Formative evaluation may itself be an important component of summative evaluation. It produces <b>early outcome measures serving as interim markers<\/b> of eventual effects, and by tracking changes and linkages between inputs, outputs and outcomes it helps <b>identify the causal mechanism<\/b>.<br><br>In some contexts the more fruitful approach is therefore to treat the two as <b>parts of the same exercise<\/b> rather than as rivals. Option (D) is false \u2014 the instruments differ, formative leaning on qualitative methods and summative on quantitative ones.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 129,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Internal and External Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In external evaluation, the relation between the teacher and the examiner is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"they are always the same person for a given group of pupils in that subject\",\r\n      \"they are never the same person for a given group of pupils in that subject\",\r\n      \"the teacher moderates the marks that have been awarded by the examiner\",\r\n      \"the examiner is drawn from among the teachers of the very same school\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) they are never the same person for a given group of pupils in that subject<\/b><br><br>In external evaluation the evaluators are invited from outside, and <b>the teachers who teach a particular group are not involved in evaluating that group<\/b>. Teacher and examiner are never common.<br><br>Its forms are board examinations, viva conducted by an outside expert, and annual school examinations for which the paper comes from outside rather than being set by the school's own teachers.<br><br>Its stated significance is that it <b>eliminates the element of bias<\/b> from the evaluation system.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 130,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Internal and External Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following as instances of internal evaluation:<br>1. Unit test conducted by the class teacher<br>2. Quarterly test set by the subject teacher<br>3. Viva voce conducted by an expert invited from outside<br>Which of the above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br>Internal evaluation is that in which <b>the teacher and the examiner are the same person<\/b>: the teacher teaches the subject, sets the paper and evaluates the answers, no outside expert being invited. Class tests, unit tests and weekly, monthly and quarterly tests are its recognised forms.<br><br><b>Item 3 is external<\/b> by definition, the expert being invited from outside.<br><br>The significance of internal evaluation lies in tracing pupil progress, organising remedial teaching for weaker pupils, revealing to the teacher his own and his pupils' weak areas, and building a strong foundation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 131,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Internal and External Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the significance of internal evaluation:<br>1. It enables remedial teaching to be organised for weaker pupils.<br>2. It brings the teacher's own weak areas to his notice.<br>3. It secures uniformity of standard across different institutions.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Internal evaluation helps trace pupil progress, permits <b>remedial teaching for weaker pupils<\/b>, brings both the teacher's and the pupils' weak areas to light, and helps build a strong foundation.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Uniformity of standard across institutions is precisely what internal evaluation <b>cannot<\/b> deliver, since paper and examiner differ from school to school. It is the merit claimed for <b>external<\/b> examinations, along with freedom from bias.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 132,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"At the level of a programme rather than a pupil, formative evaluation seeks to strengthen the programme by examining:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the aggregate attainment of the beneficiaries measured against a national norm\",\r\n      \"the delivery of the programme, the quality of its implementation and its context\",\r\n      \"the net financial return generated by the programme over its whole lifetime\",\r\n      \"the certification issued to the participants at the conclusion of the programme\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the delivery of the programme, the quality of its implementation and its context<\/b><br><br>Programme-level formative evaluation examines <b>delivery, quality of implementation, organisational context, personnel, structures and procedures<\/b>. It is a <b>change-oriented<\/b> approach, attuned to discrepancies between the expected direction and outputs of a programme and what is actually happening.<br><br>Options (A), (C) and (D) all look at results after the event, and belong to <b>summative<\/b> programme evaluation \u2014 outcome, cost-benefit and certification respectively.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 133,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not a function of formative evaluation at the programme level?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Assessing discrepancies between the expected direction and what is happening\",\r\n      \"Uncovering obstacles, barriers and unexpected opportunities as they arise\",\r\n      \"Generating understanding of how the programme could be implemented better\",\r\n      \"Standardising the outcomes achieved against their respective costs and values\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Standardising the outcomes achieved against their respective costs and values<\/b><br><br>That is the work of <b>cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis<\/b>, a sub-type of <b>summative<\/b> evaluation which addresses questions of efficiency.<br><br>The three genuine functions are all forward-looking: assessing <b>discrepancies<\/b> between the expected direction and outputs of the programme and what is happening in reality; <b>uncovering obstacles, barriers and unexpected opportunities<\/b>; and generating understanding of how the programme <b>could be implemented better<\/b>. Analysing strengths and weaknesses belongs to the same list.<br><br>Note also that formative evaluation is not confined to delivery: the evaluator must equally analyse the <b>intervention logic<\/b>, the outcomes, the results and the impacts.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 134,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The collection and analysis of data over the lifecycle of a programme, together with the timely feedback of findings to programme actors to inform ongoing decision-making, is described as a form of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"operational intelligence\",\r\n      \"summative accountability\",\r\n      \"external moderation\",\r\n      \"impact assessment\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) operational intelligence<\/b><br><br>The expression captures the character of formative evaluation at programme level \u2014 information gathered and returned <b>while decisions are still being taken<\/b>, so that action can be adjusted.<br><br>It requires an <b>effective data collection strategy<\/b>, often combining routinised monitoring data with more tailored evaluation activities.<br><br>The feedback is designed primarily to <b>fine-tune implementation<\/b>, though it may also contribute to policy-making <b>at the margins, through piecemeal adaptation<\/b>. Options (B) and (D) describe the summative side.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 135,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are named as sub-types of formative evaluation?<br>1. Needs assessment<br>2. Evaluability assessment<br>3. Implementation evaluation<br>4. Cost-benefit analysis\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>Formative evaluation includes <b>five<\/b> sub-types: needs assessment, evaluability assessment, structured conceptualisation, implementation evaluation and process evaluation.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis are sub-types of <b>summative<\/b> evaluation, addressing questions of efficiency by standardising outcomes against their costs and values.<br><br>The dividing line holds throughout: formative sub-types ask how the programme is being shaped and run; summative sub-types ask what it produced.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 136,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Sub-type of formative evaluation)<br>A. Needs assessment<br>B. Evaluability assessment<br>C. Structured conceptualisation<br>D. Implementation evaluation<br><br>List II (What it determines)<br>1. Whether an evaluation is feasible and how stakeholders can shape its usefulness<br>2. Fidelity of the delivery of the programme or technology<br>3. Who needs the programme, how great the need is, and what might meet it<br>4. Definition of the programme, the target population and the possible outcomes\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-1, C-3, D-2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2<\/b><br><br><b>A-3 Needs assessment<\/b> establishes who needs the programme and how great the need is.<br><b>B-1 Evaluability assessment<\/b> asks whether an evaluation is feasible at all.<br><b>C-4 Structured conceptualisation<\/b> helps stakeholders define the programme, its target population and its possible outcomes.<br><b>D-2 Implementation evaluation<\/b> monitors <b>fidelity<\/b> of delivery.<br><br>The fifth sub-type, <b>process evaluation<\/b>, investigates the process of delivery including alternative delivery procedures \u2014 and is the pair most often confused with D.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 137,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Formative evaluation is stated to have most relevance at which phases of the evaluation lifecycle?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The ex ante and mid-term phases\",\r\n      \"The mid-term and post-ante phases\",\r\n      \"The post-ante phase alone\",\r\n      \"The ex ante phase alone\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) The ex ante and mid-term phases<\/b><br><br>Formative evaluation belongs to the stages at which the programme can still be redirected. <b>Post-ante evaluations may draw on evidence generated by formative work, but their primary focus is summative.<\/b><br><br>It is ideally <b>built into the programme design as an ongoing activity<\/b> rather than inserted at a particular phase, though it may take a different form at different stages. Some programmes indeed evolve continuously and never reach a stage of being finished, and formative activity is extended through their whole life.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 138,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Formative evaluation is stated to be particularly relevant to programmes whose:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"outcomes are capable of precise quantification right from the very outset\",\r\n      \"goals and objectives cannot be well specified in advance and are likely to change\",\r\n      \"beneficiaries are drawn from a single homogeneous and clearly defined group\",\r\n      \"funding is fixed and is disbursed in a single instalment at the very outset\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) goals and objectives cannot be well specified in advance and are likely to change<\/b><br><br>Formative evaluation suits programmes whose goals are <b>ill-specified in advance, open to interpretation by actors at different levels of the system, or likely to change over the programme's life<\/b>.<br><br>Its premise is that <b>no matter how comprehensive the design, a programme will invariably require steerage and possibly redirection<\/b>, and will be strengthened by stakeholder reflection on what is working and what is not.<br><br>Formative evaluation is responsive to the <b>dynamic context<\/b> of such a programme. Option (A) describes conditions favouring summative measurement, where fixed outcomes can simply be counted.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 139,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following methods would not ordinarily be employed in a formative evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Concept mapping and stakeholder analysis\",\r\n      \"Focus groups and nominal group techniques\",\r\n      \"Meta-analysis of the outcome estimates of multiple studies\",\r\n      \"Flow charting and project scheduling\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Meta-analysis of the outcome estimates of multiple studies<\/b><br><br>Meta-analysis integrates outcome estimates from several studies to arrive at a summary judgement, and is a recognised sub-type of <b>summative<\/b> evaluation.<br><br>Formative methods include <b>stakeholder analysis, concept mapping, focus groups, nominal group techniques, observational techniques and input-output analysis<\/b>. Its concern with the efficiency of project management is met by management-oriented methods \u2014 <b>flow charting, PERT and the Critical Path Method, and project scheduling<\/b>.<br><br>Formative evaluation lends itself most readily to a <b>case study approach in a qualitative mode of inquiry<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 140,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The questions asked in a formative evaluation are characteristically:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"closed and standardised, so that responses may be aggregated\",\r\n      \"open-ended and exploratory, aimed at uncovering how the programme takes shape\",\r\n      \"confined to the quantum of expenditure incurred against each budget head\",\r\n      \"framed as hypotheses to be tested against a control group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) open-ended and exploratory, aimed at uncovering how the programme takes shape<\/b><br><br>Such questions establish <b>what has changed from the original design and why<\/b>, and assess soft organisational factors such as the extent of <b>'buy in'<\/b> by practitioner staff to the programme's goals.<br><br>Formative questions also investigate the <b>relationship between inputs and outcomes<\/b>, which can involve formulating and measuring <b>early or short-term outcome measures<\/b>. These have a process flavour and serve as <b>interim markers<\/b> of more tangible long-term outcomes.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 141,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The mutual catalytic model of formative evaluation is associated with:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Chacon-Moscoso and associates\",\r\n      \"Michael Scriven\",\r\n      \"Michael Patton\",\r\n      \"Robert Glaser\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Chacon-Moscoso and associates<\/b><br><br>The model, put forward in <b>2002<\/b>, marks a newer conception of formative evaluation that emphasises a <b>more inclusive involvement of stakeholders<\/b>, eliciting their participation as <b>collaborators in the evaluation process rather than merely as providers of information<\/b>.<br><br>Under it the evaluator's role changes from gathering data and communicating findings to <b>engaging programme participants in evaluative inquiry<\/b>, organisational actors being helped to generate their own data through collective learning.<br><br><b>Patton (C)<\/b> is associated with a different idea in the same field \u2014 <b>'process use'<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 142,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The term 'process use' denotes the utility to stakeholders of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"applying the evaluation findings to redesign the following cycle of the programme\",\r\n      \"being involved in the planning and implementation of an evaluation, irrespective of its findings\",\r\n      \"standardising the outcomes of a programme against their costs and values\",\r\n      \"re-examining existing data in order to address newly framed questions\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) being involved in the planning and implementation of an evaluation, irrespective of its findings<\/b><br><br>The idea, introduced by <b>Patton<\/b>, is that participation is itself valuable: developmental and capacity-building benefits accrue to staff <b>as a side effect<\/b> of a participative formative evaluation, whatever the findings and recommendations turn out to be.<br><br>Formative evaluation is credited with <b>catalytic effects<\/b> \u2014 mobilising staff around a course of action and engaging management in thinking about future options.<br><br>Option (D) describes <b>secondary analysis<\/b>, a sub-type of summative evaluation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 143,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The first step in the process of a formative evaluation is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"creating an evaluation infrastructure to support learning and change\",\r\n      \"gaining the commitment of key stakeholders and programme actors at all levels\",\r\n      \"identifying the decision-making cycle and the information needs of each stakeholder group\",\r\n      \"commencing the ongoing cycle of data gathering and analysis\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) gaining the commitment of key stakeholders and programme actors at all levels<\/b><br><br>The six steps run in order: <b>(1)<\/b> securing commitment to the evaluation as a collective learning and change-oriented process; <b>(2)<\/b> building evaluation into programme design; <b>(3)<\/b> creating an evaluation infrastructure; <b>(4)<\/b> identifying the decision-making cycle and stakeholder information needs; <b>(5)<\/b> the ongoing cycle of data gathering and analysis; <b>(6)<\/b> settling the evaluator's role in follow-through action.<br><br>Step 1 may require negotiation about <b>access to and use of information<\/b>, clarification of roles, and agreement on what information is relevant to whom.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 144,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following steps in the process of a formative evaluation in their correct order:<br>1. Creating an evaluation infrastructure that supports learning and change<br>2. Building evaluation into the programme design<br>3. Finding out the decision-making cycle and the information needs of stakeholder groups<br>4. Gaining the commitment of key stakeholders and programme actors\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 1 \u2013 2 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>Commitment must be secured first, since without it nothing further is possible. Evaluation is then <b>built into the programme design<\/b>, so that it is seen as a tool for managing the programme rather than an audit imposed on it \u2014 which is also where the data collection strategy and management information database are laid down.<br><br>The <b>infrastructure<\/b> comes third: a culture that supports risk-taking and reduces fear of failure, channels of communication for sharing lessons, and modification of systems that inhibit organisational learning. Only then are stakeholder information needs mapped.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 145,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, said to be required in creating an infrastructure for formative evaluation:<br>1. A culture that supports risk-taking and reduces fear of failure<br>2. Channels of communication that allow members to learn from one another<br>3. Modification of systems and structures that inhibit organisational learning<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are prescribed, along with the creation of <b>new opportunities for shared learning and knowledge creation<\/b>.<br><br>The reason they matter is practical rather than decorative. Formative evaluation depends on people disclosing what is not working, and <b>support may be withdrawn, overtly or covertly, if the findings expose weaknesses in programme design or implementation<\/b> \u2014 especially where the organisational culture is one of blame that discourages innovation and learning from mistakes.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 146,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Research findings on the reception of unwelcome evaluation results indicate that programme managers are more receptive to bad news communicated by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"independent external evaluators\",\r\n      \"internally located evaluators\",\r\n      \"the funding agency's audit team\",\r\n      \"the intended beneficiaries of the programme\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) internally located evaluators<\/b><br><br>Managers receive bad news better from an evaluator regarded as <b>'one of us'<\/b> than from an independent evaluator.<br><br>The finding has a direct bearing on the design of formative evaluation, which <b>requires strong support both from the top and from the bottom<\/b> and must be endorsed by those who will have to act on its findings.<br><br>It also explains why formative evaluators are often <b>internally located<\/b> where the model is influenced by organisational learning \u2014 and why, in that case, the cycle includes <b>shared responsibility for implementing the action plan<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 147,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the limitations of formative evaluation:<br>1. It is time and labour intensive as compared with most forms of summative evaluation.<br>2. Its reliance on qualitative methods may fail to satisfy stakeholders who expect robust quantitative measures of progress.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Formative evaluation is heavy in its demands on <b>time and evaluation expertise<\/b>, both at the data gathering stage and in analysis.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> Because it relies primarily on <b>qualitative methods<\/b>, its findings may disappoint an audience that expects measurable progress.<br><br>Both limitations flow from the same source \u2014 the depth of inquiry that is also its strength. Against them stands its <b>developmental or capacity-building value<\/b> for the organisation and its members, where it is treated as a form of organisational learning.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 148,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where a large programme shows a discrepancy between its formal theory and what is implemented locally, formative evaluation helps to establish whether:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the beneficiaries of the programme were correctly identified at the outset\",\r\n      \"the theory was flawed, the evaluation deficient, or implementation failed\",\r\n      \"the expenditure incurred was proportionate to the outcomes finally achieved\",\r\n      \"the programme should be certified as having met its stated objectives\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the theory was flawed, the evaluation deficient, or implementation failed<\/b><br><br>This is the distinctive contribution of formative evaluation, and the reason it is called <b>essential for understanding why a programme succeeds or fails and what complex factors are at work<\/b>.<br><br>A summative verdict can establish that a programme did not work; it cannot distinguish a <b>wrong idea<\/b> from a <b>badly executed right idea<\/b>. Options (C) and (D) describe cost-benefit analysis and certification, both summative functions.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 149,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Summative evaluation at the programme level is also referred to as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"ex ante evaluation\",\r\n      \"ex post evaluation\",\r\n      \"concurrent evaluation\",\r\n      \"evaluability assessment\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) ex post evaluation<\/b><br><br>The expression means <b>after the event<\/b>, and reflects the ordinary timing of summative work.<br><br><b>Read the proposition precisely.<\/b> Summative evaluation <b>can<\/b> take place during implementation, but it is <b>most often undertaken at the end<\/b> of a project. The name records the usual case, not an invariable rule.<br><br><b>Ex ante evaluation (A)<\/b> is conducted before the event and is one of the phases at which formative evaluation has most relevance; <b>evaluability assessment (D)<\/b> is a formative sub-type.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 150,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Summative evaluation at the programme level is linked to which one of the following evaluation drivers?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Accountability\",\r\n      \"Capacity building\",\r\n      \"Organisational learning\",\r\n      \"Stakeholder participation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Accountability<\/b><br><br>Summative evaluation asks what the project achieved, and it is that question which answers to funders and to the public \u2014 hence its association with <b>accountability<\/b> and with <b>more objective, quantitative methods<\/b> of data collection.<br><br>The remaining options are the drivers of <b>formative<\/b> evaluation: capacity building and organisational learning are its developmental purposes, and stakeholder participation is the emphasis of the newer participative models.<br><br>Even so, a <b>balance of quantitative and qualitative methods<\/b> is recommended for summative work.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 151,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The recommendation that qualitative methods be used alongside quantitative ones in a summative evaluation rests on the ground that qualitative data:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"are less expensive to collect than quantitative data\",\r\n      \"give insight into unintended consequences and lessons for improvement\",\r\n      \"eliminate the need to establish the reliability of the instruments used\",\r\n      \"permit the results of different projects to be ranked against one another\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) give insight into unintended consequences and lessons for improvement<\/b><br><br>A balance of the two is recommended in order to understand not merely <b>what<\/b> a project achieved but <b>how and why<\/b> it did so. Quantitative measures record the effects that were looked for; qualitative inquiry catches those that were not.<br><br><b>Option (D) is a genuine summative function but not a reason for using qualitative methods<\/b> \u2014 comparing the impact of different projects, so that results-based decisions on future spending may be taken, is achieved through quantification.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 152,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the context of summative evaluation, the statement that three workshops were held with fifty persons attending is a report of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"outputs rather than outcomes\",\r\n      \"outcomes rather than outputs\",\r\n      \"impacts rather than outputs\",\r\n      \"inputs rather than resources\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) outputs rather than outcomes<\/b><br><br>Summative evaluation is concerned not with the activity conducted but with its <b>result<\/b> \u2014 increased knowledge, or increased uptake of the thing the workshops were about. Counting workshops and attendance records what was <b>done<\/b>; it does not establish what <b>changed<\/b>.<br><br>The distinction is fundamental because summative evaluation is <b>outcome-focused rather than process-focused<\/b>. A programme may show excellent outputs and no outcomes at all, which is exactly the failure this distinction is framed to expose.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 153,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are sub-types of summative evaluation?<br>1. Outcome evaluation<br>2. Impact evaluation<br>3. Secondary analysis<br>4. Process evaluation\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>The five sub-types of summative evaluation are <b>outcome evaluation, impact evaluation, cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis, secondary analysis and meta-analysis<\/b>.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> Process evaluation, which investigates the process of delivering the programme including alternative delivery procedures, is a <b>formative<\/b> sub-type \u2014 and its name marks the divide, since summative evaluation is outcome-focused rather than process-focused.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 154,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Sub-type of summative evaluation)<br>A. Outcome evaluation<br>B. Impact evaluation<br>C. Secondary analysis<br>D. Meta-analysis<br><br>List II (What it does)<br>1. Re-examines existing data to address new questions or apply methods not previously used<br>2. Investigates whether the programme caused demonstrable effects on specifically defined target outcomes<br>3. Integrates outcome estimates from several studies into an overall judgement<br>4. Assesses the overall or net effects, intended and unintended, of the programme as a whole\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3<\/b><br><br><b>A-2 Outcome evaluation<\/b> is narrower: it asks whether the programme caused effects on <b>specifically defined target outcomes<\/b>.<br><b>B-4 Impact evaluation<\/b> is <b>broader<\/b>, taking in the net effects of the whole programme, <b>intended and unintended<\/b>.<br><b>C-1 Secondary analysis<\/b> works on <b>existing<\/b> data.<br><b>D-3 Meta-analysis<\/b> works across <b>several studies<\/b>.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> A and B are the confusable pair, and the word 'broader' settles them; C and D are fixed by 'existing data' and 'multiple studies'.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 155,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis address questions of efficiency by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"comparing the programme's outputs with those of a control programme\",\r\n      \"standardising outcomes in terms of their costs and values\",\r\n      \"re-examining existing data using methods not previously employed\",\r\n      \"monitoring the fidelity with which the programme was delivered\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) standardising outcomes in terms of their costs and values<\/b><br><br>Reducing outcomes to a common monetary footing is what permits a judgement of <b>efficiency<\/b>, and thereby a comparison between programmes that produce different kinds of result.<br><br>This connects to a stated need for summative evaluation: it allows the <b>impact of different projects to be compared<\/b>, so that <b>results-based decisions on future spending allocations<\/b> can be taken, unintended consequences being taken into account.<br><br>Options (C) and (D) describe secondary analysis and implementation evaluation respectively.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 156,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following stated needs for a summative evaluation:<br>1. To find out whether the project has reached its goals, objectives and outcomes<br>2. To quantify the changes attributable to the project so that its impact can be tracked<br>3. To develop a better understanding of the process of change, and of what works and why<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with a fourth \u2014 comparing the impact of different projects so that <b>results-based decisions on future spending<\/b> may be made.<br><br><b>Item 3 deserves notice<\/b>, because it is the one that resists the neat contrast with formative evaluation. Summative work is expected to yield knowledge of <b>what works, what does not, and why<\/b>, so that <b>future project designs and implementation may be improved<\/b> \u2014 a forward-looking use of a backward-looking instrument.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 157,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following characteristics attributed to summative evaluation:<br>1. It uses well-defined evaluation designs with fixed time and content.<br>2. It is positive, tending to stress what pupils can do rather than what they cannot.<br>3. It is oppressive and reactive in its operation.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Summative evaluation uses <b>well-defined designs of fixed time and content<\/b>, and is <b>positive<\/b>, stressing what pupils can do rather than what they cannot.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 the position is inverted.<\/b> Summative evaluation is described as <b>unoppressive and not reactive so far as possible<\/b>.<br><br>The remaining listed characteristics are that it grades the level of learning over a certain period, provides <b>descriptive analysis<\/b> taking into account all the activities of the year, and tends to stress <b>local effects<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 158,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Summative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Summative evaluation carried out at the conclusion of a programme of instruction is useful chiefly for determining whether:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the broad aims, objectives or goals of the programme have been achieved\",\r\n      \"the delivery arrangements were faithful to the original design\",\r\n      \"the stakeholders were adequately consulted during implementation\",\r\n      \"the programme is capable of being evaluated at all\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the broad aims, objectives or goals of the programme have been achieved<\/b><br><br>Summative evaluation is <b>judgemental in nature<\/b> and is offered as class tests and as termly, yearly and external examinations, the results being used to design course grades and to certify learners.<br><br>Option (B) describes <b>implementation evaluation<\/b>, option (C) the participative emphasis of formative work, and option (D) <b>evaluability assessment<\/b> \u2014 all three formative. Only option (A) asks the retrospective question of whether the programme did what it set out to do.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 159,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative versus Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Type of programme evaluation : Predominant method<br>1. Formative evaluation : Qualitative, case study mode of inquiry<br>2. Summative evaluation : Objective, quantitative methods of data collection<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Formative evaluation lends itself most readily to a <b>case study approach in a qualitative mode<\/b>, there being a preference for methods capable of picking up the subtleties of reform and the complexities of the organisational context.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2713<\/b> Summative evaluation is associated with <b>more objective, quantitative methods<\/b>, consistent with its accountability function.<br><br>The methodological divide follows from the different questions asked: <i>how is this working?<\/i> requires description, <i>what did it achieve?<\/i> requires measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 160,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formative versus Summative Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following statements regarding the relation between formative and summative evaluation is correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Formative evaluation replaces summative evaluation where the programme evolves continuously\",\r\n      \"Formative evaluation is complementary to summative evaluation and may form a component of it\",\r\n      \"Formative and summative evaluation must be conducted by different agencies in every case\",\r\n      \"Summative evaluation must always precede formative evaluation in a programme cycle\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Formative evaluation is complementary to summative evaluation and may form a component of it<\/b><br><br>Formative evaluation is <b>highly complementary<\/b> to summative evaluation, and its process may be <b>an important component in summative evaluation<\/b> \u2014 producing early outcome measures that serve as interim markers of programme effects, and tracing links between inputs, outputs and outcomes so as to identify the <b>causal mechanism<\/b>.<br><br>The contrast between the two, though commonly drawn, <b>is not always helpful<\/b>; in some contexts the fruitful course is to treat both as parts of the same exercise.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 161,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Instance : Type of evaluation<br>1. A weekly class test used to decide which topics need reteaching : Formative<br>2. An entrance test used to admit candidates to a teacher-training course : Summative<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> A weekly test whose result is used to adjust the teaching is formative: it is conducted during the course, monitors progress and feeds back into instruction.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2717<\/b> An entrance test is <b>placement<\/b> evaluation, not summative. It assesses <b>entry behaviour<\/b> in order to fix the candidate's position in the instructional sequence, and the B.Ed. entrance test is the standard illustration.<br><br><b>The test to apply is the use made of the result<\/b>, not the form of the instrument \u2014 the same written paper can serve any of the four types.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 162,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil who has been through reteaching and revision still cannot solve subtraction sums involving borrowing. The evaluation appropriate at this stage is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"placement evaluation, to determine his entry behaviour once again afresh\",\r\n      \"formative evaluation, to monitor his progress over the coming few weeks\",\r\n      \"diagnostic evaluation, to locate the exact point of breakdown and its cause\",\r\n      \"summative evaluation, to certify the level that he has finally attained\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) diagnostic evaluation, to locate the exact point of breakdown and its cause<\/b><br><br>The difficulty has <b>persisted after formative correctives have been applied<\/b>, which is the precise condition for resorting to diagnosis.<br><br>Note how specific the difficulty already is \u2014 not 'weak at arithmetic' but a failure at <b>borrowing<\/b>. That specificity is what makes remediation possible, since <b>remedial work can function only when the point at which mastery breaks down has been located<\/b>, and the more exact the diagnosis the more closely the remedial material can be fitted to the need.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 163,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following correctly states the position of remedial teaching in relation to the four types of evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It follows formative and diagnostic evaluation but not summative evaluation\",\r\n      \"It follows summative evaluation alone, once the final results are known\",\r\n      \"It follows placement evaluation alone, before instruction commences\",\r\n      \"It follows every type of evaluation as a matter of course\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) It follows formative and diagnostic evaluation but not summative evaluation<\/b><br><br>Formative evaluation issues in <b>corrective prescriptions<\/b>; diagnostic evaluation exists to <b>formulate a plan for remedial action<\/b>. Both are conducted while there is still time to act.<br><br><b>No remedial teaching is given after summative evaluation<\/b> \u2014 its stated disadvantage being that it comes too late, when learning difficulties can no longer be rectified. Placement evaluation settles where the pupil should begin; remediation presupposes that instruction has already been attempted and has failed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 164,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the prevailing practice of planning a formative evaluation, the information needs given priority are those of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"local practitioners and the clients of the programme\",\r\n      \"central staff such as policy makers and programme managers\",\r\n      \"the external audit agency appointed by the funding body\",\r\n      \"the beneficiaries selected as a representative sample\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) central staff such as policy makers and programme managers<\/b><br><br>The prevailing practice has been to prioritise the needs of <b>central staff<\/b>, as those primarily responsible for programme <b>steerage<\/b>, leaving unspecified the part that local site managers, local practitioners and clients might play in reshaping plans in response to feedback.<br><br>It is precisely this imbalance that the <b>newer participative conceptions<\/b> seek to correct, by treating local actors as <b>collaborators<\/b> in the evaluation rather than as mere providers of information.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 165,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the strengths of formative evaluation:<br>1. It provides a rich picture of a programme as it unfolds.<br>2. It is a source of learning not only for the present programme but for future programmes as well.<br>3. Its findings are ordinarily used to certify whether the programme has met its objectives.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Formative evaluation yields a <b>rich picture of a programme as it unfolds<\/b>, and is valuable prospectively for that programme and for later ones.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Certification against objectives is the <b>summative<\/b> function. Formative evaluation supports it by helping establish whether the substantive theory was flawed, whether the evaluation was deficient, or whether implementation <b>failed to pass some causal threshold<\/b> \u2014 but it does not itself pronounce the verdict.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 166,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Internal and External Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not an instance of external evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A board examination conducted at the end of Class X\",\r\n      \"A viva conducted by an expert invited from another institution\",\r\n      \"An annual examination for which the paper is set outside the school\",\r\n      \"A monthly test set and marked by the class teacher himself\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) A monthly test set and marked by the class teacher himself<\/b><br><br>Where the teacher and the examiner are the <b>same person<\/b>, the evaluation is <b>internal<\/b>. Class tests and weekly, monthly and quarterly tests are its recognised forms.<br><br>The other three are the stated forms of external evaluation: <b>board examinations<\/b>, a <b>viva conducted by an outside expert<\/b>, and <b>annual examinations for which the paper comes from outside<\/b> rather than being set by the school's own teachers.<br><br>The test is not the level of the examination but <b>who sets and marks it<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 167,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 3: TYPES OF EVALUATION \u2014 PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE, DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation \u2014 Formative\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Formative evaluation is said to serve a developmental purpose for an organisation because it is regarded as a form of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"external audit\",\r\n      \"organisational learning\",\r\n      \"performance appraisal\",\r\n      \"financial control\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) organisational learning<\/b><br><br>Seen in this light, formative evaluation carries a <b>developmental or capacity-building<\/b> value for the organisation as a whole and for its individual members, quite apart from its findings.<br><br>It strengthens <b>horizontal structures<\/b> by creating feedback mechanisms through which lessons are shared, and cultivates thicker networks of professional and informal contact between levels of decision-making by facilitating <b>intra- and inter-organisational dialogue<\/b>.<br><br>Options (A), (C) and (D) are control functions; formative evaluation is expressly a learning function.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 168,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Taxonomy\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The term 'taxonomy' denotes:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the study of learner motivation\",\r\n      \"the study of measurement error\",\r\n      \"the study of instructional design\",\r\n      \"the study of classification\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the study of classification<\/b><br><br>A taxonomy of educational objectives is therefore a <b>classification<\/b> of the aims sought through the curriculum of a course, covering the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and abilities that a teacher, teacher educator or curriculum developer sets as teaching-learning objectives.<br><br>Its claim to generality is that the classification <b>fits every subject and course, academic or technical alike<\/b>, because in every area of study the learner develops content knowledge and understanding, skills, and values related to it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 169,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Origin of the Taxonomy\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Benjamin Bloom and his co-workers began the work that led to the taxonomy of educational objectives in the year:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1948\",\r\n      \"1956\",\r\n      \"1964\",\r\n      \"1969\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1948<\/b><br><br>Work commenced in <b>1948<\/b>, while Bloom was teaching educational psychology at the <b>University of Chicago<\/b>. The classification was developed and proposed in <b>1956<\/b>.<br><br>The three other dates are the genuine competitors and each belongs elsewhere: <b>1956<\/b> is the year of publication of the cognitive taxonomy; <b>1964<\/b> that of the affective classification by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia; and <b>1969<\/b> that of R.H. Dave's classification of the psychomotor domain.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 170,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Origin of the Taxonomy\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Bloom's threefold classification of educational objectives is said to accord with Mahatma Gandhi's definition of education because Gandhi's three dimensions of personality correspond to the domains as follows:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"body to cognitive, mind to affective, soul to psychomotor\",\r\n      \"mind to cognitive, soul to affective, body to psychomotor\",\r\n      \"soul to cognitive, body to affective, mind to psychomotor\",\r\n      \"mind to cognitive, body to affective, soul to psychomotor\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) mind to cognitive, soul to affective, body to psychomotor<\/b><br><br>Gandhi defined education as the all-round drawing out of the best in child and man \u2014 <b>body, mind and soul<\/b>. <b>Mind<\/b> indicates the intellectual aspects; <b>soul<\/b> the emotional, spiritual and moral aspects; and <b>body<\/b> the development of skills requiring the use of fingers, hands, legs, eyes and vocal cord.<br><br>The correspondence with the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains is exact, and is the reason the taxonomy is said to reflect the idea of developing the <b>whole personality<\/b> of the child.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 171,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Structure of the Domains\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the three domains of educational objectives:<br>1. Learning at a higher level in any domain depends on having acquired the prerequisite knowledge and skills at the lower level.<br>2. Achievement in one domain influences achievement in the others.<br>3. Underdevelopment of any one domain leaves the personality ungroomed.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are correct, and each states a different property.<br><br><b>Statement 1<\/b> states <b>hierarchy<\/b> \u2014 within each domain the levels of expertise are arranged in increasing complexity.<br><b>Statement 2<\/b> states <b>interrelation<\/b> \u2014 the domains are not divided by any watertight compartment.<br><b>Statement 3<\/b> states the practical consequence: an individual who develops all three domains in an area of study has a good personality, and <b>if any one domain is underdeveloped he has not nurtured himself as a groomed personality<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 172,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Structure of the Domains\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In every one of the three domains, the levels of expertise are arranged in order of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"decreasing dependence on the teacher\",\r\n      \"decreasing time required for mastery\",\r\n      \"increasing frequency of classroom occurrence\",\r\n      \"increasing complexity and difficulty\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) increasing complexity and difficulty<\/b><br><br>All three domains carry their own taxonomy, and in each the levels are arranged in <b>hierarchical order of difficulty<\/b>. The cognitive categories in particular run from <b>simple to complex and from concrete to abstract<\/b>.<br><br>The teaching consequence is stated expressly: learning outcomes that require higher levels of expertise require <b>more effective teaching and more sophisticated classroom techniques and methods<\/b>. A higher-order objective cannot be secured by the methods that suffice for a lower one.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 173,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The cognitive domain comprises those objectives of education which attempt to develop:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"emotions, values and attitudes\",\r\n      \"mental faculties and intellectual abilities\",\r\n      \"motor abilities and manipulative skills\",\r\n      \"social conduct and group participation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) mental faculties and intellectual abilities<\/b><br><br>The cognitive domain covers <b>the ability of knowing, understanding, thinking and problem solving<\/b>. It develops factual knowledge, conceptual understanding and thinking at every level \u2014 lower, middle and higher \u2014 and takes in the whole of mental abilities and mental operations.<br><br><b>Option (A)<\/b> defines the affective domain, which concerns aspects of personality influenced more by heart than by mind. <b>Option (C)<\/b> defines the psychomotor domain, which is concerned with skill development for performing tasks.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 174,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following categories of Bloom's cognitive domain in ascending order of complexity:<br>1. Analysis<br>2. Comprehension<br>3. Synthesis<br>4. Application\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 3 \u2013 1\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>The full order is <b>Knowledge \u2192 Comprehension \u2192 Application \u2192 Analysis \u2192 Synthesis \u2192 Evaluation<\/b>, running from the simplest behaviour to the most complex.<br><br>The categories may be treated as <b>degrees of difficulty<\/b>, and the governing rule is that <b>the first must be mastered before the next can take place<\/b>. Analysis, for instance, is possible only for one who already has knowledge and understanding of the thing and the power to apply it.<br><br>Only Comprehension can occupy the first position here, which disposes of option (C) at once.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 175,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not a task performed at the analysis level of the cognitive domain?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Analysis of the elements or constituents making the whole\",\r\n      \"Analysis of the relationship among the various constituents\",\r\n      \"Analysis of the organisational patterns of the constituents\",\r\n      \"Analysis of the worth of the whole against established criteria\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Analysis of the worth of the whole against established criteria<\/b><br><br>Three tasks are performed at the analysis level: analysis of <b>elements<\/b>, of <b>relationships<\/b> among them, and of <b>organisational patterns<\/b>. All three break a whole into its parts and examine how the parts stand to one another.<br><br>Judging worth against criteria is the work of the <b>evaluation<\/b> level, the highest of the six, which involves judgement in terms of <b>internal as well as external criteria<\/b> and issues in decision-making ability.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 176,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, said to be involved in the synthesis level of the cognitive domain:<br>1. Development of a unique communication<br>2. Development of a plan, procedure or proposed set of operations<br>3. Development of a set of abstract relations<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are the stated constituents of synthesis, which is the process of <b>putting together various constituents to make a whole<\/b>.<br><br>Synthesis is a higher-order and complex ability, involving the <b>creation of a new pattern or structure<\/b> by manipulating constituents, and it carries an element of <b>creativity<\/b>. Development of a creative personality is said to require this level of cognition, and all creative people have this ability in common \u2014 which is why the revised taxonomy renamed the category <b>Creating<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 177,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The evaluation level of the cognitive domain is described as the most complex because it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"can be attained only in the higher secondary stage of schooling\",\r\n      \"requires the learner to memorise a larger quantity of material\",\r\n      \"involves all the five categories that precede it\",\r\n      \"is confined to the judgement of ideas and excludes material objects\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) involves all the five categories that precede it<\/b><br><br>Evaluation is the process of judgement about the <b>worth or value of a process or a product<\/b>. It is both a quantitative and a qualitative process, it leads to the development of <b>decision-making ability<\/b>, and it involves judgement in terms of <b>internal as well as external criteria<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (D) is expressly wrong:<\/b> the level includes all the content of a subject \u2014 facts, concepts, principles, theories and laws alike.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 178,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are tasks a learner becomes capable of at the comprehension level of the cognitive domain?<br>1. Translating, summarising or defining acquired knowledge in his own words<br>2. Discriminating between two or more objects or concepts and classifying them<br>3. Combining diverse elements to create a new pattern or structure<br>4. Interpreting acquired information in his own way and giving his own examples\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 4 only<\/b><br><br>Comprehension takes the learner beyond recall and recognition. He can <b>translate, summarise or define in his own words<\/b>; <b>describe, elaborate, extrapolate and explain<\/b>; and <b>interpret, discriminate, classify, verify and generalise<\/b>.<br><br><b>Item 3 is the intruder<\/b> \u2014 combining diverse elements into a new whole is <b>synthesis<\/b>, the fifth level.<br><br>The standard illustration: having understood the structure of the atom, the learner not only recalls protons, electrons and neutrons but can <b>explain why an atom is neutral<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 179,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the revised cognitive taxonomy the first category was renamed 'remembering' because the original term:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"applied only to verbal and not to numerical material\",\r\n      \"was found to overlap with the second category\",\r\n      \"excluded the recognition of facts as distinct from their recall\",\r\n      \"named a product of thinking rather than a form of thinking\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) named a product of thinking rather than a form of thinking<\/b><br><br>The categories of the taxonomy describe <b>different forms of thinking<\/b>. 'Knowledge' is a <b>product<\/b> of thinking \u2014 of lower as well as higher order \u2014 and so failed to indicate the level of category it named.<br><br>'Remember' is the appropriate word because it indicates the product of <b>lower-order<\/b> thinking: one can cram, recall, recognise and remember something <b>without understanding it<\/b>.<br><br>The same reasoning drove the whole revision, since thinking is an <b>active process<\/b> and is better represented by verbs than by nouns.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 180,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain \u2014 Verbs\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Category of the cognitive domain)<br>A. Knowledge<br>B. Comprehension<br>C. Analysis<br>D. Synthesis<br><br>List II (Characteristic verb)<br>1. Devises<br>2. Deconstructs<br>3. Paraphrases<br>4. Reproduces\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1<\/b><br><br><b>A-4 Reproduces<\/b> \u2014 knowledge is recall of data or information; its verbs include defines, labels, lists, names, recalls, recognises, reproduces, states.<br><b>B-3 Paraphrases<\/b> \u2014 comprehension is stating a problem in one's own words; its verbs include converts, explains, infers, interprets, summarises, translates.<br><b>C-2 Deconstructs<\/b> \u2014 analysis separates material into component parts.<br><b>D-1 Devises<\/b> \u2014 synthesis builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements.<br><br><b>The verb is the reliable indicator<\/b> of the level an objective belongs to.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 181,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain \u2014 Verbs\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The verb 'appraises' in a statement of an instructional objective indicates which level of the cognitive domain?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Application\",\r\n      \"Analysis\",\r\n      \"Synthesis\",\r\n      \"Evaluation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Evaluation<\/b><br><br>Evaluation is making judgements about the value of ideas or material, and its characteristic verbs are <b>appraises, concludes, criticises, critiques, defends, justifies and supports<\/b>.<br><br>The genuine competitors each carry their own verb set: <b>application<\/b> \u2014 applies, computes, constructs, demonstrates, operates, solves; <b>analysis<\/b> \u2014 breaks down, contrasts, differentiates, discriminates, diagrams; <b>synthesis<\/b> \u2014 categorises, composes, creates, designs, organises, rearranges.<br><br>Note that a few verbs such as <i>explains<\/i> and <i>relates<\/i> recur across levels, so context must decide.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 182,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Quellmalz Framework\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The framework of thinking categories offered as a simpler and more usable alternative to Bloom's cognitive taxonomy is that of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Simpson\",\r\n      \"Krathwohl\",\r\n      \"Harrow\",\r\n      \"Quellmalz\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Quellmalz<\/b><br><br>The Quellmalz Framework is a modified version of Bloom's taxonomy, described as <b>simpler and easier to use<\/b>, and each of its categories carries an indication of how it relates back to Bloom's.<br><br>Its five categories are <b>Recall, Analysis, Comparison, Inference and Evaluation<\/b>.<br><br><b>Krathwohl (B)<\/b> classified the affective domain; <b>Harrow (C)<\/b> and <b>Simpson (A)<\/b> classified the psychomotor domain. All three belong to the taxonomy literature, which is what makes them credible distractors here.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 183,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Quellmalz Framework\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Quellmalz category)<br>A. Recall<br>B. Comparison<br>C. Inference<br>D. Evaluation<br><br>List II (Description)<br>1. Explaining how things are similar and how they are different<br>2. Expressing and defending an opinion, judging quality and worth against established criteria<br>3. Remembering or recognising key facts, definitions and concepts<br>4. Reasoning inductively or deductively\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-1, B-3, C-4, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-1, C-3, D-2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2<\/b><br><br><b>A-3 Recall<\/b> covers remembering key facts and repeating or paraphrasing information already supplied to the pupil.<br><b>B-1 Comparison<\/b> explains similarity and difference \u2014 compare, contrast, distinguish.<br><b>C-4 Inference<\/b> is reasoning inductively or deductively \u2014 hypothesise, use evidence, apply a rule, generalise, predict.<br><b>D-2 Evaluation<\/b> requires the pupil to judge quality, credibility, worth or practicality against established criteria and to explain how those criteria are met.<br><br>The fifth category, <b>Analysis<\/b>, covers whole-and-part and cause-and-effect relationships.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 184,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Quellmalz Framework\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the Quellmalz Framework, the category 'Recall' is stated to correspond to which categories of Bloom's cognitive taxonomy?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Knowledge and Application\",\r\n      \"Knowledge alone\",\r\n      \"Comprehension and Application\",\r\n      \"Knowledge and Comprehension\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Knowledge and Comprehension<\/b><br><br>Recall spans both, because it covers not only remembering key facts and definitions but also <b>repeating verbatim or paraphrasing information already provided to the pupil<\/b> \u2014 and paraphrasing is a comprehension-level act.<br><br>The remaining correspondences are: <b>Analysis<\/b> and <b>Comparison<\/b> both map to Bloom's <b>Analysis<\/b>; <b>Inference<\/b> maps to <b>Application and Synthesis<\/b>; and <b>Evaluation<\/b> maps to <b>Synthesis and Evaluation<\/b>.<br><br>The mapping is deliberately many-to-one, which is what makes the framework simpler to apply in practice.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 185,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The ability to give the correct answer to standard questions that do not call for much creative faculty is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"divergent thinking\",\r\n      \"convergent thinking\",\r\n      \"lateral thinking\",\r\n      \"reflective thinking\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Convergent thinking<\/b><br><br>The term was introduced by the American psychologist <b>J.P. Guilford<\/b>. Convergent thinking brings facts and data together from various sources and then applies logic and knowledge to solve the problem and achieve an objective.<br><br>It is assessed by administering <b>standard IQ tests<\/b>, by recognition or knowledge tests, by logical discussion, and by setting problems.<br><br><b>Divergent thinking (A)<\/b> is its counterpart \u2014 thinking outwardly rather than inwardly, generating many original ideas. Both are described as important aspects of intelligence, problem solving and critical thinking.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 186,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding divergent thinking:<br>1. Its goal is to generate many different ideas about a topic in a short period of time.<br>2. Ideas are generated in a spontaneous, free-flowing and largely unorganised manner.<br>3. It proceeds by applying logic to arrive at the single correct answer.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Divergent thinking aims at many ideas quickly, generated in a <b>random, unorganised fashion<\/b>, and it works by breaking a topic into its component parts to gain insight into its aspects.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Arriving at the single correct answer by applying logic is <b>convergent<\/b> thinking. Divergent thinking is the ability to develop <b>original and unique<\/b> ideas.<br><br>The techniques used to stimulate it are <b>brainstorming, recording ideas, free writing, and mind or subject mapping<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 187,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The technique of translating brainstormed ideas into the form of a visual map or picture is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"free writing\",\r\n      \"recording ideas\",\r\n      \"mind mapping\",\r\n      \"abstraction\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Mind mapping<\/b><br><br>Mind or subject mapping converts ideas already generated into a <b>visual map or picture<\/b>.<br><br>The other techniques of stimulating divergent thinking are distinct from it. <b>Brainstorming<\/b> generates a list of ideas in a creative but unstructured manner, all ideas being recorded. <b>Recording ideas<\/b> builds a collection of thoughts that later becomes a source book. <b>Free writing<\/b> means writing down whatever comes to mind without stopping.<br><br><b>Abstraction (D)<\/b> belongs to a different list \u2014 the problem-solving strategies, where it means solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real one.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 188,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Critical thinking is described as reasonable reflective thinking focused on:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"which skill can be performed with the greatest precision\",\r\n      \"how many ideas can be generated in a short period\",\r\n      \"what to believe and what not to believe\",\r\n      \"how a value system may be built from competing values\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) what to believe and what not to believe<\/b><br><br>It is that mode of thinking in which the thinker <b>improves the quality of his own thinking<\/b> by taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them.<br><br><b>Michael Scriven<\/b> and <b>Richard Paul<\/b> describe it as the intellectually disciplined process of analysing a situation, synthesising two or more pieces of information, applying knowledge, active and skilful conceptualisation, and evaluating information against universal intellectual values.<br><br>Option (B) describes divergent thinking and option (D) the organisation level of the affective domain.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 189,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the stated characteristics of critical thinking?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It is universal in any individual who has once acquired it\",\r\n      \"It is affected by motivation\",\r\n      \"It is self-guided and self-disciplined thinking of the highest quality\",\r\n      \"It comprises a set of skills together with the habit of using them to guide behaviour\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) It is universal in any individual who has once acquired it<\/b><br><br>The stated position is the opposite: <b>critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual, everyone being subject to episodes of irrational thought<\/b>.<br><br>The other three characteristics hold. It is self-guided and self-disciplined thinking attempting to reason at the highest level of quality; it is affected by motivation; and it has two components \u2014 a set of information and belief generating and processing <b>skills<\/b>, and the <b>habit<\/b>, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behaviour.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 190,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are included in the core critical thinking skills?<br>1. Inference<br>2. Meta-cognition<br>3. Interpretation<br>4. Naturalisation\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>The core critical thinking skills are <b>observation, interpretation, analysis, inference, evaluation, explanation and meta-cognition<\/b>.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> Naturalisation is the highest level of the <b>psychomotor<\/b> domain in Dave's classification, at which performance becomes automatic and effortless.<br><br>Critical thinking further calls for the ability to recognise problems, comprehend text with accuracy, interpret data to evaluate arguments, <b>recognise unsaid assumptions<\/b>, draw conclusions and cross-check them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 191,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following steps of the problem-solving cycle in their correct order:<br>1. Forming a strategy<br>2. Defining the problem<br>3. Organising information<br>4. Identifying the problem\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 1 \u2013 2 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>The steps run: <b>identifying<\/b> the problem, <b>defining<\/b> it, <b>forming a strategy<\/b>, <b>organising information<\/b>, and <b>allocating resources<\/b>.<br><br><b>Identification is placed first for a reason worth remembering:<\/b> though it sounds the simplest thing to do, it is not, and it is very common for people to identify the reason incorrectly \u2014 <b>which renders every subsequent effort useless<\/b>.<br><br>The strategy chosen must accord with the individual's mindset, attitude, experience and available resources.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 192,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that the solution of a problem is arrived at suddenly, after some initial effort, through insight into the situation is associated with:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"trial and error learning\",\r\n      \"stimulus-response theory\",\r\n      \"cognitive field theory\",\r\n      \"operant conditioning\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Cognitive field theory<\/b><br><br>It emphasises perception of the <b>total situation<\/b>, the relationship among its components, and restructuring of the cognitive field. <b>Wolfgang K\u00f6hler's<\/b> classical experiments on the chimpanzee <b>Sultan<\/b> led him to conclude that a solution comes <b>all of a sudden<\/b> after some initial effort.<br><br><b>Stimulus-response theorists (B)<\/b> hold the opposite \u2014 that a problem is solved by a gradual process of <b>eliminating errors<\/b> and putting together correct responses.<br><br>Some hold that the cognitive field approach suits problems requiring higher mental processes, and the stimulus-response approach simple problems.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 193,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The concept of a 'learning set', explaining that subjects who first solve problems by trial and error later solve similar problems insightfully, was proposed by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Wolfgang K\u00f6hler\",\r\n      \"Harry Harlow\",\r\n      \"B. Aubrey Fisher\",\r\n      \"J.P. Guilford\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Harry Harlow<\/b><br><br>Harlow put forward this third explanation in <b>1959<\/b>, working with monkeys and with human subjects of low mental ability. His subjects began with trial and error, but on later meeting similar problems for the first time made <b>correct discriminations at once<\/b>.<br><br>His conclusion was that in the earlier trial-and-error learning the subjects had <b>learned how to learn<\/b> \u2014 acquiring a method that transferred positively to similar problems. Generalising, he held that original learning within an area is difficult and frustrating, but that after mastery of the basic facts, learning within the same area becomes simple.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 194,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the listed problem-solving techniques?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Abstraction \u2014 solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system\",\r\n      \"Lateral thinking \u2014 approaching solutions indirectly and creatively\",\r\n      \"Divide and conquer \u2014 breaking a large complex problem into smaller solvable problems\",\r\n      \"Characterisation \u2014 building a value system that governs subsequent conduct\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Characterisation \u2014 building a value system that governs subsequent conduct<\/b><br><br>Characterisation by a value complex is the <b>highest level of the affective domain<\/b>, not a problem-solving strategy.<br><br>The listed techniques are brainstorming, abstraction, assessing the output and interactions of an entire system, lateral thinking, divide and conquer, employing or adapting existing solutions, <b>analogy<\/b>, <b>hypothesis testing<\/b>, synthesising non-matching characteristics into something new, <b>transforming the problem into another for which solutions exist<\/b>, eliminating the cause, and testing possible solutions.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 195,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The four stages involved in all group decision making were developed by B. Aubrey Fisher. Which one of the following is the third of those stages?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Orientation stage\",\r\n      \"Conflict stage\",\r\n      \"Emergence stage\",\r\n      \"Reinforcement stage\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Emergence stage<\/b><br><br>The four stages run: <b>Orientation<\/b>, when members meet for the first time and get to know one another; <b>Conflict<\/b>, when disputes and arguments arise once members are familiar, which they eventually work out; <b>Emergence<\/b>, when the group clears up vague opinions by talking about them; and <b>Reinforcement<\/b>, when members make the decision while justifying to themselves that it was right.<br><br>Note the sequence: <b>familiarity precedes conflict, and conflict precedes clarity<\/b> \u2014 the disputes are a stage on the way to the decision, not a failure of the process.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 196,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the process of decision making, the step that immediately follows the establishment of objectives is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"development of the alternative courses of action open\",\r\n      \"classification of the objectives in order of importance\",\r\n      \"evaluation of each of the alternatives developed\",\r\n      \"making of a tentative decision on the matter\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) classification of the objectives in order of importance<\/b><br><br>The sequence runs: objectives are <b>established<\/b>; they are then <b>classified and placed in order of importance<\/b>; <b>alternative actions<\/b> are developed; the alternatives are <b>evaluated<\/b>; a <b>tentative decision<\/b> is made; and that tentative decision is evaluated and analysed.<br><br>Priority is settled before alternatives are generated, because alternatives can only be judged against objectives that have already been ranked. Where conflict arises, <b>role-playing<\/b> may be used.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 197,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Dimensions of Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, said to be among the five aspects of learning to be considered while finalising curriculum, instruction and assessment:<br>1. Attitudes and perceptions about learning<br>2. Using knowledge meaningfully<br>3. Identifying productive habits of the mind<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are among the five aspects, the remaining two being <b>acquiring and integrating knowledge<\/b> and <b>extending and refining knowledge<\/b>.<br><br>The dimensions-of-learning framework serves three purposes: it provides a process for <b>planning and delivering curriculum and instruction<\/b> that integrates research on effective teaching; it offers a way of <b>integrating the major instructional models<\/b> by showing how they connect and overlap; and it provides a framework for developing <b>research-based teaching strategies<\/b> that engage pupils in thinking leading to meaningful learning.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 198,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Affective Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The affective domain of educational objectives is related to the development of those aspects of personality which are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"confined to the acquisition of factual information\",\r\n      \"more influenced by mind than by heart\",\r\n      \"expressed exclusively through manipulative skill\",\r\n      \"more influenced by heart than by mind\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) more influenced by heart than by mind<\/b><br><br>The affective domain is concerned with the development of <b>emotions, values and attitudes<\/b>, and with <b>interests, appreciation, feelings, likes and dislikes<\/b> towards something.<br><br><b>Option (B)<\/b> describes the cognitive domain, which develops mental faculties and intellectual abilities; <b>option (C)<\/b> the psychomotor domain.<br><br>The affective domain given by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia takes in the manner in which we deal with things <b>emotionally<\/b> \u2014 feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivation and attitudes.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 199,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Affective Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The level of the affective domain characterised by awareness, willingness to attend, and sensitisation of the learner to stimuli is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Receiving\",\r\n      \"Responding\",\r\n      \"Valuing\",\r\n      \"Organisation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Receiving<\/b><br><br>Receiving is the ability, inclination and readiness of learners to <b>receive information<\/b>. It requires attention, awareness, listening, seeing and willingness, and these are described as <b>preconditions of learning, personality development, and the imbibing of culture and values<\/b>.<br><br>Its illustrations are reading newspapers and journals of interest, watching programmes as per interest, listening patiently and attentively to teachers and elders, and having curiosity to learn from various sources.<br><br>The governing rule: whatever you want learners to learn, you must first make them <b>receptive<\/b> towards it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 200,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Affective Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the affective domain, the category represented by interest \u2014 the tendency to respond to a particular object, event or situation \u2014 is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Receiving\",\r\n      \"Responding\",\r\n      \"Valuing\",\r\n      \"Characterisation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Responding<\/b><br><br>Responding requires the learner to be <b>responsive as well as receptive<\/b>, and responding behaviour itself shows that he is receiving or trying to receive. Continuity in attention and motivation leads to its development.<br><br>It creates the way for <b>two-way communication<\/b> and facilitates teaching and learning: pupils listen attentively and then respond, sharing their reflections and experiences.<br><br>Its illustrations are response in class, interaction with teachers, friends and seniors, visits to clubs, libraries and museums, and participation in competitions, seminars and conferences.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 201,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Affective Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The level of the affective domain at which the learner resolves conflicts between absorbed values and constructs a relatively enduring value system is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Responding\",\r\n      \"Valuing\",\r\n      \"Organisation\",\r\n      \"Characterisation by a value complex\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Organisation<\/b><br><br>At this level the learner analyses the various values absorbed from teachers, parents and society, and through <b>synthesis and organisation<\/b> builds an enduring value system for balanced conduct. It leads to a set value structure or <b>philosophy of life<\/b>, and assists in decision-making about conduct in real situations and in forming opinions on major social and personal issues.<br><br><b>Characterisation (D)<\/b> is the level above it, at which the individual's values, attitudes and beliefs <b>build his character<\/b> and shape his philosophy and personality \u2014 a process continuing throughout life.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 202,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Affective Domain \u2014 Verbs\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Category of the affective domain)<br>A. Receiving phenomena<br>B. Responding to phenomena<br>C. Organisation<br>D. Internalising values<br><br>List II (Characteristic verb)<br>1. Recites<br>2. Locates<br>3. Discriminates<br>4. Formulates\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-2, C-3, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3<\/b><br><br><b>A-2 Receiving<\/b> \u2014 awareness and willingness to hear: asks, chooses, describes, follows, identifies, <b>locates<\/b>, names.<br><b>B-1 Responding<\/b> \u2014 active participation: answers, assists, conforms, discusses, greets, performs, practises, <b>recites<\/b>, reports.<br><b>C-4 Organisation<\/b> \u2014 organising values into priorities: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, defends, <b>formulates<\/b>, generalises, integrates, modifies.<br><b>D-3 Internalising values<\/b> \u2014 a value system controlling behaviour: acts, <b>discriminates<\/b>, displays, influences, modifies, performs, solves.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 203,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Affective Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the assessment of affective learning, which of the following are the aspects ordinarily assessed?<br>1. Attitudes and values<br>2. Interest<br>3. Self-concept<br>4. Manipulative dexterity\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>The three aspects assessed under affective learning are <b>attitudes and values, interest, and self-concept<\/b>.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder<\/b> \u2014 manipulative dexterity belongs to the <b>psychomotor<\/b> domain.<br><br>Attitude measurement falls into two basic categories: <b>direct measurement<\/b>, of which the Likert scale is the example, and <b>indirect measurement<\/b>, of which projective techniques are the example. Affective learning also involves <b>internalising a set of values expressed in behaviour<\/b>, and teachers affect a pupil's values by the example of their own conduct.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 204,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Affective Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements:<br>1. Attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience, environment and education.<br>2. An attitude is best described as a permanent trait fixed at birth and unaffected by later influences.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Attitudes change with <b>experience, environment and education<\/b> \u2014 which is precisely what makes them a legitimate object of educational objectives.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717<\/b> An attitude is <b>a state of mind, a feeling or a disposition<\/b>, and a positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, events, activities or ideas. It is not fixed.<br><br>The qualification worth noting is that <b>hereditary variables may also affect attitudes<\/b>, but that is a contributing influence, not a bar to change through education.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 205,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychomotor Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"For the performance of any motor activity or skilled work, the essential precondition stated is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"prior mastery of the corresponding cognitive objectives\",\r\n      \"psychological readiness on the part of the learner\",\r\n      \"availability of standardised equipment in the school\",\r\n      \"attainment of the valuing level of the affective domain\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) psychological readiness on the part of the learner<\/b><br><br>The proposition is stated directly: for any motor activity or skill work, <b>psychological readiness is an essential condition<\/b>. If a person is psychologically ready he will also be mentally ready, and will act towards the desired skilled work.<br><br>The psychomotor domain covers all <b>manipulative skills<\/b> \u2014 typing, painting, drawing, dissecting, preparing food, carpentry, book binding, sculpture, photography, operating a computer or any other machine, and working with tools to produce something.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 206,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychomotor Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following writers who have classified the psychomotor domain:<br>1. E.J. Simpson<br>2. R.H. Dave<br>3. A.J. Harrow<br>4. B.B. Masia\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>The psychomotor domain has been classified by <b>Ragole (1950), Guilford (1958), Simpson (1966), Dave (1969), Harrow (1972)<\/b> and Allyn & Bacon (1994).<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> <b>B.B. Masia<\/b> worked with <b>Krathwohl and Bloom<\/b> on the classification of the <b>affective<\/b> domain in 1964.<br><br>Of the psychomotor schemes it is <b>Dave's (1969)<\/b> that is most often reproduced in Indian syllabi, in an adapted form of five categories.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 207,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychomotor Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the five categories of R.H. Dave's classification of the psychomotor domain in the order of increasing complexity:<br>1. Precision<br>2. Initiation-observation<br>3. Naturalisation<br>4. Manipulation<br>5. Articulation\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 5 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 5 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3 \u2013 5\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 5 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 5 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>The order is <b>Initiation-observation \u2192 Manipulation \u2192 Precision \u2192 Articulation \u2192 Naturalisation<\/b>, arranged by increasing complexity, difficulty and <b>fineness of the skill<\/b> being developed.<br><br>The first category runs in either direction. Where the learner hesitates, <b>initiation<\/b> comes first and must be induced by reward, discussion or appeal to his aspirations; where he has already watched someone perform the skill and is motivated, <b>observation is followed by initiation<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 208,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychomotor Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, said to be performed by the learner at the manipulation level of the psychomotor domain:<br>1. Performing selected steps<br>2. Following directions<br>3. Fixing his performance through necessary practice<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are the stated tasks. At this level the learner, being ready to take initiative, observes how performers manipulate the tools and begins manipulating them himself to copy the skill.<br><br><b>Manipulation and observation work together continuously<\/b> for some time, and it is that combination which produces improvement and leads towards perfection.<br><br>The next level, <b>precision<\/b>, is reached through <b>controlling faults, eliminating errors, and reproducing the desired skill with accuracy and exactness<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 209,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychomotor Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In Dave's classification, the level at which the learner brings novel attributes to his performance in addition to its general attributes is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Manipulation\",\r\n      \"Precision\",\r\n      \"Articulation\",\r\n      \"Naturalisation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Articulation<\/b><br><br>Articulation is the fourth level, at which the performer adds <b>novel features<\/b> of his own to the skill over and above what the skill generally requires.<br><br><b>Precision (B)<\/b> lies below it and is concerned with accuracy and exactness \u2014 controlling faults and eliminating errors so as to reproduce the skill as taught. <b>Naturalisation (D)<\/b> lies above it and is the highest and rarest level, where the act becomes automatic and the performance appears effortless to performer and observer alike.<br><br><b>The progression is accuracy, then originality, then effortlessness.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 210,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Performance Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Performance assessment is a form of testing which requires the pupil to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"select an answer from a ready-made list of alternatives\",\r\n      \"perform a task rather than select an answer from a ready-made list\",\r\n      \"reproduce verbatim the content covered in the preceding unit\",\r\n      \"compare his own attainment with that of the rest of the class\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) perform a task rather than select an answer from a ready-made list<\/b><br><br>Performance assessments are designed to judge the pupil's ability to use <b>specific knowledge and research skills<\/b>, and most require him to manipulate equipment to solve a problem or make an analysis. Rich performance assessments reveal a variety of problem-solving approaches, and so give insight into the pupil's <b>level of conceptual knowledge<\/b>.<br><br>The work is then judged by experienced teachers or trained staff against a <b>pre-decided set of criteria<\/b>. Its most widespread use is the direct assessment of writing ability.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 211,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Performance Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following methods of performance assessment consists of pictorial descriptions of the pupil's past work together with the teacher's evaluation of it?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Open-ended answers\",\r\n      \"Extended tasks\",\r\n      \"Portfolios\",\r\n      \"Checklists\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Portfolios<\/b><br><br>A portfolio usually includes a person's <b>best work along with some work in progress<\/b>, so as to showcase his strengths.<br><br>The other two methods are distinct. <b>Open-ended answers<\/b> require the pupil to arrive at the answer independently after analysis, orally or in writing, no options being given. <b>Extended tasks<\/b> require him to research, draft, revise and produce a well-thought-out analysis, and may take many hours \u2014 resembling an assignment or a project.<br><br>What is common to all three is that the pupil works to <b>instructions and known standards<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 212,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Performance Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following as the three main purposes of performance assessment:<br>1. Diagnostic purposes<br>2. Instructional purposes<br>3. Monitoring purposes<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated. <b>Diagnostic<\/b> \u2014 the assessment diagnoses the pupil's knowledge about solving specific categories of problems. <b>Instructional<\/b> \u2014 a well-crafted assessment can also serve to teach, save that it is standardised and graded. <b>Monitoring<\/b> \u2014 being undertaken at regular intervals, it tracks levels of learning, especially in science and mathematics where it reveals problem-solving skill.<br><br>The method is described as revolutionary because it is <b>not merely about testing but about the learning process<\/b>: pupils think and create the finished product, and in doing so test their own skills.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 213,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Performance Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is a stated limitation of performance assessment?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It may not be suitable for simply testing the knowledge of facts\",\r\n      \"It cannot be used to assess writing ability directly\",\r\n      \"It requires pupils to be graded against the attainment of their classmates\",\r\n      \"It withholds the assessment criteria from pupils until the work is complete\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) It may not be suitable for simply testing the knowledge of facts<\/b><br><br>This is the stated limitation, and it follows from the method's design: it is built to assess how well a pupil <b>applies<\/b> what he has learned, not to check whether he retains it.<br><br><b>Options (C) and (D) invert the governing rules.<\/b> Pupils <b>should not be scored or graded against their classmates<\/b>, and <b>should be provided with the criteria before the assessment<\/b>. Feedback reflects <b>levels of competency rather than comparative scores<\/b>, and the object is to find patterns of appropriate and inappropriate responses.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 214,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Performance Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following skills employed in a performance assessment activity in their correct sequence:<br>1. Employing the information by inferring, sequencing, analysing and synthesising it<br>2. Communicating through presentations, projects and demonstrations<br>3. Obtaining information by researching, compiling and organising it<br>4. Using the information to convince a target group or to present ideas\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"3 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 2\",\r\n      \"1 \u2013 3 \u2013 4 \u2013 2\",\r\n      \"3 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 2\",\r\n      \"1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3 \u2013 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 3 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 2<\/b><br><br>The order is <b>obtaining, employing, using and communicating<\/b> information. The pupil first researches and organises it as the goal requires; then works upon it to create something new; then puts the product \u2014 a flowchart, say \u2014 to use; and finally presents it to others.<br><br>The stated benefits follow from this range: the variety of tasks calls upon <b>different learning styles and skills<\/b>, group work <b>encourages teamwork<\/b>, and success depends on <b>personal habits and attitudes<\/b> such as flexibility, diligence, tolerance and persistence almost as much as on book learning.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 215,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Revised Taxonomy\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The revision of Bloom's taxonomy published in 2001 bore the title:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing\",\r\n      \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook II\",\r\n      \"The Dimensions of Learning Framework\",\r\n      \"A Framework for Classifying Thinking Skills\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing<\/b><br><br>The revision was carried out by <b>Lorin W. Anderson, David R. Krathwohl, Kathleen A. Cruikshank<\/b> and others.<br><br>Because the cognitive categories were altered, the instructional objectives framed for that domain required corresponding change.<br><br><b>Handbook II (B)<\/b> of the original series was the affective volume by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia. The remaining options are inventions built from adjacent terminology in the same field.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 216,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Revised Taxonomy\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs of the original and revised names of categories in the cognitive domain:<br>1. Comprehension : Understanding<br>2. Synthesis : Evaluating<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Comprehension was replaced by <b>Understanding<\/b>.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2717<\/b> Synthesis was replaced by <b>Creating<\/b>, not by Evaluating. Evaluation was separately replaced by <b>Evaluating<\/b>.<br><br>The full set of changes is: Knowledge \u2192 Remembering, Comprehension \u2192 Understanding, Application \u2192 Applying, Analysis \u2192 Analysing, Synthesis \u2192 <b>Creating<\/b>, Evaluation \u2192 Evaluating.<br><br><b>The point that decides many items:<\/b> the revision also <b>reversed the order of the top two<\/b>, so that Creating now stands highest and Evaluating below it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 217,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Revised Taxonomy\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The conversion of the six cognitive categories from nouns into verbs in the revised taxonomy was justified on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"verbs are more easily translated into regional languages\",\r\n      \"thinking is an active process and is better represented by verbs\",\r\n      \"nouns cannot be used in the framing of behavioural objectives\",\r\n      \"the original categories had been found to overlap with one another\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) thinking is an active process and is better represented by verbs<\/b><br><br>The categories of the taxonomy <b>reflect different forms of thinking<\/b>, and since thinking is active, verbs represent those forms more accurately than nouns.<br><br>Some sub-categories were also reorganised and renamed. The clearest case is the first: <b>knowledge is a product of thinking, lower as well as higher order, and did not indicate the level of the category<\/b> \u2014 whereas <b>remember<\/b> does, being plainly the product of lower-order thinking.<br><br>All the changes are said to reflect the nature of the thinking process and its outcomes more faithfully.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 218,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Functions of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, said to be functions performed by educational objectives:<br>1. They allow teachers to select assessment techniques appropriate to what is to be evaluated.<br>2. They help teachers to frame instructional objectives in behavioural terms.<br>3. They help in devising and organising fruitful co-curricular activities.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated functions. The list further includes that the taxonomy <b>motivates educators to focus on all three domains<\/b>; creates a <b>more holistic form of education<\/b> developing the whole personality; makes the individual more useful to himself and to society; develops competencies through which a teacher can <b>design effective learning experiences<\/b>; and takes care of the <b>all-round development<\/b> of the child.<br><br>The through-line is that a classification of ends disciplines the choice of means \u2014 of method, of activity and of instrument alike.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 219,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Guidance Functions of Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the stated guidance functions of evaluation?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Giving educational and vocational guidance after knowing a pupil's strengths and weaknesses\",\r\n      \"Guiding pupils to reduce their level of stress on the basis of anxiety test results\",\r\n      \"Diagnosing personality disorders so that they may be cured or properly controlled\",\r\n      \"Determining the order of merit in which pupils are to be promoted to the next class\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Determining the order of merit in which pupils are to be promoted to the next class<\/b><br><br>Preparing a merit list and taking promotion decisions is a use of <b>summative<\/b> evaluation, not a guidance function.<br><br>The stated guidance functions are: giving <b>educational and vocational guidance<\/b> on the basis of abilities, interests, skills, attitudes, aptitude and values; guiding pupils to reduce stress on the basis of anxiety tests; diagnosing <b>personality disorders<\/b>; helping pupils choose a suitable <b>vocation or career<\/b> and suitable <b>courses of study<\/b>; and counselling them to nurture their <b>life skills<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 220,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Specification of Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The learning competencies to be measured by a test are stated to be most useful in test construction when they are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"stated as terminal performance that is observable\",\r\n      \"stated in terms of the content covered in each unit\",\r\n      \"stated as the aggregate marks to be allotted to each objective\",\r\n      \"stated in the language used by the prescribed textbook\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) stated as terminal performance that is observable<\/b><br><br>Three conditions are stated together: the competencies should be expressed as <b>terminal performance that is observable<\/b>, should include <b>only objectives that can be tested<\/b>, and should be stated as <b>general competencies<\/b>.<br><br>The requirement flows from the opening principle that the competencies measured by a test must <b>faithfully reflect the objectives of instruction<\/b>, which requires those objectives first to be identified and then clearly stated in <b>performance terms<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 221,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Specification of Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In defining objectives, terms such as 'learns', 'sees', 'realises' and 'is familiar with' are to be avoided because they:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"belong to the affective rather than the cognitive domain\",\r\n      \"do not clearly indicate the terminal performance to be measured\",\r\n      \"cannot be translated into the vernacular medium of instruction\",\r\n      \"apply only to the lowest category of the cognitive taxonomy\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) do not clearly indicate the terminal performance to be measured<\/b><br><br>Such terms are described as <b>vague and indefinite<\/b>. The requirement is that <b>action verbs indicate precisely what the pupil is able to do to demonstrate achievement<\/b>, and these do not.<br><br>The test to apply is whether an <b>outside observer<\/b> could tell that the performance had occurred. 'The pupil is familiar with the water cycle' fails it; 'the pupil describes the stages of the water cycle' passes.<br><br>The terms used to describe specific competencies must indicate performance <b>demonstrable to an outside observer<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 222,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Specification of Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Once a satisfactory list of general learning competencies has been identified and clearly stated, the next step is to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"to allot marks to each competency in proportion to the teaching time given to it\",\r\n      \"to list the specific pupil performances accepted as evidence of achievement\",\r\n      \"to select the item formats through which each of the competencies is to be tested\",\r\n      \"to determine the difficulty index at which each of the items should be pitched\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) to list the specific pupil performances accepted as evidence of achievement<\/b><br><br>The general competency states what is sought; the specific performances state <b>what will be taken to show that it has been reached<\/b>. Without the second step the first cannot be tested.<br><br>Two qualifications are attached. It is <b>typically impossible to list all the relevant types of performance<\/b>, and the proportion that need be listed depends largely on the <b>nature of the test<\/b>. Options (A), (C) and (D) all describe later stages of test planning and item writing.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 223,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Specification of Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"With reference to the number of general learning outcomes to be listed for a test, the position stated is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a shorter list suffices for a unit of study, while a more comprehensive list is needed for summative testing at the end of a course\",\r\n      \"a comprehensive list is needed for a unit of study, while a shorter list suffices for summative testing at the end of a course\",\r\n      \"the number is fixed by convention at six, corresponding to the six cognitive categories\",\r\n      \"the number must equal the number of content areas covered by the syllabus\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) a shorter list suffices for a unit of study, while a more comprehensive list is needed for summative testing at the end of a course<\/b><br><br>The number to be used is described as <b>somewhat arbitrary<\/b>, and the list of general competencies may of course be expanded by making the statements more specific where that is desirable.<br><br>The principle behind the rule is one of proportion: a longer stretch of instruction covers more ground and therefore requires a fuller statement of what is to be tested. Options (C) and (D) impose mechanical numbers that are nowhere prescribed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 224,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Cognitive learning is stated to result from listening, watching, touching or experiencing, and is characterised by the fact that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"no motor movement is needed and the learner is active only in a cognitive way\",\r\n      \"motor movement is essential and the learner is active in a physical way\",\r\n      \"it proceeds without any awareness of the surrounding environment\",\r\n      \"it excludes symbols, values, beliefs and norms from its scope\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) no motor movement is needed and the learner is active only in a cognitive way<\/b><br><br>Cognitive learning is the acquisition of knowledge and skill by the <b>mental process<\/b>, and includes the representation of physical objects and events together with other information processing.<br><br><b>Options (C) and (D) are both reversed.<\/b> Cognitive learning is mainly <b>awareness towards the environment<\/b>, which gives meaning to the knowledge acquired; and it expressly <b>includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms<\/b>. After the activity of listening or watching, the information must be processed and remembered.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 225,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Assessment of Cognitive Learning\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In Cognitive Learning Theory, the teacher's most important responsibility is stated to be:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"to help the learner find worthwhile goals that are clear and realistic\",\r\n      \"to reinforce every correct response immediately upon its occurrence\",\r\n      \"to present the whole of the material symbolically from the outset\",\r\n      \"to eliminate all conflicting motives before instruction begins\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) to help the learner find worthwhile goals that are clear and realistic<\/b><br><br>In this theory motivation and purpose are much the same: the learner's goal is the result he anticipates and desires, and <b>the goal controls his behaviour<\/b>.<br><br>The teacher must also recognise and use <b>social and achievement motives<\/b> in school learning, introduce novelty into what is already familiar but not too rapidly, and pace his presentation so as to hold interest.<br><br><b>Option (C) is expressly wrong:<\/b> if a pupil has not advanced beyond concrete thinking, <b>information presented symbolically will not help him<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 226,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Structure of the Domains\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Objective : Domain<br>1. The pupil operates a computer to prepare a spreadsheet : Psychomotor<br>2. The pupil develops an interest in reading about scientists : Cognitive<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Operating a computer or any other machine is expressly listed among psychomotor objectives, which cover all <b>manipulative skills<\/b>.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2717<\/b> Developing an <b>interest<\/b> is an <b>affective<\/b> objective, not a cognitive one. Interest is the tendency to respond to a particular object or event, and belongs to the <b>responding<\/b> and <b>valuing<\/b> levels of Krathwohl's hierarchy.<br><br><b>The verb is the reliable indicator:<\/b> defines and analyses point to the cognitive domain; appreciates, values and develops interest to the affective; and manipulates and demonstrates skill to the psychomotor.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 227,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The lowest level of the cognitive domain is characterised by the fact that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"material is recalled and recognised without any addition or deletion\",\r\n      \"material is restated by the learner in his own words\",\r\n      \"material is applied by the learner to an unfamiliar situation\",\r\n      \"material is judged by the learner against a stated criterion\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) material is recalled and recognised without any addition or deletion<\/b><br><br>Knowledge, the first and lowest level, <b>represents memory and constitutes the recall and recognition<\/b> of facts, concepts, principles, theories and laws. Nothing is added and nothing is taken away \u2014 things are simply recalled and recognised.<br><br>Its standard illustrations are of that order: that the symbol of iron is Fe, that the formula of sulphuric acid is H\u2082SO\u2084, that the laws of motion were given by Newton, and that a magnet has two poles.<br><br>Options (B), (C) and (D) describe comprehension, application and evaluation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 228,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"At the application level of the cognitive domain, the learner is expected to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"break a law or theory into the facts and concepts on which it rests\",\r\n      \"use a concept, principle or law in a new situation and in daily life\",\r\n      \"combine diverse elements so as to create a new pattern or structure\",\r\n      \"translate acquired information and give examples of his own\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) use a concept, principle or law in a new situation and in daily life<\/b><br><br>Application is the <b>unprompted use of an abstraction<\/b> \u2014 applying in novel situations what was learned in the classroom, under concrete and abstract conditions alike.<br><br>The dependence on the levels below is expressly stated: application is <b>impossible without knowledge and understanding<\/b>, and a learner unable to apply what he has acquired shows that he has <b>not understood the content properly<\/b>.<br><br>The standard illustration is that pupils who understand the water and electricity crises act to minimise wastage at home, in school and in society.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 229,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Cognitive Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Category of the cognitive domain)<br>A. Comprehension<br>B. Application<br>C. Analysis<br>D. Evaluation<br><br>List II (Description)<br>1. Making judgements about the value of ideas or material<br>2. Separating material into component parts so that its organisational structure may be understood<br>3. Understanding the meaning of instructions and problems, and stating a problem in one's own words<br>4. Using a concept in a new situation, or the unprompted use of an abstraction\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-4, C-2, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1<\/b><br><br><b>A-3 Comprehension<\/b> covers translation, interpolation and interpretation.<br><b>B-4 Application<\/b> is the unprompted use of an abstraction in a new situation.<br><b>C-2 Analysis<\/b> separates material into parts, and distinguishes facts from inferences.<br><b>D-1 Evaluation<\/b> judges value.<br><br>The two remaining categories complete the set: <b>Knowledge<\/b> is the recall of data or information, and <b>Synthesis<\/b> builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements, with emphasis on creating a new meaning.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 230,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 4: TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Taxonomy of Educational Objectives\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychomotor Domain\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The first category of the psychomotor domain is named 'initiation-observation or observation-initiation' because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"observation and initiation are performed simultaneously by every learner\",\r\n      \"the order of the two depends on whether the learner is already motivated to begin\",\r\n      \"observation belongs to the teacher and initiation to the learner\",\r\n      \"the two describe the same act viewed from different standpoints\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the order of the two depends on whether the learner is already motivated to begin<\/b><br><br>Most learners <b>hesitate to take initiative<\/b> at the outset of a skill, and must be motivated by the promise of reward, by discussion, or by appeal to their desires and aspirations. In such a case <b>initiation is the first step<\/b>.<br><br>Where a learner has <b>already observed someone performing the skill<\/b> and is thereby motivated, he takes initiative automatically, and <b>observation is followed by initiation<\/b>.<br><br>The double name records that the sequence genuinely runs both ways, according to the learner's psychological readiness.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 231,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The definition of validity as the extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Guilford\",\r\n      \"Gulliksen\",\r\n      \"Ghiselli\",\r\n      \"Cronbach\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Cronbach<\/b><br><br>This is the standard formulation and the one most often reproduced.<br><br>The other three are genuine competitors, each having defined validity differently. <b>Gulliksen<\/b> defined it as <b>the correlation of the test with some criterion<\/b>. <b>Ghiselli<\/b> observed that the commonest definition refers to the extent to which a test or set of operations measures what it is supposed to measure. <b>Guilford<\/b> held that in a broad sense validity has to do with the question of <b>what test scores measure and what they will predict<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 232,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation that the validity of a measuring instrument depends upon the fidelity with which it measures what it purports to measure was made by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Frederick G. Brown\",\r\n      \"Anastasi\",\r\n      \"Thorndike\",\r\n      \"Garrett\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Garrett<\/b><br><br>Garrett's definition, given in <b>1959<\/b>, turns on the word <b>fidelity<\/b> \u2014 faithfulness of the instrument to the thing it claims to measure.<br><br>Each distractor belongs to a definition of its own. <b>Thorndike<\/b> held that a measurement procedure is valid in so far as it <b>correlates with some measure of success in the job<\/b> for which it is used as a predictor. <b>Frederick G. Brown<\/b> defined validity as <b>the proportion of true variance relevant to the purposes of the testing<\/b>. <b>Anastasi<\/b> supplied the definitions of content and construct validity.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 233,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the nature of validity:<br>1. Validity is a characteristic of test results rather than of the test itself.<br>2. Validity is a general characteristic of a test, applying uniformly to every ability it measures.<br>3. A test can never be either fully valid or fully invalid.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Validity attaches to the <b>results<\/b> and to the interpretation placed upon them, not to the paper.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> A test is <b>highly, ordinarily or least valid<\/b>; it is never wholly one or the other.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717 \u2014 the position is inverted.<\/b> Validity is <b>not a general characteristic<\/b>; it is used in the measurement of <b>specific abilities<\/b>. A test valid in reference to one objective may not be valid in reference to another, and <b>no single test can be valid for all objectives at once<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 234,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that an intelligence quotient test cannot be valid for measuring achievement in school subjects illustrates the principle that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"validity is always lower than reliability for the same instrument\",\r\n      \"the purpose for which a test is valid must be stated along with its validity\",\r\n      \"intelligence tests are inherently less valid than achievement tests\",\r\n      \"validity can be established only by statistical and never by expert judgement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the purpose for which a test is valid must be stated along with its validity<\/b><br><br>A test is valid <b>only from the standpoint of its specific reference and the realisation of its specific objective<\/b>. To ask how valid a test is, without asking what it is valid <b>for<\/b>, is to ask an incomplete question.<br><br>The same principle appears in the 2022 Vice-Principal paper, where the proposition that a test having validity for one purpose is always valid for another was to be rejected \u2014 <b>validity is specific to a purpose and to a population<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 235,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the mnemonic formula 'Adequacy + Objectivity \u2192 Reliability + Aim \u2192 Validity', the element that must be added to reliability in order to yield validity is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"adequacy\",\r\n      \"objectivity\",\r\n      \"the aim of the test\",\r\n      \"the length of the test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the aim of the test<\/b><br><br>The formula compresses the whole relationship. Adequacy of coverage together with objectivity of scoring produces <b>reliability<\/b>; reliability together with a <b>stated aim<\/b> produces <b>validity<\/b>.<br><br>What the formula makes visible is why <b>reliability alone is never enough<\/b>. A consistent instrument measuring the wrong thing remains consistent. It is the aim \u2014 the purpose the test is meant to serve \u2014 that converts dependable measurement into valid measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 236,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the decomposition of test score variance, the total variance is made up of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"valid variance and error variance only\",\r\n      \"systematic variance and relevant variance\",\r\n      \"valid variance and irrelevant variance only\",\r\n      \"true variance and error variance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) true variance and error variance<\/b><br><br>The first division is <b>S\u00b2x = S\u00b2t + S\u00b2e<\/b>. True variance is then divided again into <b>valid (relevant) variance and reliable but irrelevant variance<\/b>, giving <b>S\u00b2x = S\u00b2v + S\u00b2i + S\u00b2e<\/b>.<br><br><b>The consequence is the point of the whole exercise.<\/b> When error variance falls \u2014 that is, when the test becomes more reliable \u2014 the share of valid variance may rise; but since the remaining systematic variance <b>may be relevant or irrelevant<\/b>, a small error term does not guarantee high validity.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 237,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Reliability\u2013Validity Relationship\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity follows from the fact that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"reliability coefficients are always numerically larger than validity coefficients\",\r\n      \"validity coefficients cannot be calculated for teacher-made tests\",\r\n      \"validity is computed from a single administration whereas reliability requires two\",\r\n      \"the systematic variance remaining after error is removed may itself be irrelevant\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the systematic variance remaining after error is removed may itself be irrelevant<\/b><br><br>Reducing error variance raises reliability, but the true variance that remains splits into <b>valid variance and reliable-but-irrelevant variance<\/b>. A test may therefore measure something with great consistency and still not measure the intended thing.<br><br><b>Garrett's illustration:<\/b> a watch set ten minutes fast shows 10.10 when the time is 10 o'clock. It will do so every day \u2014 <b>perfectly reliable<\/b> \u2014 yet the reading is never valid, because it departs from the standard.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 238,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"An independent criterion is required for determining the validity of a mental test because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the reliability of a mental test cannot be established by any other means\",\r\n      \"the statistical formulae for validity require two sets of scores by definition\",\r\n      \"mental tests are always administered to groups rather than to single individuals\",\r\n      \"the elements measured cannot be seen and are perceived only through activities\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the elements measured cannot be seen and are perceived only through activities<\/b><br><br>The illustration given is that of <b>electricity<\/b>: it cannot be seen, but is known by a lighted bulb or a running machine. Intelligence likewise cannot be seen, but is inferred from what a person can and cannot do.<br><br>It follows that to establish the validity of a test, <b>some activity in the external environment in which the measured element is manifested<\/b> must be found. The criterion is that activity, and it must be independent of the test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 239,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following characteristics of validity:<br>1. It refers to the appropriateness of the interpretation of the result rather than to the procedure itself.<br>2. It is an absolute quality, a test being either valid or invalid.<br>3. No assessment is valid for every purpose.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Validity is an <b>evaluative judgement<\/b> on the interpretation placed on a score, not a property of the procedure by which the score was obtained.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> A test is valid for a <b>particular purpose only<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717<\/b> Validity <b>refers to degree<\/b> \u2014 high, moderate or low. In education and psychology <b>no test is perfectly valid, because mental measurement is relative and not absolute<\/b>. Validity is further described as a <b>unitary concept<\/b> concerned with the truthfulness of the test result.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 240,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"According to the National Committee on Test Standards, the validity of a test is generally established through which three types of validity?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Face, content and predictive\",\r\n      \"Logical, empirical and rational\",\r\n      \"Concurrent, predictive and factorial\",\r\n      \"Content, criterion-related and construct\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Content, criterion-related and construct<\/b><br><br>The Committee's threefold scheme is the classical one, content validity being also called <b>curricular validity<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (C) names sub-types rather than types.<\/b> Concurrent and predictive validity are the two branches of <b>criterion-related<\/b> validity, and factorial validity is Garrett's name for <b>construct<\/b> validity.<br><br>Some writers set out a fuller list of <b>six<\/b> \u2014 face, content, concurrent, construct, predictive and criterion \u2014 but these expand rather than displace the three.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 241,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Content Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Content validity is also known by which one of the following names?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Factorial validity\",\r\n      \"Relevant validity\",\r\n      \"Curricular validity\",\r\n      \"Empirical validity\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Curricular validity<\/b><br><br>It is so called because the content in question is the <b>curriculum<\/b> \u2014 the subject matter and the instructional objectives together. It is also referred to as <b>rational<\/b> or <b>logical<\/b> validity, since it is established by reasoned expert analysis rather than by computation.<br><br><b>Factorial validity (A)<\/b> is <b>Garrett's<\/b> name for construct validity, and <b>relevant validity (B)<\/b> is <b>Guilford's<\/b> name for the same thing. Both are offered here precisely because they belong to a neighbouring type.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 242,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Content Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The statement that content validity involves the systematic examination of test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behaviour domain to be measured was made by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Mosier\",\r\n      \"Gronlund\",\r\n      \"Ebel\",\r\n      \"Anastasi\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Anastasi<\/b><br><br>Anastasi also supplied the standard definition of <b>construct validity<\/b> as the extent to which a test may be said to measure a theoretical construct or trait.<br><br><b>Gronlund (B)<\/b> defined <b>criterion-related<\/b> validity as the extent to which test performance is related to some other valued measure of performance. <b>Ebel (C)<\/b> made the observation that the validity of psychological tests is a misleading characteristic. <b>Mosier (A)<\/b> distinguished four kinds of <b>face<\/b> validity.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 243,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Content Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Frederick G. Brown explained representative sampling in content validity to mean:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"selecting items at random from the whole of the prescribed syllabus\",\r\n      \"selecting items whose difficulty index lies close to fifty per cent\",\r\n      \"selecting an equal number of items from every unit of the syllabus\",\r\n      \"selecting items in proportion to their emphasis or importance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) selecting items in proportion to their emphasis or importance<\/b><br><br>Representativeness is a matter of <b>proportion, not of equality or of chance<\/b>. A unit taught over ten periods should carry more of the test than one taught over two.<br><br><b>Option (C) is the plausible error<\/b>, and it is why blueprints exist: equal numbers from every unit would misrepresent the instruction actually given. <b>Option (A)<\/b> mistakes representative sampling for random sampling, and <b>option (B)<\/b> confuses it with the difficulty index.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 244,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Content Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following steps in establishing the content validity of an achievement test in their correct order:<br>1. Preparation of the table of specification<br>2. Listing the units of subject matter and selecting those on which the test is to be based<br>3. Determining the number of items on the basis of the table of specification<br>4. Determining how much importance is to be given to subject matter and to behaviours respectively\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 \u2013 2 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>The sequence is: list and select the <b>units of subject matter<\/b>; list and select the <b>desirable behaviours<\/b> to be produced through instruction; <b>determine the weight<\/b> to be given to each of the two lists; <b>prepare the table of specification<\/b>; and finally <b>fix the number of items<\/b> on its basis.<br><br>Two lists therefore precede the table, because content in this sense means <b>both subject matter and instructional objectives<\/b>, and the blueprint cross-tabulates the two.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 245,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Content Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Frederick G. Brown identified the chief limitation of content validity as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the impossibility of obtaining expert opinion on test content\",\r\n      \"the lack of quantitative indices summarising the degree of validity\",\r\n      \"its dependence on a criterion measured at a future point of time\",\r\n      \"its inapplicability to achievement tests in school subjects\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the lack of quantitative indices summarising the degree of validity<\/b><br><br>Content validity yields a reasoned judgement, not a coefficient, and there is no number that expresses <b>how much<\/b> of it a test possesses.<br><br>Two further limitations are stated: it <b>cannot be used for ability tests and personality tests<\/b>, and <b>selecting the representative sample is not a simple task<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (D) is the opposite of the position<\/b> \u2014 content validity is described as the <b>chief characteristic<\/b> of achievement tests, whose whole purpose is to evaluate knowledge relating to the content.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 246,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Content Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the context of content validity, subject matter can be used to establish validity only where it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"has been covered within the time allotted in the annual calendar\",\r\n      \"is common to the syllabi of more than one examining board\",\r\n      \"is helpful in realising the teaching objectives and not merely taught in class\",\r\n      \"can be expressed in the form of behavioural objectives at the knowledge level\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) is helpful in realising the teaching objectives and not merely taught in class<\/b><br><br>Content in this sense means <b>subject matter together with instructional objectives<\/b>, and subject matter enters the reckoning only in so far as it serves the objectives.<br><br>The National Committee on Test Standards put the point the other way round in <b>1966<\/b>: in the case of an educational achievement test, <b>the content of the test may be regarded as a definition of one or more educational objectives<\/b>. The test defines the objective; it does not merely sample the syllabus.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 247,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-related Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Criterion-related validity was defined by Gronlund as the extent to which test performance is related to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the difficulty level of the items comprising the test\",\r\n      \"the consistency of scores on repeated administration\",\r\n      \"some other valued measure of performance\",\r\n      \"the theoretical construct the test is designed to measure\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) some other valued measure of performance<\/b><br><br>The definition covers both branches at once. In <b>predictive<\/b> validity that other measure lies in the <b>future<\/b>; in <b>concurrent<\/b> validity it is available in the <b>present<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (D)<\/b> defines construct validity and <b>option (B)<\/b> defines reliability.<br><br>Criterion validity evidence tells us how well a test corresponds with particular criteria, and <b>a test may be validated against as many criteria as there are specific uses for it<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 248,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-related Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The major problem encountered in establishing criterion-related validity is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the absence of any statistical technique for computing it\",\r\n      \"the impossibility of administering the test twice to one group\",\r\n      \"the selection of a suitable and itself valid criterion\",\r\n      \"the requirement that the group tested be homogeneous\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the selection of a suitable and itself valid criterion<\/b><br><br>An appropriate and valid criterion is generally <b>not available<\/b>, and where the criterion is not itself valid, a test built upon it cannot be depended on either.<br><br>It is on this footing that <b>Ebel<\/b> observed that the validity of psychological tests is a <b>misleading characteristic<\/b>, that it is neither necessary nor possible to establish the validity of every test, and that the <b>content or face validity<\/b> of a test is therefore very important and may be relied upon in a greater degree.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 249,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Predictive and Concurrent Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Type of validity : Time at which the criterion data are collected<br>1. Predictive validity : At some future time<br>2. Concurrent validity : Shortly before or shortly after the new test is given<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Frederick G. Brown put it exactly so \u2014 predictive validity refers to situations in which <b>criterion data are collected at some future time<\/b>.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2713<\/b> Concurrent validity is established by correlating a new test with a source of information obtained <b>shortly before or shortly after<\/b> it is given, and shows how far the scores correspond to already accepted measures of performance.<br><br><b>The timing of the criterion is the whole distinction<\/b>, both being branches of criterion-related validity.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 250,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Predictive and Concurrent Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Concurrent validity is stated to be particularly relevant to tests employed for:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"selection of candidates for employment\",\r\n      \"certification at the close of a course\",\r\n      \"diagnosis\",\r\n      \"prediction of success in professional training\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Diagnosis<\/b><br><br>Diagnosis is concerned with the pupil's <b>present<\/b> condition, and concurrent validity is the form that establishes how accurately a test measures present ability or working efficiency.<br><br>Options (A) and (D) both describe <b>predictive<\/b> validity, which provides the most relevant information for tests used in the <b>selection and classification of personnel<\/b> \u2014 hiring applicants, admitting students to college or professional schools, and assigning military personnel to training programmes.<br><br>When new tests are validated against earlier ones, those <b>established tests become the criteria<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 251,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Predictive and Concurrent Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A test of dictionary skills used to estimate a pupil's present ability actually to use a dictionary is an instance of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"predictive validity\",\r\n      \"concurrent validity\",\r\n      \"content validity\",\r\n      \"construct validity\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Concurrent validity<\/b><br><br>The criterion \u2014 actual use of the dictionary \u2014 is available <b>at the same time<\/b> as the test, and the object is to estimate <b>current<\/b> performance on a valued measure other than the test itself.<br><br>The companion illustration makes the contrast: a <b>speaking-readiness test<\/b> used to forecast a pupil's <b>future<\/b> achievement in speaking is an instance of <b>predictive<\/b> validity.<br><br><b>Both are species of criterion validity<\/b>; only the tense of the criterion separates them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 252,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Predictive and Concurrent Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"With reference to the term 'prediction' in predictive validity, consider the following statements:<br>1. In the broader sense it means prediction from the test to a criterion situation.<br>2. In the limited sense it implies prediction over a period of time.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br>Both senses are stated, and the term <b>predictive validity<\/b> is used in the <b>limited<\/b> sense \u2014 prediction across an interval of time.<br><br>The distinction matters because in the broad sense every criterion-related validation is a prediction from test to criterion, including a concurrent one. It is only the <b>time period<\/b> that marks off predictive validity proper.<br><br>The standard illustration is the <b>B.Ed. entrance test<\/b>: entrance scores are correlated with final B.Ed. examination scores, and a high coefficient establishes high predictive validity.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 253,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construct Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Construct validity was termed 'factorial validity' by Garrett and 'relevant validity' by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Guilford\",\r\n      \"Anastasi\",\r\n      \"Cronbach\",\r\n      \"Meehl\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Guilford<\/b><br><br>The three names describe the same type from different angles: <b>construct<\/b> validity emphasises the theoretical trait, <b>factorial<\/b> validity the statistical technique by which it is verified, and <b>relevant<\/b> validity the bearing of the trait on the purpose.<br><br><b>Cronbach and Meehl<\/b> jointly established the concept, holding that construct validity is needed when a test must be analysed as a measure of attributes <b>capable of operational definition<\/b>. Anastasi supplied its standard definition.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 254,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construct Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Cronbach and Meehl observed that in construct validation:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the test alone is validated, the theory being assumed\",\r\n      \"both the theory and the test are being validated at the same time\",\r\n      \"the theory alone is validated, the test being merely an instrument\",\r\n      \"neither the theory nor the test can be validated with certainty\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) both the theory and the test are being validated at the same time<\/b><br><br>The observation records something peculiar to this type. A construct such as <b>anxiety<\/b> or <b>neuroticism<\/b> exists only as a theoretical postulate assumed in order to explain some aspect of behaviour, so a test cannot be checked against it as against an external criterion. Evidence bearing on the test is therefore evidence bearing on the theory as well.<br><br>Construct validation accordingly requires the <b>gradual accumulation of evidence from a variety of sources<\/b>, chiefly during the development and try-out of the test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 255,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construct Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following steps in establishing construct validity in their correct order:<br>1. Framing hypotheses on the basis of those elements<br>2. Verification of the hypotheses<br>3. Determination of the psychological elements underlying test performance\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"3 \u2013 1 \u2013 2\",\r\n      \"1 \u2013 3 \u2013 2\",\r\n      \"3 \u2013 2 \u2013 1\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 3 \u2013 1\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 3 \u2013 1 \u2013 2<\/b><br><br>The procedure runs: determine the <b>psychological elements<\/b> behind performance on the test; frame <b>hypotheses<\/b> on their basis; and <b>verify<\/b> those hypotheses.<br><br>The order is forced by the logic of the exercise. Nothing can be hypothesised until the trait supposed to be operating has been named, and nothing can be verified until it has been hypothesised.<br><br>The rationale is that test scores express the behaviours that underlie success in different fields, and <b>those psychological elements are the basis of construct validity<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 256,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construct Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the methods used for establishing construct validity?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Comparing the scores obtained by different groups of individuals\",\r\n      \"Establishing the correlation of the test with some other test\",\r\n      \"Verifying the result by the technique of factor analysis\",\r\n      \"Submitting the items to specialists for inspection of appearance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Submitting the items to specialists for inspection of appearance<\/b><br><br>Judging items by their appearance establishes <b>face validity<\/b>, which uses no statistical technique and rests on subjective judgement.<br><br>The methods of construct validation are: comparing the scores of different groups; correlating with another test; determining which mental faculties become active in responding to the items; verifying by <b>factor analysis<\/b>; and <b>comparing scores before and after placing individuals in a specific situation<\/b> \u2014 administering an intelligence test to a group before and after training, and treating an absence of variation as evidence that the test measures intelligence correctly.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 257,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construct Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are examples of a 'construct' in the sense used in construct validity?<br>1. Scholastic aptitude<br>2. Mechanical comprehension<br>3. Neuroticism<br>4. Number of items answered correctly\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>A <b>construct<\/b> is an individual characteristic <b>assumed to exist in order to explain some aspect of behaviour<\/b>. Scholastic aptitude, mechanical comprehension, anxiety and neuroticism are all of that order \u2014 inferred, not observed.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> The number of items answered correctly is <b>directly observed and counted<\/b>; nothing has to be postulated to explain it. It may serve as evidence about a construct, but it is not itself one.<br><br>Whenever results are interpreted in terms of reasoning or problem-solving ability, a construct is being invoked.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 258,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Face Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Face validity of a test is determined by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"computing the correlation of the test with an external criterion\",\r\n      \"inspecting the items and taking the judgement of subject specialists\",\r\n      \"administering the test twice to the same group and comparing the scores\",\r\n      \"applying factor analysis to the intercorrelations of the items\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) inspecting the items and taking the judgement of subject specialists<\/b><br><br>Face validity concerns not what the test measures but <b>what it appears to measure<\/b>, and it can be ascertained by <b>merely looking at the items<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statistical methods cannot be used to calculate it.<\/b> Only qualitative statements are possible \u2014 high, low, average or poor \u2014 and the assistance of subject or field specialists is taken to determine what the items appear to measure.<br><br>It is described as the <b>first step in validating a test<\/b>; once satisfied at face, one may proceed to compute a validity coefficient.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 259,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Face Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The four kinds of face validity \u2014 by assumption, by definition, by appearance and by hypothesis \u2014 were distinguished by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Mosier\",\r\n      \"Ebel\",\r\n      \"Gulliksen\",\r\n      \"Adcock\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Mosier<\/b><br><br>Mosier's fourfold division is the standard refinement of a type of validity often dismissed as merely impressionistic.<br><br>Each distractor belongs elsewhere in the same chapter and is therefore a genuine competitor. <b>Ebel<\/b> held that the validity of psychological tests is a misleading characteristic and that content or face validity may be relied upon in greater degree. <b>Gulliksen<\/b> defined validity as the correlation of a test with some criterion. <b>C.J. Adcock<\/b> wrote <i>Factorial Analysis for Non-mathematicians<\/i>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 260,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Face Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A test prepared to measure skill in division is examined and every question on it is found to relate to division. On this basis the test may be said to possess:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"content validity\",\r\n      \"face validity\",\r\n      \"construct validity\",\r\n      \"concurrent validity\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Face validity<\/b><br><br>The judgement rests on <b>inspection of the items alone<\/b>, without reference to any criterion, any theoretical construct, or any systematic analysis of coverage against the domain \u2014 which is precisely what face validity is.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the near miss and is worth separating carefully.<\/b> Content validity also proceeds by expert scrutiny, but it asks the further question whether the items form a <b>representative sample of the behaviour domain, weighted by emphasis<\/b>. Face validity asks only whether the test <i>looks<\/i> right.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 261,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The most prevalent method of calculating the validity coefficient of a test is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the simple correlation method\",\r\n      \"the tetrachoric correlation method\",\r\n      \"the cut-off score method\",\r\n      \"the differential predictors method\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the simple correlation method<\/b><br><br>In it the pupils' test scores are correlated with their scores on the criterion, the <b>product moment<\/b> method being used to compute the coefficient. Where the number of pupils is large, the <b>scatter diagram<\/b> method may be used instead.<br><br>The rule of interpretation is direct: <b>the higher and more positive the coefficient, the higher the validity<\/b> of the test.<br><br>The other options are all recognised methods, but each is reserved for a particular situation \u2014 dichotomous data, selection decisions, or the comparison of criteria.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 262,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"If the validity coefficient of a test against a criterion is 0\u00b750, the proportion of the variation in the criterion accounted for by the test is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"12\u00b75 per cent\",\r\n      \"25 per cent\",\r\n      \"50 per cent\",\r\n      \"75 per cent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 25 per cent<\/b><br><br>The proportion of shared variance is <b>r\u00b2<\/b>, the coefficient of determination.<br><br>r\u00b2 = (0\u00b750)\u00b2 = <b>0\u00b725<\/b>, that is <b>25 per cent<\/b>.<br><br><b>The trap is option (C).<\/b> A coefficient of 0\u00b750 does not mean that half the variation is explained; the coefficient must be <b>squared<\/b> before it can be read as a proportion.<br><br><b>Contrast this with the reliability coefficient<\/b>, which is <i>already<\/i> a variance ratio and must <b>not<\/b> be squared \u2014 the point tested directly in the 2022 Vice-Principal paper.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 263,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The forecasting efficiency of a test whose correlation with the criterion is 0\u00b780 works out to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b720\",\r\n      \"0\u00b736\",\r\n      \"0\u00b740\",\r\n      \"0\u00b764\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 0\u00b740<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> E = 1 \u2212 \u221a(1 \u2212 r\u00b2)<br><br><b>Substituting r = 0\u00b780:<\/b><br>r\u00b2 = 0\u00b764, so 1 \u2212 r\u00b2 = 0\u00b736<br>\u221a0\u00b736 = 0\u00b760<br>E = 1 \u2212 0\u00b760 = <b>0\u00b740<\/b>, that is <b>40 per cent<\/b><br><br><b>The trap is option (D), 0\u00b764<\/b>, which is merely r\u00b2. Forecasting efficiency measures the <b>reduction in the error of prediction<\/b> achieved by using the test, and is always smaller than r\u00b2 for a coefficient of this size \u2014 a useful corrective to over-claiming from a high correlation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 264,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the bi-serial correlation method, the variable that is divided into two categories is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a continuous variable\",\r\n      \"a dichotomous variable\",\r\n      \"a discrete variable\",\r\n      \"a criterion variable\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) a dichotomous variable<\/b><br><br>Bi-serial correlation is used where one variable can be measured in the form of scores while the other permits the group only to be <b>divided into two categories<\/b>.<br><br>The standard illustration is the correlation between <b>mental age<\/b>, which is scored, and <b>social adjustment<\/b>, on which pupils can only be classed as adjusted or maladjusted.<br><br>Other dichotomies given are likes and dislikes, radical and conservative, socially-minded and mechanically-minded, pass and fail, athletic and non-athletic, and drop-outs and stay-ins.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 265,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the limitations of bi-serial correlation:<br>1. It is less reliable than product moment correlation.<br>2. It cannot be applied in the regression equation.<br>3. Its value is strictly confined within the limits of plus and minus one.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Its standard error from the same sample is larger than that of the Pearson coefficient, so Pearson's r is preferable on that footing.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> It cannot be used in the regression equation, nor can its error of estimate be predicted.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 the position is reversed, and this is the third limitation.<\/b> Although an estimate of the product moment coefficient, its value is <b>not limited within \u00b11 and may exceed 1<\/b>, so it cannot be compared with other coefficients. It nevertheless remains suitable for achievement tests.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 266,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chief difference between the bi-serial and the point bi-serial correlation methods is that in the latter:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the dichotomous variable is in fact genuinely discrete\",\r\n      \"both the variables are dichotomous\",\r\n      \"neither of the variables is dichotomous\",\r\n      \"the criterion is measured at a future point of time\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the dichotomous variable is in fact genuinely discrete<\/b><br><br>In bi-serial correlation the underlying variable is really <b>continuous<\/b> and is split into two categories only for convenience. Pupils who answer an item correctly do not all possess equal ability; that ability is continuously distributed, and the split into right and wrong is a rough approximation.<br><br>Where the dichotomy is genuine, the <b>point bi-serial<\/b> method applies. Scoring an item <b>1 for correct and 0 for incorrect<\/b> gives two true classes, and the coefficient so obtained equals Pearson's r.<br><br><b>Option (B) describes tetrachoric correlation.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 267,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Tetrachoric correlation is the appropriate method where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"one variable is continuous and the other dichotomous\",\r\n      \"both the variables are dichotomous\",\r\n      \"more than two predictors are combined against one criterion\",\r\n      \"the criterion is available only at a future point of time\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) both the variables are dichotomous<\/b><br><br>Where both X and Y are dichotomous, bi-serial correlation <b>cannot<\/b> be computed and tetrachoric correlation is used in its place. Under suitable conditions its value approximates Pearson's r.<br><br>The standard illustration is the correlation between <b>schooling and employment<\/b>: individuals are divided into those who have and have not passed high school, and then into employed and unemployed.<br><br>Its three assumptions are that both variables should be <b>continuous, normally distributed and linearly related<\/b> \u2014 the dichotomy being imposed on an underlying continuum.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 268,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a fourfold table used for computing tetrachoric correlation, the coefficient works out to zero when:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the product ad exceeds the product bc\",\r\n      \"the product bc exceeds the product ad\",\r\n      \"the products ad and bc are equal\",\r\n      \"all four cell frequencies are zero\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the products ad and bc are equal<\/b><br><br>Where ad equals bc the angle in the formula becomes <b>90\u00b0<\/b>, and cos 90\u00b0 is <b>zero<\/b>. Equal frequencies in all four cells give the same result.<br><br>The remaining relations follow the same rule: where <b>ad exceeds bc<\/b> the coefficient is <b>positive<\/b>, and where <b>bc exceeds ad<\/b> it is <b>negative<\/b>. At an angle of 0\u00b0 the coefficient is +1, and at 180\u00b0 it is \u22121.<br><br>Perfect positive correlation places all cases in cells a and d; perfect negative correlation places them in cells b and c.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 269,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Multiple correlation is defined as the correlation between scores on one variable and the composite scores on several other tests, those scores being:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"converted into standard scores before combination\",\r\n      \"optimally weighted\",\r\n      \"arranged in ascending order of magnitude\",\r\n      \"corrected for the effect of guessing\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) optimally weighted<\/b><br><br>The weighting is what makes the composite better than any single predictor: each test contributes in the proportion in which it improves the forecast.<br><br>The method is used where <b>more than one scale<\/b> is employed for a hypothesis, and the governing principle is that <b>more than one predictor makes prediction more accurate<\/b>. The everyday illustration is buying a car \u2014 consulting owners, consulting a mechanic and test-driving it before deciding.<br><br>Where the predictors are mutually uncorrelated, R\u00b2 equals the <b>sum of the squares of their separate correlations with the criterion<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 270,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A vocabulary test correlates 0\u00b75 with grade average and an intelligence test also correlates 0\u00b75 with it, the two tests being uncorrelated with each other. The proportion of criterion variance explained by the two together is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"25 per cent\",\r\n      \"50 per cent\",\r\n      \"71 per cent\",\r\n      \"100 per cent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 50 per cent<\/b><br><br>Each test explains r\u00b2 = (0\u00b75)\u00b2 = <b>25 per cent<\/b>. Since the two are uncorrelated with one another, their contributions do not overlap and simply add: <b>25 + 25 = 50 per cent<\/b>.<br><br>The multiple correlation is the square root of that combined variance: \u221a0\u00b750 = <b>0\u00b771<\/b>, written R<sub>1.23<\/sub>.<br><br><b>Option (C) is the trap<\/b> \u2014 0\u00b771 is the multiple <b>correlation<\/b>, not the proportion of variance. The condition that the predictors be uncorrelated is essential; where they overlap, their contributions cannot simply be added.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 271,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A cut-off score is correctly described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the mean score obtained by the standardisation sample\",\r\n      \"the demarcation point used for accepting or rejecting candidates\",\r\n      \"the score below which an item is treated as too difficult\",\r\n      \"the point at which the regression line crosses the criterion axis\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the demarcation point used for accepting or rejecting candidates<\/b><br><br>The method is used for determining <b>predictive<\/b> validity, and is resorted to where the <b>vacancies are few and the candidates many<\/b>. Its aim is the selection of suitable and the rejection of unsuitable candidates.<br><br>Its limitation is acknowledged frankly: since <b>no test is completely valid<\/b> and no single test can measure all the aptitudes and skills of a candidate, <b>some suitable candidates may be rejected and some unsuitable ones selected<\/b>. Despite this it is regarded as a good objective method.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 272,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the differential predictors method, a test is regarded as defective where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"its correlation with two different criteria is substantially the same\",\r\n      \"its correlation with two different criteria differs substantially\",\r\n      \"its correlation with a single criterion is below 0\u00b750\",\r\n      \"its correlation with a single criterion is negative\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) its correlation with two different criteria is substantially the same<\/b><br><br>The validity of a test is judged partly by whether <b>its correlation with two different criteria differs<\/b>. Where a test correlates 0\u00b755 with attainment in social studies and 0\u00b745 with attainment in physics, the criticism is that it fails to <b>discriminate between two kinds of ability<\/b>.<br><br>The criticism is nonetheless described as <b>misleading<\/b>, for two reasons: human abilities and skills are <b>interrelated<\/b>, and achievement depends not only on intellectual and psychomotor ability but also on <b>motivational and personality factors<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 273,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chief objective of the factor analysis method is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"to distinguish psychological elements and characteristics into independent units\",\r\n      \"to establish the difficulty index of each item in a battery of several tests\",\r\n      \"to convert raw scores into standard scores so that they may be compared\",\r\n      \"to determine the optimum length of a test for a given level of reliability\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) to distinguish psychological elements and characteristics into independent units<\/b><br><br>The human mind is described as a complex blending and a large network of many elements, and factor analysis attempts to separate these into independent units.<br><br><b>The basis of factor analysis is correlation:<\/b> where two activities share a common factor, there will be correlation between them.<br><br><b>Spearman's<\/b> argument is the classic instance \u2014 if intelligence were a single faculty there would be perfect correlation across all tasks, and since there is not, general mental ability must be a <b>blending of elements<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 274,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Anastasi defined the factorial validity of a test as the correlation between that test and:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the criterion measure available at a future point of time\",\r\n      \"the factors common to a group of tests or other measures of behaviour\",\r\n      \"the mean performance of the standardisation sample\",\r\n      \"a parallel form of the same test administered simultaneously\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the factors common to a group of tests or other measures of behaviour<\/b><br><br>Factorial validity is <b>Garrett's<\/b> name for construct validity, and factor analysis is the technique by which it is verified \u2014 which is why the definition speaks of factors <b>common to a group<\/b> of measures rather than of a single external criterion.<br><br><b>Option (A) defines predictive validity<\/b> and <b>option (D) the parallel-forms method of estimating reliability<\/b>.<br><br>The credit for developing the technique of factor analysis is given to <b>Thomson (1960) and Burt (1941)<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 275,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Cross validation is correctly described as the process of validating a test by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"administering it twice over to the same group after a suitable interval\",\r\n      \"using a population sample different from that on which it was standardised\",\r\n      \"correlating the score on each item with the total score on the whole test\",\r\n      \"obtaining the judgement of two independent panels of subject specialists\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) using a population sample different from that on which it was standardised<\/b><br><br>It is necessary because validity data may be high or low owing to <b>chance factors peculiar to the standardisation sample<\/b>. A test administered to various samples in a variety of situations is being cross-validated.<br><br>Its three forms are <b>validity extension, validity generalisation and psychometric signs<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) describes the test-retest method<\/b> of estimating reliability, and <b>option (C) the item-total correlation<\/b> used in item analysis.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 276,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Method)<br>A. Point bi-serial correlation<br>B. Tetrachoric correlation<br>C. Multiple correlation<br>D. Cut-off score<br><br>List II (Situation in which it is used)<br>1. Vacancies are few and candidates numerous<br>2. Both the variables are dichotomous<br>3. The dichotomous variable is genuinely discrete<br>4. More than one scale is used for a single hypothesis\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-3, B-2, C-4, D-1<\/b><br><br><b>A-3<\/b> Point bi-serial applies where the dichotomy is genuine, as in an item scored 1 or 0.<br><b>B-2<\/b> Tetrachoric applies where both variables are dichotomous.<br><b>C-4<\/b> Multiple correlation combines several predictors against one criterion.<br><b>D-1<\/b> The cut-off score is a selection device for many candidates and few places.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> A and B are the confusable pair, separated by whether <b>one<\/b> or <b>both<\/b> variables are dichotomous; C and D are fixed at sight.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 277,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Ambiguous statements in test items are said to lower validity, and their particular danger is that ambiguity:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"confuses the good pupils more than it does the poor ones\",\r\n      \"confuses the poor pupils more than it does the good ones\",\r\n      \"affects all pupils to an equal extent\",\r\n      \"affects only pupils attempting the paper in a second language\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) confuses the good pupils more than it does the poor ones<\/b><br><br>The reason is that the abler pupil reads the item closely enough to notice the second possible meaning, and hesitates; the weaker pupil does not see it and answers as though the item were clear.<br><br><b>The consequence for the test is severe:<\/b> an ambiguous item can produce <b>negative discrimination<\/b>, low scorers outperforming high scorers on it. Ambiguity therefore damages validity twice over \u2014 it measures the wrong thing, and it reverses the ranking of those it measures.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 278,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding factors affecting validity:<br>1. Lengthening a test increases its reliability but reduces its validity.<br>2. In a heterogeneous group the validity coefficients are likely to be higher.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> In a heterogeneous group the scores are <b>widely distributed<\/b>, and validity coefficients are likely to be higher. A test may be valid for one group and not for another.<br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2717<\/b> Lengthening a test increases <b>both<\/b> its reliability <b>and<\/b> its validity. A test too short to provide a representative sample of the performance in question will suffer in validity accordingly.<br><br>The unifying principle is the same one that governs reliability: <b>both depend on variance<\/b>, and anything that widens the spread of scores raises them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 279,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Vocabulary and sentence structure too complex for the pupils taking a test lower its validity because the test then measures:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"reading comprehension and aspects of intelligence\",\r\n      \"speed of working rather than power\",\r\n      \"the effect of guessing rather than of knowledge\",\r\n      \"the pupil's familiarity with the examiner's style\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) reading comprehension and aspects of intelligence<\/b><br><br>The instrument ceases to measure the attribute it was built for and begins measuring another. A mathematics paper written in dense English reliably measures reading ability rather than mathematical ability.<br><br>The same principle is stated positively in the definition of usability: <b>a test of reading comprehension should not require mathematical ability<\/b>, validity being the extent to which an instrument measures what it was designed to measure <b>without contamination from other characteristics<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (B) states a different listed factor<\/b> \u2014 inadequate time, which turns a power test into a speed test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 280,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the stated factors that lower the validity of a test?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Lack of clarity in the directions given to pupils\",\r\n      \"An identifiable pattern in the sequence of correct answers\",\r\n      \"Arrangement of items in ascending order of difficulty\",\r\n      \"Cultural influences and socio-economic status\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Arrangement of items in ascending order of difficulty<\/b><br><br>Arranging items from easy to difficult <b>raises<\/b> validity. The defect is the opposite \u2014 <b>improper arrangement<\/b>, where difficult items are placed first, consuming time and confusing the pupil.<br><br>The other three are genuine factors. Unclear directions cause the pupil to misunderstand the purpose of the test; a <b>systematic pattern of correct answers<\/b> allows him to guess more easily; and cultural influences, socio-economic status and social class structure affect scores and therefore validity.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 281,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, said to lower the validity of a standardised test in particular:<br>1. Failure to follow the standard directions and time limits<br>2. Giving pupils unauthorised assistance<br>3. Errors committed in scoring<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated. What they have in common is that the instrument itself is sound and the <b>conditions of its use<\/b> are not \u2014 which is why they are grouped as factors in <b>administration and scoring<\/b>.<br><br>The parallel defects in a <b>teacher-made<\/b> test are insufficient time, <b>unfair aid to individual pupils who ask for help<\/b>, cheating, and unreliable scoring by pupils.<br><br>The moral is that <b>a valid instrument does not guarantee a valid result<\/b>: standardisation of procedure is part of what makes the interpretation defensible.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 282,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The requirement that the criterion against which a test is validated should itself be reliable and free from bias is important because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"an unreliable criterion cannot be correlated with anything at all\",\r\n      \"a test built upon an invalid criterion cannot itself be depended upon\",\r\n      \"the criterion determines the difficulty index of the test items\",\r\n      \"the criterion must be administered before the test in every case\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) a test built upon an invalid criterion cannot itself be depended upon<\/b><br><br>Criterion-related validity is established <b>on the basis of a criterion<\/b>, and if that criterion is not itself valid the tests constructed against it cannot be relied upon either. The defect is inherited.<br><br>This is the point behind the observation that the <b>selection of a suitable criterion is the major problem<\/b> in this form of validation, and behind Ebel's caution that the validity of psychological tests is a misleading characteristic.<br><br>Option (A) overstates the position: an unreliable criterion can be correlated, but the resulting coefficient is depressed and misleading.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 283,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Reliability\u2013Validity Relationship\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements:<br>1. If a test is valid it is necessarily reliable.<br>2. If a test is reliable it may or may not be valid.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br>The implication runs <b>one way only<\/b>. Validity presupposes reliability, since an instrument that measures inconsistently cannot be measuring the right thing dependably. But consistency alone establishes nothing about what is being measured.<br><br>The proposition is expressed in the standing formula that <b>reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity<\/b>, and illustrated by <b>Garrett's watch<\/b>, set ten minutes fast \u2014 dependable every day, correct on none.<br><br><i>Both limbs were tested directly in the 2022 Vice-Principal paper.<\/i>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 284,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Reliability\u2013Validity Relationship\",\r\n    \"question\": \"It is said that the conditions necessary for achieving a high degree of reliability may affect validity adversely. The reason given is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"highly consistent settings reduce the flexibility that validity requires\",\r\n      \"reliability is computed from one administration whereas validity needs two\",\r\n      \"raising reliability necessarily lengthens the test beyond the time available\",\r\n      \"reliability and validity coefficients are calculated by different formulae\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) highly consistent settings reduce the flexibility that validity requires<\/b><br><br>Consistent settings raise reliability by minimising the <b>variation or 'noise'<\/b> in the results. But what enhances validity is <b>flexibility<\/b> in assessment exercises and settings, enabling assessment to be fitted to the learner's context and made suitable for particular groups.<br><br>Insistence on entirely uniform conditions therefore yields <b>minimum flexibility, and may in turn bring down validity<\/b>.<br><br>The tension is genuine and is not resolved by formula \u2014 it is a matter of judgement for the test constructor.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 285,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Reliability\u2013Validity Relationship\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Criterion of evaluating a measurement : Question it answers<br>1. Reliability : Does the same measurement process always show the same result?<br>2. Validity : Are we measuring what we set out to measure?<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br>These are the two chief criteria of evaluation in any measurement or observation, and the questions are correctly assigned.<br><br>The <b>tape measure<\/b> illustrates both. A piece of wood two and a half feet long, measured repeatedly and giving the same reading each time, shows the instrument to be <b>reliable<\/b>; a tape with <b>accurately spaced<\/b> inches and feet gives in addition a <b>valid<\/b> reading of the length.<br><br>Applied to testing: a test whose questions draw <b>consistent<\/b> answers is reliable, and one whose questions draw <b>correct<\/b> responses is valid.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 286,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Usability of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Validity is described as the most important single attribute of a good test on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"it is the only attribute capable of being expressed as a coefficient\",\r\n      \"nothing is gained from an assessment unless it has validity for its purpose\",\r\n      \"it is the attribute most easily established by the classroom teacher\",\r\n      \"it is the attribute least affected by the conditions of administration\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) nothing is gained from an assessment unless it has validity for its purpose<\/b><br><br>Educational assessment should always have a <b>clear purpose<\/b>, and an instrument that does not serve that purpose yields nothing, whatever its other merits. A test may be reliable, objective, economical and easy to administer, and still be <b>valueless if it lacks validity<\/b>.<br><br><b>Options (C) and (D) are both false as stated.<\/b> Validity is among the <b>harder<\/b> attributes to establish, and it is expressly <b>vulnerable<\/b> to defects in administration and scoring.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 287,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Usability of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A reading test that assesses vocabulary understanding, basic sentence comprehension and paragraph comprehension, but is not designed as a comprehensive test of reading ability, is best used:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"as a substitute for a general test of reading ability for the whole class\",\r\n      \"for pupils who score poorly on general testing, to give a finer analysis\",\r\n      \"for pupils at the top of the class, so as to separate the ablest readers\",\r\n      \"as a placement instrument before any reading instruction has been given\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) for pupils who score poorly on general testing, to give a finer analysis<\/b><br><br>The principle is that <b>the purpose fixes the use<\/b>. An instrument covering a narrow band of basic comprehension strategies in fine grain is valid for locating difficulty within that band, and invalid as a general survey of reading ability.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the error the principle is framed to prevent.<\/b> Employing a narrow instrument as a comprehensive one does not stretch its validity; it simply produces an interpretation the evidence will not support.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 288,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Type of validity)<br>A. Content validity<br>B. Concurrent validity<br>C. Predictive validity<br>D. Construct validity<br><br>List II (Basis on which it is established)<br>1. Correlation with a criterion available at a future time<br>2. Correlation with an already accepted measure taken at about the same time<br>3. Accumulation of evidence that the test measures a theoretical trait<br>4. Expert scrutiny of the representativeness of the items against the domain\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3<\/b><br><br><b>A-4 Content<\/b> rests on expert analysis of representativeness, and yields no coefficient.<br><b>B-2 Concurrent<\/b> and <b>C-1 Predictive<\/b> are the two branches of criterion-related validity, separated only by the <b>tense of the criterion<\/b>.<br><b>D-3 Construct<\/b> requires the gradual accumulation of evidence from many sources, since no single external criterion exists for a theoretical trait.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> fix B and C by the words 'future' and 'same time', and the remaining pair follows.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 289,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Instance : Type of validity involved<br>1. An entrance test for a professional course is correlated with the final examination results of those admitted : Predictive validity<br>2. A newly framed short intelligence test is correlated with an established intelligence scale administered at the same time : Content validity<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> The criterion \u2014 final examination performance \u2014 becomes available only <b>later<\/b>, which is predictive validity in its limited and proper sense.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2717<\/b> Correlating a new test with an established scale administered at the <b>same time<\/b> is <b>concurrent<\/b> validity, not content validity. When new tests are validated against earlier ones, those established tests serve as the <b>criteria<\/b>.<br><br>Content validity involves no criterion at all \u2014 it rests on <b>expert scrutiny of the items<\/b> against the domain.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 290,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In an interview held to select a psychologist, candidates are asked questions on cricket, current affairs and the pattern of school education. The principal defect of such an interview is that it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"lacks validity, since its content does not measure the qualities the post requires\",\r\n      \"lacks reliability, since different interviewers would award different marks\",\r\n      \"lacks objectivity, since no marking key has been prescribed in advance\",\r\n      \"lacks usability, since the questions take too long to administer\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) lacks validity, since its content does not measure the qualities the post requires<\/b><br><br>The defect is one of <b>purpose<\/b>, not of consistency. The questions may be put identically to every candidate and scored without dispute, yet they touch none of the attributes the post calls for.<br><br>The same reasoning explains why an intelligence test containing items that <b>arouse a candidate's emotions<\/b> loses validity: the emotional element enters the score and the test ceases to measure intelligence alone.<br><br><b>Contamination by an irrelevant attribute is a validity defect<\/b>, however dependable the measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 291,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A test having a validity coefficient of 0\u00b760 is to be raised to 0\u00b790 by lengthening. If a test of 50 questions must become one of 300 questions, the number of questions to be added is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"150\",\r\n      \"200\",\r\n      \"250\",\r\n      \"300\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 250<\/b><br><br>The length must be increased <b>six times<\/b>, so 50 questions become 300, and the number <b>added<\/b> is 300 \u2212 50 = <b>250<\/b>.<br><br><b>The trap is option (D)<\/b>, which gives the new total rather than the addition \u2014 the stem asks how many are to be added.<br><br><b>The lesson is the same as that of the Spearman-Brown formula in the case of reliability:<\/b> raising a coefficient from a modest base demands a disproportionate increase in length, and the required test is often impracticable. Weak tests are usually rebuilt rather than extended.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 292,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The statement that the term validity refers, in general, to the effectiveness of a test in achieving specific purposes was made by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Stodola and Stordahl\",\r\n      \"Cronbach and Meehl\",\r\n      \"Thomson and Burt\",\r\n      \"Krathwohl and Masia\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Stodola and Stordahl<\/b><br><br>Their formulation is notable for putting <b>purpose<\/b> at the centre, and so anticipates the settled position that a test is valid only in relation to a stated use.<br><br>The distractors are all genuine pairs from the same field. <b>Cronbach and Meehl<\/b> established the concept of construct validity. <b>Thomson and Burt<\/b> are credited with developing the technique of <b>factor analysis<\/b>. <b>Krathwohl and Masia<\/b>, with Bloom, classified the affective domain.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 293,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the expectancy table method, the predictive worth of a test is displayed by showing:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the difficulty index of every item against the number of pupils attempting it\",\r\n      \"the percentage in each score group who subsequently reach the criterion\",\r\n      \"the correlation of the test with every other test in the battery\",\r\n      \"the standard deviation of the criterion scores at each score level\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the percentage in each score group who subsequently reach the criterion<\/b><br><br>Candidates are grouped by <b>decile<\/b> or by <b>stanine<\/b>, and against each group is set the proportion who later succeeded \u2014 a display that requires no coefficient to be understood.<br><br>Two illustrations are given. In one, about <b>70 per cent<\/b> of the highest decile complete the semester against only <b>45 per cent<\/b> of the lowest. In the other, a battery used to select men for <b>pilot training<\/b> shows only about <b>4 per cent<\/b> of those in the ninth stanine discharged for inefficiency, against <b>70 per cent<\/b> of those in the first.<br><br>Prediction may also be displayed by a <b>bar diagram<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 294,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The regression equation is used in validity work in order to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"predict a person's score on one variable from his score on another\",\r\n      \"estimate the number of items required to raise the validity coefficient\",\r\n      \"determine whether the criterion is itself free from bias\",\r\n      \"convert a bi-serial coefficient into a product moment coefficient\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) predict a person's score on one variable from his score on another<\/b><br><br>The prediction is never exact, and the margin of uncertainty attaching to it is expressed by the <b>standard error of estimate<\/b>, which is computed alongside it.<br><br>The two therefore go together: the regression equation supplies the predicted value, and the standard error of estimate states how far the actual value is likely to depart from it.<br><br><b>Option (D) is expressly barred<\/b> \u2014 a bi-serial coefficient <b>cannot be applied in the regression equation<\/b>, nor can its error of estimate be predicted.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 295,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 5: VALIDITY \u2014 TYPES, METHODS AND USABILITY\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Validity\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding factors that lower the validity of a test:<br>1. Test items that are subjective, vague or unclear reduce validity.<br>2. Undue emphasis on speed rather than on power reduces the validity of interpretations in an achievement test.<br>3. Correct answers arranged in a systematic order reduce validity.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated factors. <b>Poorly constructed items<\/b> that are subjective or not objective damage validity directly. Where <b>sufficient time is not given<\/b>, importance falls on speed instead of power, and assessments of achievement should <b>minimise the effect of speed<\/b> on performance. An <b>identifiable pattern of answers<\/b> lets a pupil guess more easily.<br><br>What unites the three is that each allows the score to reflect something other than the attribute being measured \u2014 <b>contamination, which is the essence of a validity defect<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 296,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The definition of the reliability of a test as the consistency of scores obtained by the same individuals on different occasions or with different sets of equivalent items is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Ghiselli\",\r\n      \"Garrett\",\r\n      \"Freeman\",\r\n      \"Anastasi\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Anastasi<\/b><br><br>The definition is notable for naming <b>three<\/b> sources of variation at once \u2014 different occasions, different equivalent items, and by extension different conditions \u2014 and so covers stability, equivalence and internal consistency together.<br><br><b>Garrett<\/b> held that reliability depends on the <b>consistency with which the instrument gauges the ability<\/b> to which it is applied. <b>Freeman<\/b> defined it as the extent to which a test is <b>internally consistent<\/b> and gives consistent results on testing and retesting. <b>Ghiselli<\/b> defined it as the extent of <b>unsystematic variation<\/b> in an individual's scores on repeated measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 297,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the formulation X = T + E used in reliability theory, the three terms respectively denote:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the criterion score, the test score and the equivalent score\",\r\n      \"the observed score, the total variance and the error variance\",\r\n      \"the observed score, the true score and the error score\",\r\n      \"the raw score, the transformed score and the estimated score\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the observed score, the true score and the error score<\/b><br><br>The formulation is <b>Guilford's<\/b>: an obtained score is the sum of a true score and an error score.<br><br>Because reliability is an attribute of <b>testing rather than of one individual's score<\/b>, the more useful statement of the same idea is in terms of variance: <b>S\u00b2x = S\u00b2t + S\u00b2e<\/b>.<br><br>The distinction between the two forms is worth holding: the first describes one person's score, the second describes the behaviour of a set of scores, and it is the second that yields a coefficient.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 298,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the variance formulation of reliability, error variance is said to arise from:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"systematic sources such as genuine differences between individuals\",\r\n      \"the difficulty level of the items comprising the test\",\r\n      \"unsystematic sources such as guessing, recording error and scoring error\",\r\n      \"the correlation of the test with an external criterion\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) unsystematic sources such as guessing, recording error and scoring error<\/b><br><br>The division is between the <b>systematic<\/b> and the <b>unsystematic<\/b>. True variance arises from systematic sources \u2014 the genuine personal differences between individuals \u2014 while error variance arises from chance factors that do not repeat.<br><br><b>Frederick G. Brown<\/b> accordingly defined reliability as <b>the ratio of true variance in a set of test scores to the total or obtained variance<\/b>, written R<sub>xx<\/sub> = S\u00b2t \/ S\u00b2x.<br><br>The more the true variance and the less the error variance, the more reliable the test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 299,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Reliability is described as an attribute of test scores that can be estimated but never measured directly. The reason is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"no group of examinees can be perfectly homogeneous\",\r\n      \"the error score of an individual is always unknown to the examiner\",\r\n      \"correlation coefficients are approximations in every case\",\r\n      \"true variance cannot itself be measured directly\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) true variance cannot itself be measured directly<\/b><br><br>Since the reliability coefficient is the <b>ratio of true variance to obtained variance<\/b>, and the numerator can only be inferred, the coefficient is necessarily an estimate.<br><br>It is on this footing that reliability is spoken of as an <b>inferred rather than an observed attribute<\/b> of test scores \u2014 a point that also explains why several methods of estimating it exist, each resting on a different assumption about where the error lies.<br><br><b>Reliability is further described as a statistical concept<\/b>, referring to the preciseness of a measuring instrument.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 300,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"If the error variance of a test constitutes 20 per cent of the total variance, the reliability coefficient of the test is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b720\",\r\n      \"0\u00b745\",\r\n      \"0\u00b764\",\r\n      \"0\u00b780\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 0\u00b780<\/b><br><br>Since total variance is made up of true variance and error variance, true variance must be 100 \u2212 20 = <b>80 per cent<\/b> of the total.<br><br>R<sub>xx<\/sub> = S\u00b2t \/ S\u00b2x = 0\u00b780 \/ 1\u00b700 = <b>0\u00b780<\/b><br><br><b>The point to hold is that the reliability coefficient is itself the proportion of true variance<\/b> and requires no squaring. Option (C), 0\u00b764, is what a candidate obtains by squaring 0\u00b780 out of habit \u2014 the habit belonging to the <b>correlation<\/b> coefficient, where r\u00b2 gives shared variance. That confusion was tested directly in the 2022 Vice-Principal paper.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 301,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the nature of reliability:<br>1. Reliability is a trait of the test results and not of the test itself.<br>2. Reliability means that the obtained scores will be equal under all circumstances whatsoever.<br>3. Reliability is a function of the length of the test.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Reliability attaches to the <b>results<\/b>, as validity does, and not to the paper.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> It is expressly described as a <b>function of the length of a test<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717 \u2014 the claim is too wide.<\/b> Obtained scores are not equally reliable under all circumstances; the claim is that they will be equal under <b>certain specified conditions<\/b> \u2014 after a stated interval, or on one half of the test against the other. An estimate of reliability refers to <b>a particular type of stability<\/b>, not to stability in general.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 302,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Reliability\u2013Validity Relationship\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following statements regarding the relation between reliability and validity is correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A test of low reliability may nevertheless have high validity\",\r\n      \"A test that is fully reliable is necessarily fully valid\",\r\n      \"A test may be fully reliable and yet not be fully valid\",\r\n      \"Reliability and validity vary independently of one another\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) A test may be fully reliable and yet not be fully valid<\/b><br><br>The relation runs one way. <b>If the reliability of a test is low its validity too will be low<\/b>; but full reliability does not carry full validity with it, and a test may be entirely consistent while measuring the wrong thing.<br><br>This is the content of the standing proposition that <b>reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for validity<\/b>.<br><br>Put positively, <b>reliability paves the way for the consistency that makes validity possible<\/b> \u2014 it opens the door without walking through it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 303,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"It is said that where a test yields inconsistent scores it may be unethical to take substantive action on its basis. The reason is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the test would then have to be withdrawn from circulation altogether\",\r\n      \"the scoring of such a test would necessarily become wholly subjective\",\r\n      \"the same examinee might be classified differently on two occasions\",\r\n      \"no correlation coefficient could be computed for such a test at all\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the same examinee might be classified differently on two occasions<\/b><br><br>A test of high reliability leads to the <b>same conclusion about an examinee on both occasions<\/b>; a test of poor reliability may yield very different scores across two administrations.<br><br>Where consequences follow from the score \u2014 selection, promotion, certification \u2014 the decision then turns on chance rather than on attainment.<br><br>The point connects directly to the <b>standard error of measurement<\/b>: a large SEM means a reported score of 60 may represent a true score anywhere over a wide band, which is why high-stakes selection demands high reliability.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 304,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The reliability coefficient obtained by the test-retest method is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the coefficient of stability\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of internal consistency\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of equivalence\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of rational equivalence\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the coefficient of stability<\/b><br><br>Each method yields a coefficient named after the kind of consistency it investigates, and the names must be kept apart:<br>\u2022 <b>Test-retest<\/b> \u2192 coefficient of <b>stability<\/b>, showing how stable results are over a period of time<br>\u2022 <b>Parallel forms<\/b> \u2192 coefficient of <b>equivalence<\/b><br>\u2022 <b>Split-half<\/b> \u2192 coefficient of <b>internal consistency<\/b><br>\u2022 <b>Kuder-Richardson<\/b> \u2192 coefficient of <b>rational equivalence<\/b><br><br>Measures of stability in the <b>0\u00b780 range<\/b> are generally reported for standardised tests.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 305,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Decision consistency as a form of reliability is particularly appropriate for:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"norm-referenced tests, where a wide spread of scores is required\",\r\n      \"speed tests, where the items are all of roughly equal difficulty\",\r\n      \"criterion-referenced tests, where examinees are classed as masters or not\",\r\n      \"performance tests that are scored by more than one human rater\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) criterion-referenced tests, where examinees are classed as masters or not<\/b><br><br>A typical criterion-referenced test issues in a <b>classification<\/b> \u2014 the examinee passes or fails \u2014 and it is the reliability of that <b>classification decision<\/b> rather than of the score itself that matters.<br><br>Where an examinee is classified as a master on both administrations, or as a non-master on both, the test is producing consistent decisions.<br><br>The approach may be used <b>either with parallel forms or with a single form administered twice<\/b> in test-retest fashion. Option (D) describes inter-rater reliability.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 306,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following reasons offered for internal consistency being a less useful estimate of reliability for criterion-referenced tests than for norm-referenced tests:<br>1. Criterion-referenced tests are designed to have a much narrower range of item difficulty and of examinee scores.<br>2. Criterion-referenced tests are often designed to measure a broader range of content, so that the items are not closely related to one another.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br>Both are stated, and each depresses the estimate for a different reason.<br><br><b>Reason 1<\/b> is the familiar one that reliability depends on <b>variance<\/b> \u2014 a narrow spread of difficulty and of scores yields a lower coefficient.<br><br><b>Reason 2<\/b> is peculiar to internal consistency, which measures <b>how well the items correlate with one another<\/b>. A test deliberately spanning a broad range of content contains items that are not closely related, and the estimate falls accordingly \u2014 without the test being any worse for its purpose.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 307,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Inter-rater reliability is required to be estimated where a test:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"is administered to a heterogeneous group\",\r\n      \"includes performance tasks or other items scored by human raters\",\r\n      \"is available in two or more parallel forms\",\r\n      \"is used to classify examinees as masters or non-masters\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) includes performance tasks or other items scored by human raters<\/b><br><br>Every other method of estimating reliability is intended for <b>objective<\/b> tests, where the score does not depend on who marks the paper. Where human judgement enters, <b>the reliability of the raters must itself be established<\/b>.<br><br>The question it asks is direct: if several raters scored one examinee's performance, would that examinee receive the same score? It thus supplies a measure of the <b>dependability of scores across raters<\/b>.<br><br>Option (D) describes decision consistency, which concerns classification rather than scoring.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 308,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chief basis of ascertaining the reliability of a test is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"factor analysis\",\r\n      \"analysis of variance\",\r\n      \"regression\",\r\n      \"correlation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Correlation<\/b><br><br>The relation between two equivalent or parallel sets of test scores is the <b>reliability coefficient<\/b>, and every recognised method involves correlating two sets of scores \u2014 obtained either from the same procedure administered twice or from equivalent forms of it.<br><br><b>Pearson's product moment method<\/b> is the one ordinarily used.<br><br><b>Option (B) is the near miss and deserves notice.<\/b> Analysis of variance does enter reliability work, but only through <b>Hoyt's<\/b> method, which is one approach among several rather than the general basis of the concept.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 309,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Test-Retest Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the time interval in the test-retest method:<br>1. If the interval is very short, the consistency of results will be inflated.<br>2. If the interval is very long, results will be influenced by actual changes in the pupil as well as by instability of the procedure.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br>Both dangers are real and they pull in opposite directions, which is what makes the choice of interval a matter of judgement rather than of rule.<br><br>A gap of a day or two allows the pupil to <b>remember the tasks<\/b> and respond accordingly, inflating the coefficient. A gap of six months or more is long enough for genuine <b>mental development<\/b>, and the second set of scores reflects a changed pupil.<br><br>The stated position is that <b>the best interval depends largely on the use to be made of the results<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 310,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Test-Retest Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The influence on retest scores of memory, practice and the confidence induced by familiarity with the test is known collectively as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the halo effect\",\r\n      \"the carry-over effect\",\r\n      \"the regression effect\",\r\n      \"the ceiling effect\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the carry-over effect<\/b><br><br>It is also called the <b>transfer effect, memory effect or practice effect<\/b>. Its consequence is that the retest scores are <b>not independent<\/b> of the first administration, so the correlation between them reflects the connection between the two occasions as much as the stability of the instrument.<br><br>The other stated limitations of the method are that <b>testing conditions may vary<\/b> between the two occasions, and that the individual's <b>health, emotional state, mental health, motivation and mental set<\/b> do not remain the same.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 311,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Test-Retest Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A low coefficient of stability obtained by the test-retest method indicates that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the group tested was excessively heterogeneous\",\r\n      \"there is low variable error in the obtained scores\",\r\n      \"there is high variable error in the obtained scores\",\r\n      \"the items of the test were of uniform difficulty\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) there is high variable error in the obtained scores<\/b><br><br><b>Error variance contributes inversely to the coefficient of stability.<\/b> A high coefficient therefore signals low variable error, and a low coefficient signals high variable error.<br><br>The coefficient is read on the ordinary scale of correlation: a perfect positive relationship is <b>1\u00b700<\/b>, a perfect negative relationship <b>\u22121<\/b>, and no relationship <b>0\u00b700<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the opposite of the truth<\/b> \u2014 a heterogeneous group widens the spread of scores and <b>raises<\/b> the reliability coefficient.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 312,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Parallel Forms Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The reliability coefficient obtained by administering two parallel forms of a test to the same group is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the coefficient of stability\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of equivalence\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of rational equivalence\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of determination\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the coefficient of equivalence<\/b><br><br>The method is also called the <b>alternate forms, parallel forms or comparable forms<\/b> method, and is <b>widely used in standardised testing<\/b> because most standardised tests are published with two or more forms.<br><br>The rule of interpretation cuts both ways: <b>where the two forms are virtually alike the coefficient is too high, and where they are not sufficiently alike it is too low<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (C)<\/b> is the Kuder-Richardson coefficient and <b>option (D)<\/b> is r\u00b2, which belongs to validity work, not to reliability.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 313,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Parallel Forms Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following requirements of two parallel forms of a test:<br>1. They must be equal in content, difficulty level and discriminating value of items.<br>2. They must have equal mean scores, equal variance and equal inter-correlation among items.<br>3. They must contain a substantial proportion of common items to ensure equivalence.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Parallel forms must correspond in content, objectives, format, difficulty level, discriminating value, number of items and length, and must have equal means, variances and inter-item correlations.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it states the very thing the method forbids.<\/b> The two forms must be similar in all respects, but <b>there should be no duplication of test items<\/b>. Common items would make the second administration a partial retest and reintroduce the memory effect the method exists to avoid.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 314,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Parallel Forms Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is a merit claimed for the parallel forms method over the test-retest method?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It requires only a single administration of the test\",\r\n      \"It has the least influence of exercise and memory\",\r\n      \"It removes the need for the two forms to be equally difficult\",\r\n      \"It is the only method applicable to a heterogeneous test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) It has the least influence of exercise and memory<\/b><br><br>Because the material in the two forms differs, individual differences of experience and practice do not influence the coefficient as they do on a retest. The method is accordingly described as <b>the amended form of the test-retest method<\/b>, consuming far less time, usable for follow-up purposes, and applicable to <b>speed tests<\/b> as well.<br><br><b>Option (A) is false<\/b> \u2014 the test must still be conducted twice, and a suitable interval is put at about <b>four weeks<\/b>. That, with the difficulty and expense of constructing two equal forms, is the method's chief limitation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 315,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Split-Half Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the split-half method, the first-half against second-half division is regarded as unsuitable because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"it requires the test to be administered on two separate occasions\",\r\n      \"one part would contain the easy items and the other the difficult ones\",\r\n      \"it cannot be corrected by the Spearman-Brown formula\",\r\n      \"it yields a coefficient that always exceeds unity\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) one part would contain the easy items and the other the difficult ones<\/b><br><br>Where items are arranged in ascending order of difficulty, splitting by first and second half produces two parts that are <b>not homogeneous<\/b> \u2014 in effect two different tests \u2014 and the coefficient falls accordingly.<br><br>The <b>odd-even<\/b> split is therefore the commonest method. But it carries a milder form of the same defect, since each even item is slightly harder than the odd item preceding it. The refinement is to alternate the pairing \u2014 <b>1, 4, 5, 8, 9 against 2, 3, 6, 7, 10<\/b> \u2014 so that the two halves balance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 316,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Split-Half Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The reliability coefficient between the two halves of a test is 0\u00b760. Using the Spearman-Brown formula, the reliability of the whole test is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b730\",\r\n      \"0\u00b766\",\r\n      \"0\u00b775\",\r\n      \"0\u00b790\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 0\u00b775<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> r<sub>xx<\/sub> = 2r<sub>hh<\/sub> \/ (1 + r<sub>hh<\/sub>)<br><br><b>Substituting r<sub>hh<\/sub> = 0\u00b760:<\/b><br>r<sub>xx<\/sub> = (2 \u00d7 0\u00b760) \/ (1 + 0\u00b760)<br>r<sub>xx<\/sub> = 1\u00b720 \/ 1\u00b760 = <b>0\u00b775<\/b><br><br><b>The correction is essential and is the point of the item.<\/b> The coefficient obtained by correlating the halves describes a test of <b>half the actual length<\/b>, and shorter tests are less reliable. Option (A), 0\u00b730, is what a candidate gets by halving instead of stepping up \u2014 an error in exactly the wrong direction.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 317,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Split-Half Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following limitations of the split-half method:<br>1. Different ways of splitting the same test yield different reliability coefficients, so the value is not unique.<br>2. Chance error operating on a single administration may inflate the correlation between the two halves.<br>3. It is the method of choice for a highly speeded test.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Both are stated limitations, along with the risk that the two halves may not be homogeneous, and the objection that the coefficient rests on a <b>half-length<\/b> test though it is reported for the full test.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it inverts the position.<\/b> <b>Nunnally's<\/b> caution is that it is <b>particularly misleading to use the sub-divided test method on a highly speeded test<\/b>. On a speeded test the split reflects how far the candidate got, not what he knew.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 318,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Split-Half Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The split-half method is described as especially valuable for estimating the reliability of instruments such as the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"such instruments are always administered to very large groups\",\r\n      \"such instruments are scored entirely objectively against a fixed key\",\r\n      \"such instruments contain items of uniform difficulty throughout\",\r\n      \"such instruments admit neither of a parallel form nor of a retest\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) such instruments admit neither of a parallel form nor of a retest<\/b><br><br>Where neither a retest nor two homogeneous forms is possible, the split-half method becomes the only workable route, since it requires <b>a single administration to a single group<\/b>.<br><br>The same reasoning makes it suitable for computing the reliability of <b>aptitude and interest<\/b> inventories.<br><br>Its second merit follows from the same feature: because the two parts are taken at the same sitting, there is <b>no influence of time interval, practice or memory<\/b> on the scores.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 319,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Kuder-Richardson Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The method of rational equivalence for estimating reliability was presented by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Thomson and Burt\",\r\n      \"Stodola and Stordahl\",\r\n      \"Cronbach and Meehl\",\r\n      \"Kuder and Richardson\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Kuder and Richardson<\/b><br><br>The method requires the test to be administered <b>only once<\/b>, and estimates reliability from the correlation among the items themselves. The coefficient it yields is accordingly called the <b>coefficient of internal consistency<\/b>, or the coefficient of <b>rational equivalence<\/b>.<br><br>Two quantities carry the method: the <b>inter-correlation of the items<\/b> and the <b>correlation of each item with the whole test<\/b>.<br><br>The other pairs belong elsewhere \u2014 Stodola and Stordahl to definitions of reliability and validity, Cronbach and Meehl to construct validity, Thomson and Burt to factor analysis.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 320,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Kuder-Richardson Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chief assumption underlying the application of the Kuder-Richardson formula is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the items are arranged in ascending order of difficulty\",\r\n      \"the group tested is homogeneous in ability\",\r\n      \"the test is administered on two separate occasions\",\r\n      \"all the items included in the test are homogeneous\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) all the items included in the test are homogeneous<\/b><br><br>Unless the items are homogeneous the coefficient will be <b>lower than that given by the split-half method<\/b>. The assumption entails that a test carry the same type of question throughout, since all the items aim at the elements influencing a single ability.<br><br>The illustration given is exact: a test of <b>multiplication alone<\/b> has greater inter-item consistency than one mixing addition, subtraction, division and multiplication, because in the mixed test a score of 10 does not disclose <b>which<\/b> operation the pupil has mastered.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 321,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Kuder-Richardson Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Cronbach's conclusion of 1951 regarding the Kuder-Richardson coefficient was that it is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"wholly unaffected by the homogeneity of the items making up the test\",\r\n      \"the mean of all the split-half coefficients obtainable from a test\",\r\n      \"always equal to the coefficient of stability computed for that test\",\r\n      \"the highest of all the split-half coefficients obtainable from a test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the mean of all the split-half coefficients obtainable from a test<\/b><br><br>Cronbach established the result mathematically, and it disposes neatly of the split-half method's chief defect \u2014 that different splits give different values and the coefficient has <b>no unique value<\/b>.<br><br>The conclusion carries a rider that is part of the same statement: <b>unless the test items are highly homogeneous, the K-R coefficient will be lower than the split-half reliability<\/b>. The two are equal only where the homogeneity assumption holds.<br><br><b>Option (A) contradicts that rider directly.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 322,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Kuder-Richardson Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"An objective test of 100 items yields a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10. Using the KR-21 formula, the reliability coefficient of the test is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b725\",\r\n      \"0\u00b750\",\r\n      \"0\u00b776\",\r\n      \"0\u00b784\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 0\u00b776<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> r<sub>tt<\/sub> = [n \u03c3\u00b2 \u2212 M(n \u2212 M)] \/ [\u03c3\u00b2 (n \u2212 1)]<br><br><b>Substituting n = 100, M = 50, \u03c3 = 10:<\/b><br>Numerator = (100 \u00d7 100) \u2212 50(100 \u2212 50) = 10,000 \u2212 2,500 = <b>7,500<\/b><br>Denominator = 100 \u00d7 99 = <b>9,900<\/b><br>r<sub>tt<\/sub> = 7,500 \/ 9,900 = <b>0\u00b776<\/b><br><br><b>KR-21 requires only the mean, the standard deviation and the number of items<\/b>, which is why it is used for a quick estimate from a single administration \u2014 unlike KR-20, which needs the p and q values of every item.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 323,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Kuder-Richardson Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the Kuder-Richardson formula, the quantity \u03a3pq is obtained by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"multiplying the proportion passing each item by the proportion failing it\",\r\n      \"summing the proportions of pupils passing each of the items in the test\",\r\n      \"multiplying the number of items by the variance of the total test scores\",\r\n      \"dividing the number of correct responses by the total number of examinees\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) multiplying the proportion passing each item by the proportion failing it<\/b><br><br>For every item the proportion answering correctly is <b>p<\/b> and the proportion answering incorrectly is <b>q = 1 \u2212 p<\/b>. Their product pq is computed item by item and the products are then added to give <b>\u03a3pq<\/b>.<br><br>The standard deviation of the total scores is computed separately and squared, and the two quantities are entered in the formula.<br><br>The quantity pq is at its maximum where p = 0\u00b750, which is why <b>item difficulty near the middle contributes most to the variance<\/b> the formula works upon.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 324,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Kuder-Richardson Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is a stated limitation of the Kuder-Richardson method?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It assumes equal difficulty for all items, which is unattainable in practice\",\r\n      \"It requires the test to be administered twice over to the very same group\",\r\n      \"It cannot be applied at all where the items of the test are homogeneous\",\r\n      \"It yields a coefficient higher than that given by every other method\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) It assumes equal difficulty for all items, which is unattainable in practice<\/b><br><br>The other stated limitations are that the coefficient obtained is <b>somewhat lower<\/b> than that given by other methods, and that the method <b>cannot be used for speed tests<\/b>, the parts of such a test not being independent.<br><br><b>Options (B) and (C) invert its two defining features.<\/b> The whole merit of the method is that it needs <b>only one administration<\/b>, saving time and energy, and it is precisely for <b>homogeneous<\/b> tests that it is most useful.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 325,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Hoyt's Method\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In Hoyt's analysis, the total observed variation in test scores is made up of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"true variance and error variance, taken together and no more\",\r\n      \"true and intra-individual differences and error inter-individual differences\",\r\n      \"item variance and rater variance, taken together and no more\",\r\n      \"systematic variance, relevant variance and irrelevant variance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) true and intra-individual differences and error inter-individual differences<\/b><br><br>Hoyt's contribution, made in <b>1941<\/b>, was to insist that the deviations in a person's performance <b>from one item to another are not errors<\/b> but real differences \u2014 what he called <b>intra-individual differences<\/b>, measured by item variance.<br><br>The classical two-way split therefore becomes a three-way one, and the reliability coefficient is computed by an <b>analysis of variance<\/b> approach.<br><br><b>Option (D) belongs to validity theory<\/b>, where true variance is divided into relevant and irrelevant parts.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 326,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Inter-rater Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where raters identify a category for each observation, inter-rater reliability may be computed as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the correlation between the total scores awarded by the raters\",\r\n      \"the percentage of agreement among the raters\",\r\n      \"the ratio of true variance to obtained variance\",\r\n      \"the mean of all possible split-half coefficients\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the percentage of agreement among the raters<\/b><br><br>Where raters agree on <b>7 occasions out of 10<\/b>, the test is said to have a <b>70 per cent<\/b> inter-rater reliability rate.<br><br>The alternative approach is the one in option (A): each rater scores each item, commonly on a scale of 1 to 10, and the <b>correlations between any two ratings<\/b> are computed. Both are legitimate; the stem specifies the categorical case.<br><br>Where the raters disagree, the inference is that <b>either the raters need retraining or the scale is defective<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 327,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Inter-rater Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The tendency of a rater to rate in the direction of what he expects is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"rater's bias\",\r\n      \"central tendency bias\",\r\n      \"acquiescence bias\",\r\n      \"social desirability bias\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Rater's bias<\/b><br><br>It may enter at any stage \u2014 when the test is carried out, when the results are interpreted, when they are recorded, and when they are presented. A further discrepancy may arise in <b>rounding off<\/b>, one rater taking the higher and another the lower digit after the decimal.<br><br>The remaining three options are the biases that afflict <b>Likert-type attitude scales<\/b>, and they attach to the <b>respondent<\/b> rather than to the rater \u2014 reluctance to express strong feeling, a felt obligation to agree, and the wish to preserve one's self-image.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 328,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Inter-rater Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following limitations of the inter-rater method:<br>1. Separate statistics must be calculated for every item and every pair of raters.<br>2. A forced consensus among trained raters may render the ratings inaccurate.<br>3. The resulting estimates may be too conservative where two raters differ in the method used on the rating scale.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with the observation that training raters to an exact agreement is a <b>lengthy and difficult<\/b> task.<br><br><b>Statement 2 repays attention<\/b>, because it names a genuine trap: forcing agreement is described as <b>a threat to the validity of the pupil's scores<\/b>. Consensus secured by pressure raises the reliability coefficient while making the ratings less true \u2014 a clear instance of the general tension between the two qualities.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 329,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where the scores of a sub-test and of the whole test are separately computed, the reliability of the whole test is invariably higher because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the whole test contains more items and so represents the content better\",\r\n      \"the whole test is administered under more favourable conditions\",\r\n      \"the sub-test is scored by a different examiner in every case\",\r\n      \"the sub-test is drawn from a narrower age range of pupils\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the whole test contains more items and so represents the content better<\/b><br><br>There is a <b>positive correlation between the number of items and reliability<\/b>: the more items the test contains, the greater is its reliability, because a larger sample of behaviour averages out chance factors.<br><br>The same principle is quantified by the <b>Spearman-Brown prophecy formula<\/b>, and it explains why the split-half coefficient must be stepped up before being reported for the full test.<br><br>Options (B), (C) and (D) name conditions that are not entailed by the comparison at all.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 330,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Under the head 'construction of the test', which one of the following raises the reliability of a test?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A greater number of alternative responses to each item\",\r\n      \"A greater degree of interdependence among the items\",\r\n      \"A greater reliance on the examiner's judgement in scoring\",\r\n      \"A greater concentration of items at the extremes of difficulty\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A greater number of alternative responses to each item<\/b><br><br><b>More alternatives increase reliability<\/b>, because they reduce the chance of a correct response arriving by guessing, and guessing is a source of error variance.<br><br>The factors grouped under construction of the test are the <b>nature of the items, their difficulty level, the objectivity of scoring, item interdependence and the number of alternative responses<\/b>.<br><br>Option (C) works the other way \u2014 subjectivity of the examiner is separately listed among the factors that <b>lower<\/b> reliability, along with clerical error, the interval between testings and the effect of practice.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 331,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding factors affecting reliability:<br>1. Complicated test instructions reduce the consistency of scores.<br>2. Greater opportunity for guessing yields less reliable results.<br>3. Variation in the physical conditions of testing from one centre to another affects reliability.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated factors, and each operates through the same mechanism \u2014 the introduction of <b>error variance<\/b>.<br><br><b>Instructions<\/b> that are difficult to follow cause the pupil to respond in the wrong way, so that the score records his misunderstanding rather than his ability. <b>Guessing<\/b> paves the way for increased error variance. <b>Testing conditions<\/b> that differ across places produce differences in score attributable to the setting rather than to the candidate.<br><br>The physical conditions and the environmental factors surrounding the test-taker both count.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 332,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the factors listed as affecting the reliability of an assessment?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The phrasing and terminology of the questions\",\r\n      \"The moderation of the marking procedures\",\r\n      \"The readiness of the pupils at the time of assessment\",\r\n      \"The number of parallel forms in which the test is published\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) The number of parallel forms in which the test is published<\/b><br><br>The number of forms available bears on <b>which method<\/b> of estimating reliability can be used, not on how reliable the instrument is.<br><br>The stated factors are the <b>length<\/b> of the assessment, the <b>suitability<\/b> of the questions for the pupils assessed, the <b>phrasing and terminology<\/b> of the questions, the <b>consistency of administration<\/b> including time allowed and instructions given, the <b>design of the marking schedule and moderation<\/b> of marking, and the <b>readiness of the pupils<\/b> \u2014 a hot afternoon or a period straight after physical activity being poor occasions for assessment.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 333,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that no assessment result can be completely reliable carries which one of the following practical implications?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Assessment results should not be reported to parents at all\",\r\n      \"Educators should always be prepared to question the results obtained\",\r\n      \"Only standardised tests should be used for classroom decisions\",\r\n      \"Reliability coefficients should not be computed for teacher-made tests\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Educators should always be prepared to question the results obtained<\/b><br><br>There is <b>always some random variation<\/b> that may affect an assessment, so no result is beyond challenge.<br><br>The positive side of the same proposition is that where results <b>are<\/b> reliable, one may be confident that repeated or equivalent assessments would give consistent results \u2014 which puts the teacher in a better position to make <b>generalised statements about a pupil's level of achievement<\/b>. That confidence matters most precisely where decisions about teaching are being taken, or where results are being reported to pupils and parents.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 334,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Speed and Power Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that a test does not become a speed test merely by the specification of a time limit rests on the reasoning that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a speed test must contain items graded in order of their difficulty\",\r\n      \"if all pupils finish within the limit, no pupil has reason to hasten\",\r\n      \"a time limit is prescribed for power tests just as for speed tests\",\r\n      \"speed cannot be measured on any scale higher than the ordinal scale\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) if all pupils finish within the limit, no pupil has reason to hasten<\/b><br><br>The argument has a second limb of equal force: where a pupil is <b>unable to finish at all<\/b>, it is not possible to measure his speed accurately either. A limit that binds no one measures nothing, and a limit that defeats a candidate measures the wrong thing.<br><br>The distinction matters for the choice of method. <b>Split-half and Kuder-Richardson estimates are unsuitable for speeded tests<\/b>, whereas the <b>parallel forms<\/b> method may be used for them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 335,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Method of estimating reliability)<br>A. Test-retest<br>B. Parallel forms<br>C. Split-half<br>D. Kuder-Richardson<br><br>List II (Requirement of the method)<br>1. A single administration, the items being scored in two equivalent parts<br>2. Two administrations of two equivalent instruments to the same group<br>3. A single administration, the items being required to be homogeneous<br>4. Two administrations of the same instrument to the same group\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3<\/b><br><br>The four are separated by two questions: <b>how many administrations<\/b>, and <b>how many instruments<\/b>.<br><br><b>A-4<\/b> Test-retest \u2014 one instrument, two administrations.<br><b>B-2<\/b> Parallel forms \u2014 two instruments, two administrations.<br><b>C-1<\/b> Split-half \u2014 one instrument, one administration, scored in halves.<br><b>D-3<\/b> Kuder-Richardson \u2014 one instrument, one administration, no splitting, but the items must be homogeneous.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> fix A and B by the number of instruments; C and D are then separated by whether the test is split.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 336,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Method of estimating reliability : Type of consistency it establishes<br>1. Parallel forms method : Equivalence<br>2. Split-half method : Stability over time<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Pair 1 \u2713<\/b> Two equivalent instruments administered to the same group establish <b>equivalence<\/b>.<br><br><b>Pair 2 \u2717<\/b> The split-half method establishes <b>internal consistency<\/b>, not stability. Since both halves are taken at one sitting, no interval of time is involved, and the method can say nothing about whether the scores would hold up on another occasion.<br><br><b>Stability over time is established by the test-retest method alone<\/b>, which is why its coefficient is named the coefficient of stability. Reading the name of the coefficient tells you what the method can and cannot certify.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 337,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The objectivity of a test can be increased by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"using objective-type items and scoring against model answers\",\r\n      \"increasing the time allowed for the completion of the whole paper\",\r\n      \"arranging the items in descending order of their difficulty level\",\r\n      \"restricting the test to a single stated instructional objective\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) using objective-type items and scoring against model answers<\/b><br><br>A test is objective where it is <b>free from personal bias both in interpreting its scope and in scoring the responses<\/b>, and the two remedies attack the two halves of that requirement: objective-type items settle what counts as a correct response, and model answers settle how it is to be marked.<br><br>Options (B), (C) and (D) touch other qualities altogether \u2014 the speed-power balance, the arrangement of items, and comprehensiveness \u2014 none of which bears on who is doing the marking.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 338,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The characteristic of a good test requiring that the setter should have a definite idea of the purpose behind each item, the test being built on pre-determined objectives, is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"comprehensiveness\",\r\n      \"objective basedness\",\r\n      \"comparability\",\r\n      \"scorability\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Objective basedness<\/b><br><br>Objective basedness is not the same as <b>objectivity<\/b>, and the two are easily confused. Objectivity concerns freedom from bias in <b>scoring<\/b>; objective basedness concerns whether each item was written to serve a <b>stated instructional objective<\/b>.<br><br><b>Comprehensiveness (A)<\/b> is a separate quality, requiring that the test cover the <b>whole syllabus<\/b>, give due importance to all the relevant learning material, and cover <b>all the anticipated objectives<\/b>.<br><br><b>Scorability (D)<\/b> means that each item carries its own mark within the distribution of marks.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 339,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The discriminating power of a test is its power to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"distinguish between the upper and lower groups among those who took it\",\r\n      \"distinguish between the objectives that each item is meant to serve\",\r\n      \"distinguish between the scholastic and the co-scholastic areas of attainment\",\r\n      \"distinguish between candidates of different age groups\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) distinguish between the upper and lower groups among those who took it<\/b><br><br>For a test to exercise that power, <b>it must contain questions of differing difficulty levels<\/b>. A paper pitched uniformly high or uniformly low separates nobody, because everyone succeeds or everyone fails.<br><br>The requirement links this characteristic to reliability, since both depend on a spread of scores: items of moderate difficulty maximise variance, and <b>items that are too easy or too difficult fail to distinguish good pupils from weak ones<\/b> and so lower reliability as well.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 340,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The simplicity of a test, as a characteristic of a good test, requires that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the content be restricted to the lower levels of the cognitive domain\",\r\n      \"the test be written in clear, correct and simple language, free from ambiguity\",\r\n      \"the number of items be kept to the minimum consistent with coverage\",\r\n      \"the marks allotted to each item be equal throughout the paper\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the test be written in clear, correct and simple language, free from ambiguity<\/b><br><br>The requirement extends to the <b>instructions<\/b> as well as to the questions: ambiguous questions and ambiguous directions are both to be avoided. The governing principle is that the <b>method of testing should be kept as simple as possible while still testing the skill intended<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the misreading the item is set to catch.<\/b> Simplicity concerns the <b>language<\/b> of the paper, not the intellectual level of what is asked; a question at the evaluation level should still be plainly worded.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 341,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, said to determine the practicability of a test:<br>1. Administrative ease<br>2. Scoring ease<br>3. Interpretative ease<br>4. Predictive efficiency\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>Practicability rests on <b>administrative ease, scoring ease, interpretative ease and economy<\/b> \u2014 four considerations of convenience and cost.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> Predictive efficiency is a measure of how far test scores forecast a criterion, and belongs to <b>validity<\/b> rather than to practicability. A test may be extremely convenient to run and forecast nothing at all.<br><br>The distinction is the standing one: practicability asks whether the test <i>can<\/i> be used, validity whether it is <i>worth<\/i> using.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 342,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A test is said to possess utility where it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"yields consistent scores on repeated administration to the same group\",\r\n      \"provides the conditions that facilitate realisation of its purpose\",\r\n      \"covers the whole of the prescribed syllabus in due proportion\",\r\n      \"can be interpreted against a common base of accepted meaning\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) provides the conditions that facilitate realisation of its purpose<\/b><br><br>Utility is a distinct heading in the list of characteristics, and turns on whether the <b>conditions of testing<\/b> allow the instrument to do the work it was built for.<br><br>The three distractors each name a different characteristic and are offered on that footing: <b>(A) reliability<\/b>, <b>(C) comprehensiveness<\/b>, and <b>(D) comparability<\/b>, the last being established either by an equivalent parallel form or by adequate norms.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 343,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the four essential qualities of a good measuring instrument?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Objectivity\",\r\n      \"Reliability\",\r\n      \"Validity\",\r\n      \"Standardisation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Standardisation<\/b><br><br>The four essential qualities are <b>objectivity, reliability, validity and practicability<\/b>.<br><br>Standardisation appears on the longer list of <b>aspects affecting<\/b> the characteristics of a good test \u2014 along with comprehensiveness and preciseness, administration, economy, availability, appearance and norms \u2014 but it is not one of the four essentials. A teacher-made classroom test is not standardised, yet may be objective, reliable, valid and practicable.<br><br><b>Practicability<\/b> means usefulness in terms of time, energy and resources, and ease of administration.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 344,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Characteristic of a good test)<br>A. Objectivity<br>B. Comprehensiveness<br>C. Discriminating power<br>D. Scorability<br><br>List II (What it requires)<br>1. That the test contain questions of differing difficulty levels<br>2. That each item carry its own mark within the distribution of marks<br>3. That the test be free from personal bias in interpretation and in scoring<br>4. That the test cover the whole syllabus and all the anticipated objectives\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2<\/b><br><br><b>A-3 Objectivity<\/b> concerns freedom from bias, both in reading the item and in marking it.<br><b>B-4 Comprehensiveness<\/b> concerns coverage of syllabus and objectives.<br><b>C-1 Discriminating power<\/b> concerns the spread of difficulty, without which no separation of the upper and lower groups is possible.<br><b>D-2 Scorability<\/b> concerns the allocation of marks item by item.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> C is fixed at sight by the word 'difficulty', and D by the word 'mark', leaving only A and B to be separated.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 345,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements:<br>1. Objectivity of scoring contributes to the reliability of a test.<br>2. A test that is objective is thereby also a valid test.<br>3. Reliability paves the way for the consistency that makes validity possible.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Objectivity of scoring is expressly listed among the factors under 'construction of the test' that affect reliability, and objective-type items with model answers are the recommended means of securing it.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2713<\/b> Reliability paves the way for the consistency that makes validity possible and identifies the degree to which generalisations are justifiable.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717<\/b> A paper of wholly irrelevant questions, marked against a fixed key, is <b>perfectly objective and entirely invalid<\/b>. Objectivity supports reliability, and reliability is necessary for validity \u2014 but neither link runs backwards.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 346,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of a Good Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the context of establishing the reliability of a teacher-made achievement test, which method would be most suitable where no parallel form exists and the test cannot be administered a second time?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Test-retest method\",\r\n      \"Parallel forms method\",\r\n      \"Split-half method\",\r\n      \"Inter-rater method\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Split-half method<\/b><br><br>The split-half method needs <b>one administration of one instrument<\/b>, and is expressly described as the most suitable where a retest is not possible and two parallel or homogeneous forms cannot be prepared.<br><br><b>Options (A) and (B) are ruled out by the terms of the stem itself<\/b>, each requiring something the stem denies.<br><br><b>Option (D) is the more interesting distractor.<\/b> Inter-rater reliability also needs only one administration, but it is meant for instruments scored by human judgement, not for an objectively scored achievement test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 347,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Stodola and Stordahl defined the reliability of a test as the correlation between:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the observed scores and the true scores obtained by a group\",\r\n      \"two or more sets of scores on equivalent tests from one group\",\r\n      \"the scores on a test and the scores on an independent criterion\",\r\n      \"the upper and the lower groups on each single item of a test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) two or more sets of scores on equivalent tests from one group<\/b><br><br>Their definition is framed in operational terms \u2014 it describes not what reliability <i>is<\/i> but <b>how it is computed<\/b>, and so points directly at the parallel forms method.<br><br><b>Option (A)<\/b> states the theoretical conception, reliability being regarded as the measure between observed and true scores. <b>Option (C)<\/b> defines <b>validity<\/b>, in the form given by Gulliksen. <b>Option (D)<\/b> describes the <b>discrimination index<\/b> of an item.<br><br>The same pair also defined validity, as the effectiveness of a test in achieving specific purposes.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 348,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Usability of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The practical value of a high reliability coefficient to a school principal lies chiefly in that it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"permits generalised statements to be made about a pupil's level of achievement\",\r\n      \"establishes that the test has measured the intended learning outcomes\",\r\n      \"removes the need to report results to parents and caregivers\",\r\n      \"guarantees that every pupil has been assessed on the same content\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) permits generalised statements to be made about a pupil's level of achievement<\/b><br><br>Where results are reliable, one may be confident that repeated or equivalent assessments would give consistent results \u2014 and that confidence is what licenses a general statement from a single occasion.<br><br>It matters most in two situations named expressly: when results are used to <b>take decisions about teaching and learning<\/b>, and when they are <b>reported to pupils and their parents<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (B) claims too much:<\/b> that the intended outcome was measured is a question of <b>validity<\/b>, which reliability does not settle.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 349,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The expression of reliability in the form Xi = Ti + Ei, applied to the score of a particular pupil, is associated with:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Helmstadter\",\r\n      \"Anastasi\",\r\n      \"Hoyt\",\r\n      \"Nunnally\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Helmstadter<\/b><br><br>The formulation restates <b>Guilford's<\/b> X = T + E at the level of the individual, the subscript i marking a particular pupil's obtained, true and error scores.<br><br>The distinction between the two levels matters. Because reliability is an attribute of <b>testing rather than of one person's score<\/b>, the more meaningful working statement is in terms of <b>variance<\/b> \u2014 S\u00b2x = S\u00b2t + S\u00b2e \u2014 and it is from that form, not from the individual one, that a coefficient is computed.<br><br><b>Hoyt (C)<\/b> divided the variance three ways; <b>Nunnally (D)<\/b> cautioned against splitting a speeded test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 350,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Determining Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The several recognised methods of estimating reliability, introduced by the American Psychological Association, are alike in that each of them:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"requires the test to be administered on two separate occasions\",\r\n      \"involves correlating two sets of scores obtained from the same or an equivalent procedure\",\r\n      \"yields a coefficient that must be corrected by the Spearman-Brown formula\",\r\n      \"assumes that all the items of the test are of equal difficulty\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) involves correlating two sets of scores obtained from the same or an equivalent procedure<\/b><br><br>This common feature is what makes them all methods of the <b>same<\/b> thing, and it also explains why the coefficient must be <b>read according to the type of consistency investigated<\/b> \u2014 stability, equivalence or internal consistency.<br><br><b>Option (A) is false<\/b> of the split-half and Kuder-Richardson methods, both of which need only one sitting. <b>Option (C)<\/b> applies to the split-half method alone, and <b>option (D)<\/b> is an assumption peculiar to Kuder-Richardson.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 351,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The reliability of a test is also described as the degree to which the results obtained are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"free from error of measurement or chance errors\",\r\n      \"comparable with those of a national norm group\",\r\n      \"representative of the whole of the content domain\",\r\n      \"independent of the objectives of instruction\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) free from error of measurement or chance errors<\/b><br><br>This definition approaches reliability from the side of what is <b>absent<\/b> rather than what is present, and it fits the variance formulation exactly: the smaller the error variance, the larger the share of true variance, and the higher the coefficient.<br><br>It also connects the concept to the <b>standard error of measurement<\/b>, which expresses in score units how far an observed score is likely to depart from the true score.<br><br><b>Option (C) describes content validity<\/b>, which is a question of coverage rather than of consistency.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 352,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 6: RELIABILITY, OBJECTIVITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TEST\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Factors Affecting Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, listed among the further factors affecting the reliability of a test:<br>1. Subjectivity of the examiner<br>2. Clerical error<br>3. The interval between two testings<br>4. The predictive efficiency of the test\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>The three, together with the <b>effect of practice<\/b>, are named as further factors beyond the principal list.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> Predictive efficiency measures how far scores forecast a criterion and belongs to <b>validity<\/b>, not reliability.<br><br>The other three each admit error variance by a different route \u2014 the marker's judgement, the transcription of scores, and the changes that time works on the candidate. <b>Two of the three are defects of procedure rather than of the paper<\/b>, which is why standardised administration and scoring matter as much as item quality.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 353,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of a Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that a single discrete item is not a dependable indicator of achievement, whereas a test made up of many such items is, rests on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a longer test takes more time and so measures endurance as well\",\r\n      \"single items cannot be arranged in ascending order of difficulty\",\r\n      \"the difficulty of a single item cannot be estimated in advance\",\r\n      \"patterns of success rest on multiple sources of evidence\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) patterns of success rest on multiple sources of evidence<\/b><br><br>Test items or tasks are <b>samples of intended achievement<\/b>, and a test is a collection of such samples. One sample may mislead; a pattern across many is more dependable.<br><br>The same reasoning explains why assessment is not confined to paper-and-pencil items: <b>science should include practical tasks and music a performance<\/b>, since a comprehensive and valid picture of learning requires tasks of the kinds actually taught.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 354,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Predisposing Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The factors that have to be settled before a paper setter begins to write questions are called:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"normative factors\",\r\n      \"moderating factors\",\r\n      \"predisposing factors\",\r\n      \"discriminating factors\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Predisposing factors<\/b><br><br>Six are named: the <b>number of papers<\/b>, the <b>total time<\/b>, the <b>total marks<\/b>, the <b>scheme of sections<\/b>, the <b>scheme of options<\/b> and the <b>medium of testing<\/b>.<br><br>Each has to be decided in advance because each constrains what can be asked. Setting two papers instead of one halves the syllabus per paper and improves the sampling of content; fixing the marks at 50 rather than 100 reduces the number of questions and with it the reliability of the test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 355,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Predisposing Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Allowing more time than a fixed set of questions requires is said to produce which of the following collateral effects?<br>1. Guessing and copying<br>2. Redundant and irrelevant answers<br>3. Impaired measurement of speed in speeded tests\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated. Excess time is not a neutral kindness \u2014 it changes what the paper measures.<br><br>The total time is stipulated by the <b>examining agency<\/b> for external examinations and by <b>teachers<\/b> for school examinations. It ranges from two to three hours at the secondary and senior secondary stages, from fifteen minutes to an hour for class tests, and from one to three hours for a term test.<br><br>The converse defect is equally real: a paper that is <b>over-timed<\/b> in relation to its content measures speed rather than power.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 356,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Predisposing Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the scheme of options in a question paper:<br>1. Where all questions are compulsory, the comparability of pupils' marks improves.<br>2. A free option leads to selective teaching and selective learning.<br>3. Internal options of the 'this or this' type reduce the coverage of the syllabus.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> With no option, every pupil answers the same questions and the marks are comparable. With a free option, different pupils attempt different combinations, comparability is lost, and both teaching and learning become selective.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it reverses the position.<\/b> <b>Internal balanced options ensure more coverage of the syllabus<\/b>, besides giving pupils an opportunity to show their best. The objection lies against the <b>free<\/b> option, not the internal one.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 357,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Predisposing Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The decision on the medium of testing must be taken before questions are written because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the printing of a bilingual paper takes longer than that of a single-language paper\",\r\n      \"questions in a regional language must always carry fewer marks\",\r\n      \"the validity of many questions is lost when they are translated from one language to another\",\r\n      \"the marking scheme cannot be prepared for two versions of the same paper\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the validity of many questions is lost when they are translated from one language to another<\/b><br><br>Framing questions directly in a language is quite different from getting them translated from another, and unless the framer is alive to this at the time of construction, <b>good questions that cannot be properly translated have to be sacrificed at the altar of validity<\/b>.<br><br>The decision therefore governs item writing itself, not merely production \u2014 which is why it is classed among the predisposing factors and settled at the outset, along with the number of versions to be developed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 358,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Coverage of Syllabus\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In delineating the examination syllabus into units of testing, units that are too small are objectionable because they:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"prevent the computation of a difficulty index for the paper\",\r\n      \"lead to the neglect of some topics while framing questions\",\r\n      \"hinder the inclusion of essay-type questions\",\r\n      \"make it impossible to allot proportional weightage to each unit\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) hinder the inclusion of essay-type questions<\/b><br><br>The requirement is that units be <b>neither too big nor too small<\/b>, and each defect has its own consequence. Small units leave too little ground for an essay-type question to work on. <b>Option (B) states the opposite defect<\/b> \u2014 it is <b>bigger<\/b> units that lead to the neglect of topics.<br><br>The weightage given to each unit depends on three considerations: its <b>length in the textbook<\/b>, the <b>importance of the topic<\/b>, and the <b>density of content elements<\/b> in it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 359,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Coverage of Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the three-tier taxonomy that has become functional in Indian school and board examinations, the three assessment objectives tested in content subjects are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"knowledge, comprehension and written expression\",\r\n      \"recall, analysis and evaluation\",\r\n      \"remembering, understanding and creating\",\r\n      \"knowledge, understanding and application\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) knowledge, understanding and application<\/b><br><br>Bloom's six categories are available, but after decades of work in the <b>NCERT<\/b> the three-tier scheme of K-U-A has become popular and functional at school and board level. A fourth objective, <b>psychomotor skill \u2014 mainly drawing<\/b> \u2014 is also testable in written examinations of science, social science and mathematics.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the trap<\/b>: knowledge, comprehension and written expression are the three assessment objectives used in <b>language<\/b> subjects, not in content subjects.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 360,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Coverage of Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The preparation of a table showing proportionate weightage to the several assessment objectives is a step directed at ensuring:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"internal consistency of the question paper\",\r\n      \"predictive validity of the question paper\",\r\n      \"curricular validity of the question paper\",\r\n      \"practicability of the question paper\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) curricular validity of the question paper<\/b><br><br>Covering the assessment objectives proportionately secures <b>curricular validity<\/b>, just as covering the content units proportionately secures <b>content validity<\/b>. The two tables serve the two halves of the same requirement.<br><br>The weightages are not fixed for all time. They vary from one examining board to another according to the <b>background of examinees, curricular prescriptions, instructional strategies in vogue and the performance standard of pupils over the years<\/b>, and they change when new curricula are prescribed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 361,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty Level of the Paper\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In fixing the estimated difficulty level of a question paper for a large mixed-ability group, the distribution of marks among difficult, average and easy questions is set so as to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"give equal weight to each of the three categories\",\r\n      \"concentrate the marks on the difficult questions\",\r\n      \"approximate the normal distribution\",\r\n      \"follow the difficulty indices obtained in the previous year\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) approximate the normal distribution<\/b><br><br>A distribution of <b>20 : 60 : 20<\/b> for difficult, average and easy questions is the illustration given, with variations such as 15 : 70 : 15 or 25 : 50 : 25 according to previous standard and experience.<br><br>The difficulty of each question is estimated by the setter from <b>previous experience and expert judgement<\/b>, and the task is easier where an <b>item bank<\/b> is available.<br><br>In board examinations a <b>differential level of difficulty must be maintained<\/b> to reflect the normal curve of expected achievement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 362,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Design of the Question Paper\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In external board examinations, the design of the question paper is prepared by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the paper setter appointed for the subject\",\r\n      \"the head examiner in consultation with the markers\",\r\n      \"the moderator appointed to review the paper\",\r\n      \"the examining agency, which supplies it to the paper setter\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the examining agency, which supplies it to the paper setter<\/b><br><br>The design contains all the decisions the examining agency stipulates \u2014 weightages to content units, to assessment objectives and to forms of questions, together with the scheme of sections, options and time. The <b>paper setter constructs the paper within that framework<\/b>.<br><br>In schools the position is different: <b>the subject teachers themselves prepare the design<\/b> for their term and annual examinations.<br><br>There is considerable flexibility in the weightages, which vary from board to board and change when new syllabi are introduced.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 363,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Blueprint\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A blueprint of a question paper is correctly described as a chart showing the distribution of questions across:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"assessment objectives, marks allotted and time estimated\",\r\n      \"content units, difficulty levels and marks allotted\",\r\n      \"content units, assessment objectives and forms of questions\",\r\n      \"forms of questions, difficulty levels and time estimated\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) content units, assessment objectives and forms of questions<\/b><br><br>These are the <b>three dimensions<\/b> of the chart, and the weightages entered against each are drawn strictly from the prescribed design.<br><br>Some setters use a <b>two-dimensional grid<\/b> instead, showing questions against units and objectives only.<br><br>Besides the three dimensions, a blueprint <b>can also reflect the scheme of options and the nature of the sections or parts<\/b> of the paper \u2014 which is why it is described as revealing the complete horoscope of the question paper to be.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 364,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Blueprint\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In developing a blueprint, the first entry to be made is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the marks against each content unit, row-wise\",\r\n      \"the column-wise marks allotted to the several objectives\",\r\n      \"the essay-type questions in the units where they are suitable\",\r\n      \"the total marks in the bottom right-hand corner\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the total marks in the bottom right-hand corner<\/b><br><br>The sequence runs: total marks; then <b>column-wise marks to the objectives<\/b> as per the design; then <b>row-wise marks against each unit<\/b>; then the <b>essay-type questions<\/b> where suitable, with internal options; then the skill-testing questions; and only thereafter the objective, very short answer and short answer questions, unit by unit.<br><br><b>The logic is from the whole to the parts:<\/b> the frame is fixed first and the questions are fitted into it, which is what prevents any one form or objective from being crowded into a single unit.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 365,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Blueprint\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the entries of a blueprint written in the form 10(1) or 4(1), the figure inside the brackets denotes:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the marks allotted to the question\",\r\n      \"the difficulty level on a five-point scale\",\r\n      \"the estimated time in minutes\",\r\n      \"the number of questions\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the number of questions<\/b><br><br>The convention is uniform throughout the chart: <b>marks outside the brackets, number of questions inside<\/b>. Thus 10(1) is one question of ten marks and 2(2) is two questions of two marks each.<br><br>A superscript circle marks an option \u2014 <b>10(1) 10(1)\u00b0 indicates two alternative questions of which one is to be attempted<\/b>.<br><br>Note also that a single essay-type question may be split across two objectives, as where a ten-mark question tests understanding for eight marks and skill for two through a diagram.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 366,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Blueprint\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the checks a paper setter applies in judging the quality of a blueprint?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"That it reflects the same weightages as are prescribed in the design\",\r\n      \"That one type of question is not crowded in a particular unit and objective\",\r\n      \"That internal options are balanced in content, objective, difficulty and time\",\r\n      \"That the reliability coefficient of the paper exceeds 0\u00b780\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) That the reliability coefficient of the paper exceeds 0\u00b780<\/b><br><br>A reliability coefficient can only be computed <b>after<\/b> the paper has been administered and scored; it is not available at the blueprint stage at all.<br><br>The stated checks are that the blueprint conforms to the design; that the predisposing conditions, scheme of options, format and number of questions are met; that no type of question is crowded; that internal options are balanced; and that on inspection the questions are <b>well spread rather than bunched on one side<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 367,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Blueprint\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the blueprint of a question paper:<br>1. It provides the basis for maintaining the validity and reliability of the question paper.<br>2. A good blueprint necessarily leads to the development of a good question paper.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> By translating the requirements of the design into an action plan, the blueprint supplies the basis for the validity and reliability of the evaluation tool.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717 \u2014 and the qualification is expressly stated.<\/b> <b>A good blueprint does not necessarily lead to a good question paper; it is the quality of the questions framed on the blueprint that determines it.<\/b><br><br>The blueprint is the architectural plan. A sound plan badly executed still yields a bad building.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 368,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking Schemes\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The marking scheme for a question ought to be prepared:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"after the answer scripts have been collected\",\r\n      \"after the paper has been moderated and approved\",\r\n      \"simultaneously with the framing of the question\",\r\n      \"only for essay-type and short-answer questions\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) simultaneously with the framing of the question<\/b><br><br>The reason is that the scheme improves the question. <b>A good marking scheme developed without any modification in the wording of a question is the acid test of a good question<\/b>; where changes in wording prove necessary, the scheme has done its work by exposing the defect.<br><br>The three stated purposes are to <b>improve the quality of the question<\/b> by dovetailing it with the scheme, to <b>ensure maximum objectivity<\/b> in scoring, and to <b>maximise scoring uniformity among examiners<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 369,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking Schemes\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following questions to be applied to a multiple-choice item while developing its marking scheme:<br>1. Is the correct answer one and distinctly one?<br>2. Is it completely and not merely partially correct?<br>3. Is it correct under all conditions, requiring no further qualifiers?<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are the stated basic principles for multiple-choice items, and each guards against a distinct defect.<br><br>The problem they address is real: <b>even in objective-type questions the key is sometimes doubtful or more than one answer is correct<\/b>, and this happens where the question is not well worded and the scope of the intended response is unclear.<br><br>Unless the key, the model answer and the marking scheme are worked out by making the language <b>precise, unambiguous and comprehensible<\/b>, scoring objectivity cannot be ensured.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 370,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking Schemes\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The question 'What is parasitism?' carrying two marks is regarded as poorly framed, whereas 'Give one example each of a partial and a total parasite' is regarded as better. The reason is that the second:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"is pitched at a higher level of the cognitive domain than the first\",\r\n      \"avoids the use of technical terminology and specialised vocabulary\",\r\n      \"can be answered in fewer words and so saves the examinee's time\",\r\n      \"indicates clearly the scope of the answer, permitting objective scoring\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) indicates clearly the scope of the answer, permitting objective scoring<\/b><br><br>The first form drew <b>six or seven varieties of answer<\/b> in one seminar, and for such a question no workable marking scheme is possible at all.<br><br>The remaining principles for short-answer questions follow from the same concern: <b>write the answer yourself<\/b> as you expect the examinee to write it; work out all acceptable answers; <b>identify the value or credit points<\/b> in sequence; and allocate marks credit-wise in proportion to their potential.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 371,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking Schemes\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation that three marks for a short-answer question carrying two credit points is not workable illustrates the principle that marks must be:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"allotted in whole numbers throughout the paper\",\r\n      \"proportionate to the time estimated for the question\",\r\n      \"equal for every question within the same form\",\r\n      \"allotted in terms of value points and be functionally operative\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) allotted in terms of value points and be functionally operative<\/b><br><br>Three marks cannot be divided evenly between two credit points, so the marker is left without a rule for the case where a candidate supplies one point and not the other. The allotment must be one the scheme can actually work with.<br><br>The same discipline appears in the worked illustration of a ten-mark question, where each of the value points carries <b>one mark for the main point and half a mark for each of two sub-points<\/b>, and any five such reasons earn full marks.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 372,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking Schemes\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the varieties of essay-type question, the marking scheme is said to be more flexible in the case of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the long answer with restricted response and the structured essay-type question\",\r\n      \"the long answer with extended response and the long answer with restricted response\",\r\n      \"the structured essay-type question and the diagram-based essay-type question\",\r\n      \"the long answer with extended response and the diagram-based essay-type question\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the long answer with extended response and the diagram-based essay-type question<\/b><br><br>Four varieties are in use: long answer with <b>extended<\/b> response, long answer with <b>restricted<\/b> response, <b>structured<\/b> essay-type questions, and <b>diagram-based<\/b> essay-type questions such as picture composition.<br><br>Flexibility varies inversely with the constraint placed on the answer. Restricting the response or structuring the question narrows the range of acceptable answers, and the scheme can be correspondingly tighter.<br><br>For diagram-based questions the criteria include <b>accuracy, symmetry, neatness and methodical labelling<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 373,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Training of Markers\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the practice-marking exercise conducted during the training of markers, the arrangement adopted is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"each marker marks all the questions in a few scripts\",\r\n      \"each marker marks the same one question in all the scripts\",\r\n      \"two markers independently mark every script and their scores are averaged\",\r\n      \"the coordinator marks all the scripts and the trainees observe\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) each marker marks the same one question in all the scripts<\/b><br><br>Trainees work in groups of five to ten, formed in advance with the number of questions in view \u2014 if there are ten questions, ten people sit around a table and mark <b>question-wise<\/b>, the subject coordinator coordinating. The whole group then meets again to sort out any difficulty with a particular question.<br><br>The same device appears among the principles for essay-type marking: <b>one question marked by the same examiner across all scripts<\/b> ensures better comparison of responses.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 374,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Training of Markers\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, said to be settled during the training of markers before an examination:<br>1. The marks to be awarded to partially correct answers<br>2. The listing of non-relevant answers that are to receive zero marks<br>3. The mode of deducting marks for mistakes in spelling<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are settled, along with <b>how to treat irrelevant, redundant and unwanted responses<\/b>.<br><br>The exercise begins by explaining the format on a parallel model paper, asking trainees to <b>answer each question themselves as a pupil would<\/b>, checking the key of the multiple-choice questions \u2014 since the key itself is sometimes problematic \u2014 and writing participants' answers on the blackboard for discussion until a final list of acceptable answers is arrived at.<br><br>Selection follows: some are rejected, some appointed as markers and the best as <b>quality controllers<\/b>, about a month before the examination.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 375,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formatting the Question Paper\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Objective-wise grouping of questions in a paper is advantageous because it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"assists in the analysis of performance objective by objective\",\r\n      \"removes the difficulty of administering objective and open-ended questions together\",\r\n      \"allows the examinee to concentrate on one type of content at a time\",\r\n      \"eliminates the need for separate instructions for each group of questions\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) assists in the analysis of performance objective by objective<\/b><br><br>Each mode of grouping has its own advantage and its own cost. <b>Form-wise<\/b> grouping helps administration and the mechanics of writing; <b>content-wise<\/b> grouping lets the examinee concentrate on one type of content at a time; <b>objective-wise<\/b> grouping serves analysis.<br><br><b>Option (B) is the trap.<\/b> The problem of administering objective and open-ended questions together <b>remains under both content-wise and objective-wise grouping<\/b> \u2014 it is solved only by separate administration, which becomes almost a necessity where 20 per cent or more of the paper is objective.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 376,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formatting the Question Paper\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Within a particular form of question, the recommended order of arrangement is from:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"less familiar to more familiar forms and from application to knowledge level\",\r\n      \"more familiar to less familiar forms and from knowledge to application level\",\r\n      \"higher-order content elements to lower-order content elements\",\r\n      \"questions carrying more marks to questions carrying fewer marks\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) more familiar to less familiar forms and from knowledge to application level<\/b><br><br>Three parallel progressions are prescribed within a form: <b>most familiar to less familiar<\/b> forms, <b>lower-level to higher-order content elements<\/b>, and <b>lower-level objective (knowledge) to higher-order objective (application)<\/b>.<br><br>Proper arrangement and grouping is thus said to serve three concerns together: the <b>administrative mechanics of usability<\/b>, <b>homogeneity and content hierarchy<\/b>, and the <b>complexity of assessment objectives<\/b> \u2014 easy knowledge-level questions first and more difficult application-level questions later.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 377,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Question-wise Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The question-wise analysis and review of a completed question paper should be carried out:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"by an expert other than the setter, or by the setter without item cards\",\r\n      \"by the head examiner after all the scripts have been fully marked\",\r\n      \"by the printer before the paper is sent for composition and printing\",\r\n      \"by a panel of pupils drawn from the very class that is to be examined\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) by an expert other than the setter, or by the setter without item cards<\/b><br><br>The condition matters. Working <b>without sight of the individual item sheet or item card<\/b> on which the question was recorded ensures that the analysis records what the question <i>does<\/i> rather than what it was <i>intended<\/i> to do.<br><br>Only after the proforma is filled in is the analysis compared with the entries in the blueprint, and any discrepancy corrected.<br><br><b>Congruence between the intended and the observed attributes is the measure of the quality of the paper.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 378,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Question-wise Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the attributes recorded against each question in the question-wise analysis proforma?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The competency tested and the form of the question\",\r\n      \"The wording of the question and the language used\",\r\n      \"The estimated difficulty level and the time estimate\",\r\n      \"The discrimination index obtained on a previous administration\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) The discrimination index obtained on a previous administration<\/b><br><br>A discrimination index is an <b>empirical<\/b> quantity available only after administration and item analysis; the proforma is completed <b>before<\/b> the paper is used.<br><br>The attributes recorded are the <b>content area and content unit<\/b>, the <b>assessment objective<\/b>, the <b>competency tested<\/b>, the <b>form of question<\/b>, the <b>wording<\/b>, the <b>language used<\/b>, the <b>estimated difficulty level<\/b>, the <b>time estimate<\/b>, the <b>marks allotted<\/b> and any remarks.<br><br>Note that the difficulty here is <b>estimated by judgement<\/b>, not computed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 379,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Moderation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Moderation of a question paper means the re-examination of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the marks awarded by different examiners to one and the same script\",\r\n      \"the questions, key, marking scheme, instructions and format\",\r\n      \"the norms against which the scores obtained are to be interpreted\",\r\n      \"the sample of pupils on whom the test is proposed to be tried out\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the questions, key, marking scheme, instructions and format<\/b><br><br>The scope extends further, to the <b>language and wording<\/b> of questions and the <b>mechanics of writing<\/b> them.<br><br>Its purpose is to ensure the <b>quality, relevance, reliability and practicability<\/b> of the paper, and it is needed because omissions or commissions may have crept in through personal bias or want of technical know-how.<br><br><b>Option (A) describes post-examination moderation<\/b>, which concerns the moderation of marks and the processing of results \u2014 a distinct exercise from pre-examination moderation of the paper.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 380,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Moderation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where the paper setter himself moderates his own paper, the exercise is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"acceptable for unit and class tests where the purpose is formative\",\r\n      \"acceptable for board examinations where secrecy is at stake\",\r\n      \"unacceptable in every case, since externality is indispensable\",\r\n      \"acceptable only where a checklist prepared by the board is used\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) acceptable for unit and class tests where the purpose is formative<\/b><br><br>Self-moderation is a <b>quick review rather than a thorough moderation<\/b>, quality control resting with the producer of the paper. It is acceptable where the purpose of testing is formative and not summative, and can be improved by using a <b>checklist prepared with the help of experts<\/b>.<br><br>The alternatives within a school bring in progressively more externality \u2014 moderation by a <b>co-class teacher<\/b>, who brings the experience of teaching the same class, and by a <b>senior subject teacher<\/b>, who acts as an external moderator.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 381,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Moderation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following qualities required of a moderator for an external public examination:<br>1. He must be a person different from the paper setter.<br>2. He must be trained in the technology of paper setting.<br>3. He must be a good item writer and item critic of proven ability.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with the requirements that he be a <b>subject specialist of long standing<\/b> and <b>well conversant with the examination syllabus and instructional objectives<\/b>.<br><br>The reason for such care is the stake involved: board examinations play a significant part in <b>certification and in selection for admissions and scholarships<\/b>, and carry high demands of confidentiality.<br><br>The standing caution is that <b>a moderator not trained in the technology of paper setting may spoil a good paper set by a trained evaluator<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 382,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Moderation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where a panel of moderators is appointed, the reviewer who undertakes the editorial review of language, style, format and the mechanics of writing works at:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the first stage\",\r\n      \"the second stage\",\r\n      \"the third stage\",\r\n      \"a stage outside the panel altogether\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the third stage<\/b><br><br>A panel of two or three moderators is recommended <b>where secrecy is not at stake<\/b>, and the order of review is: the <b>subject specialist<\/b> reviews the subject matter first; the <b>evaluation expert<\/b> judges the quality of the items second; and the <b>language expert<\/b> undertakes the editorial review last.<br><br>The order is not arbitrary. Editing the language of a question that is about to be replaced on grounds of content or item quality would be wasted labour, so the substantive reviews come first.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 383,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Moderation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The first task prescribed for a moderator proceeding scientifically is to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"study the design prescribed by the board\",\r\n      \"verify each question against the entries in the blueprint\",\r\n      \"edit the wording and language of the questions\",\r\n      \"check the key and the marking scheme of every question\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) study the design prescribed by the board<\/b><br><br>The sequence runs from the general to the particular: <b>study the design<\/b> to understand the basic framework and predisposing factors; <b>verify the blueprint<\/b> against that design and correct it where it departs; and only then <b>verify each question<\/b> against the blueprint entries.<br><br>The guidelines exist to correct two wrong notions \u2014 that moderation is a matter of making a few editorial corrections to render the paper print-worthy, and that a senior specialist may <b>replace any question he likes<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 384,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standardization\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The feature that distinguishes a formal standardised test from an informal objective test of achievement is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the use of objective-type items throughout\",\r\n      \"the derivation of comparative norms\",\r\n      \"the involvement of more than one paper setter\",\r\n      \"the provision of a fixed time limit for completion\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the derivation of comparative norms<\/b><br><br>Standardisation adds five further requirements to those of ordinary test construction: <b>more critical analysis of subject matter, more careful formulation of test material, more exacting refinement of items, more critical standards of test form and item quality, and more rigid statistical analysis<\/b> \u2014 and, sixth, the derivation of the set of norms.<br><br>The existence of norms is described as <b>the most distinctive feature of standardised tests, though not the only characteristic feature<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 385,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standardization\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A particular difficulty facing the developer of a standardised test, as against a classroom teacher setting a paper, is that he must:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"select content general enough to fit any school where the course runs\",\r\n      \"restrict the test to items of uniform difficulty level throughout\",\r\n      \"confine the whole test to a single stated instructional objective\",\r\n      \"obtain the approval of the pupils before administering the test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) select content general enough to fit any school where the course runs<\/b><br><br>The developer is examining a syllabus and a group of pupils he has <b>not himself taught<\/b>, and must therefore be reasonably sure that the content selected is the content that has actually received instructional emphasis.<br><br>The difficulty varies by subject. Where objectives are stated in terms of clear intended learning outcomes, as in <b>mathematics<\/b>, items sampling the content are easier to develop; where the outcomes are of a <b>more indefinite nature<\/b>, validation is harder, and a procedure suitable in one subject may be wholly unsuitable in another.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 386,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standardization\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Real evidence about the validity of the individual items of a standardised test is obtained only by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the judgement of subject specialists on the wording of each item\",\r\n      \"actual administration in preliminary form, with item-wise analysis\",\r\n      \"comparison with the items of an established test in the same subject\",\r\n      \"computation of the reliability coefficient of the test as a whole\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) actual administration in preliminary form, with item-wise analysis<\/b><br><br>Before administration, item validity depends only on the constructor's ability to <b>select the right form of objective item<\/b> and his <b>skill in constructing items on the pre-decided intended learning outcomes<\/b>. That is judgement, not evidence.<br><br><b>The practical consequence follows directly:<\/b> since many items will be rejected, modified, revised or replaced on the strength of the analysis, <b>the preliminary form must contain many more items than the final form is to have<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 387,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standardization\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the construction of items for a standardised test, the use of words such as 'always', 'never' and 'seldom' is to be avoided because they constitute:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"associational clues\",\r\n      \"verbal clues\",\r\n      \"determiner clues\",\r\n      \"directional words\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Determiner clues<\/b><br><br>Three kinds of clue are commonly found \u2014 <b>associational, verbal and determiner<\/b> clues \u2014 and they occur in the stem, in the key and even in the distractors. Besides determiners, the use of prefixes such as <i>an<\/i> and <i>un<\/i>, and article clues such as <i>a, an, the<\/i>, are to be avoided.<br><br>The concern is with <b>uniformity of response<\/b>. It is defeated equally where distractors are not plausible, where the task is not properly set in the stem, where the key is doubtful, or where more than one answer becomes possible for want of qualifiers.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 388,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standardization\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On the optimum difficulty level of a standardised test as a whole, the consensus among experts is that it should be about:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"25 per cent for the average pupil\",\r\n      \"50 per cent for the average pupil\",\r\n      \"75 per cent for the average pupil\",\r\n      \"90 per cent for the average pupil\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 50 per cent for the average pupil<\/b><br><br>The determination of optimum difficulty is described as a serious problem on which experts do not agree, but this is the consensus for the test taken as a whole.<br><br>The modern practice of arranging items is to cover a <b>wide range of difficulty in ascending order from easy to difficult<\/b>. Two purposes are served: the less able pupil can <b>attempt the maximum number of items before meeting harder ones<\/b>, and the brighter pupil <b>need not waste time<\/b> on the easy items placed at the beginning.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 389,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standardization\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the item analysis of a standardised test, an item on which more pupils from the lower group than from the upper group answer correctly:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"should be retained, since it favours the weaker pupils\",\r\n      \"shows a negative index and should not be retained in the test\",\r\n      \"shows a zero index and may be retained without revision\",\r\n      \"shows a high positive index and is among the best items\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) shows a negative index and should not be retained in the test<\/b><br><br>A negative discrimination index \u2014 such as \u22120\u00b718 or \u22120\u00b726 in the worked illustrations \u2014 means <b>there must be some defect in the item<\/b>, and such items are discarded.<br><br>The neighbouring cases follow the same logic. Where equal numbers from the two groups answer correctly the index is <b>zero<\/b> and the item separates nobody. Indices of 0\u00b744, 0\u00b755 and 0\u00b766 mark items <b>good enough to be retained<\/b>.<br><br><b>Superior-ability pupils should answer an item correctly more often than inferior-ability pupils<\/b>; where they do not, the item is defective.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 390,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Equating of Forms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Two or more parallel forms of a test are said to be equated where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the same pupils, or others of like ability, score identically on each\",\r\n      \"the forms contain the same number of items drawn from the same units\",\r\n      \"the forms are administered on the same day to one and the same group\",\r\n      \"the forms have been moderated by the same panel of subject experts\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the same pupils, or others of like ability, score identically on each<\/b><br><br>The definition is behavioural rather than structural: equivalence is established by <b>what the forms do<\/b>, not by how they look. It entails that the items in both forms are closely parallel in the <b>skills and abilities tested and in difficulty level<\/b>.<br><br>Three routes to equality of item difficulty are given: preparing <b>two or three times<\/b> the desired number of items so that items of equivalent difficulty can be paired; developing <b>two or more items on the same concept or principle<\/b>, using the blueprint as the basis; and using <b>derived scores<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 391,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Try-out of the Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the try-out of a test, the stage at which item analysis is carried out and the difficulty value and discrimination power of each item are computed is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the pre-try-out\",\r\n      \"the proper try-out\",\r\n      \"the final try-out\",\r\n      \"the sampling of subjects\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the proper try-out<\/b><br><br>The three stages have distinct sizes and distinct purposes. The <b>pre-try-out<\/b>, on about <b>ten<\/b> subjects, exposes language difficulty and ambiguity, the items being rewritten or rephrased and the initial draft prepared. The <b>proper try-out<\/b>, on about <b>fifty<\/b>, yields the <b>item analysis<\/b> by which items are selected or rejected. The <b>final try-out<\/b>, on <b>more than a hundred<\/b>, establishes the <b>reliability and validity<\/b> of the test.<br><br>The workable sample from which all three are drawn is put at around <b>150<\/b> subjects, selected at random.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 392,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Try-out of the Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Extra items over and above those required by the blueprint are constructed at the item-writing stage chiefly so that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the test may be lengthened if its reliability proves too low\",\r\n      \"an item rejected at any stage may be replaced immediately\",\r\n      \"two parallel forms may be printed from the same pool\",\r\n      \"the paper may be set at two different difficulty levels\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) an item rejected at any stage may be replaced immediately<\/b><br><br>Some items constructed to the blueprint will prove unsuitable or below the mark, and the surplus allows the gap to be filled at once rather than sending the setter back to the drawing board.<br><br>The same practice is stated in the account of standardisation, where <b>the preliminary form contains many more items than are envisaged in the final form<\/b> precisely because many will be rejected, modified, revised or replaced after item-wise statistical analysis.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 393,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Final Validity and Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In establishing the final validity of a standardised test, the basis of curricular validity is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"correlation of the test scores with the marks awarded in school\",\r\n      \"adequate sampling of the course and reflection of the objectives\",\r\n      \"analysis of the interrelated abilities that make up the subject\",\r\n      \"correlation of the test scores with measures of future outcomes\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) adequate sampling of the course and reflection of the objectives<\/b><br><br>The third basis is the <b>recommendation of committees and of subject and test specialists<\/b>.<br><br><b>Options (A) and (D) name two of the four methods of establishing statistical validity<\/b>, the others being correlation with the ratings of expert judges and with other known concurrent measures such as teachers' ratings.<br><br><b>Option (C) points to psychological and logical validity<\/b>, used in complex fields such as language, reading and study skills, where a subject is made up of many interrelated abilities.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 394,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Final Validity and Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The two aspects of reliability named in the context of test standardisation are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"adequacy and objectivity\",\r\n      \"stability and equivalence\",\r\n      \"novelty and comparability\",\r\n      \"relevance and practicability\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Adequacy and objectivity<\/b><br><br><b>Adequacy<\/b> is the degree to which the test samples widely enough into the subject for the resulting scores to represent total performance in the area measured \u2014 a small sample makes the scores unfair to some pupils, an ample one makes them fair to all.<br><br><b>Objectivity<\/b> eliminates the opinion, bias or judgement of the person who scores.<br><br>Both are described as essential to reliability and as <b>aspects or phases of reliability, though independent of one another<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 395,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Final Validity and Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The foot rule coefficient of reliability requires only three quantities from the test \u2014 the mean, the standard deviation of scores and the number of items. It is recommended for use by teachers because it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"always overestimates the reliability of an informal test\",\r\n      \"combines sufficient accuracy with simplicity\",\r\n      \"dispenses with the need for a representative sample\",\r\n      \"yields the same value as the split-half coefficient\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) combines sufficient accuracy with simplicity<\/b><br><br>It is on that footing that the method is recommended to teachers for estimating the reliability of their <b>informal objective examinations<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) inverts a stated caution.<\/b> The foot rule coefficient <b>may be an underestimate but never an overestimate<\/b> of reliability, and it is not the most accurate method available. An estimate that errs on the low side is the safer error for a teacher to make.<br><br>The formula is r<sub>H<\/sub> = x(k \u2212 x) \/ kSD\u00b2, where x is the mean and k the number of items.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 396,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Final Validity and Reliability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The standard error of measurement is regarded as a more concrete indicator of test reliability than the reliability coefficient because it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"is not affected by the range of talent of the group on which it is based\",\r\n      \"can be computed from a single item rather than from the whole test\",\r\n      \"is expressed as a proportion rather than in score units\",\r\n      \"requires no assumption of a normal distribution of scores\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) is not affected by the range of talent of the group on which it is based<\/b><br><br>The reliability coefficient <b>is<\/b> so affected \u2014 a heterogeneous group raises it and a homogeneous group depresses it \u2014 so the same test can appear more or less reliable according to whom it was tried on. The standard error is free of that dependence.<br><br>It indicates the <b>degree of accuracy in the score obtained for each pupil<\/b>, the accuracy in question being the magnitude of sampling error.<br><br>The reliability coefficient is accordingly described as <b>neither an entirely adequate device nor the only method<\/b> of indicating internal consistency.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 397,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Uses of Standardised Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are named as the three major administrative uses of standardised tests?<br>1. Gradation and placement of pupils<br>2. Comparison of the performance of a class with the norms of the subject and grade<br>3. Measurement of the efficiency of learning against instructional effectiveness<br>4. Diagnosis of the specific weaknesses of individual pupils\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 belongs to the instructional and diagnostic uses<\/b>, not the administrative ones. Critical analysis of a pupil's scores may reveal unexpected <b>trouble spots<\/b> that would otherwise hamper his progress, and those become the basis of remedial instruction \u2014 work done by the teacher, not by the administration.<br><br>The administrative uses arise from wider pressures: growing class sizes, expanding curricular offerings, rising costs, and public demand for evidence of <b>educational efficiency<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 398,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Uses of Standardised Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following instructional uses of standardised tests:<br>1. Gathering advance information about the proficiency of the class in certain subjects<br>2. Furnishing a justifiable basis for dividing the class into sections for remedial treatment<br>3. Checking from time to time whether the class moves together or certain groups need special attention<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with <b>class analysis and diagnosis<\/b>, identification of <b>strengths and weaknesses in particular areas<\/b>, ascertaining the pupils' background in general competencies and specific knowledge outcomes, and making <b>diagnostic use of the results<\/b> as a basis for remedial and preventive work.<br><br>What unites them is that each supports a decision the <b>teacher<\/b> takes about instruction. The value of such tests is said to be directly proportional to the extent to which their results are <b>translated into improved practice<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 399,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Uses of Standardised Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following limitations of standardised tests as a measure of pupil achievement:<br>1. Lack of complete relevance to the instructional objectives of a given course<br>2. Susceptibility to coaching of the pupils<br>3. A tendency to lose validity with repeated use<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with <b>imperfect score reliability<\/b> arising from a limited number or poor quality of items, the possibility of <b>improper administration and scoring<\/b>, and the possibility of <b>inappropriate or unreliable norms<\/b>.<br><br>A separate set of limitations attaches to their use for <b>inferring teacher competence<\/b>: sensitivity to conditions other than the teacher's competence that affect learning, insensitivity to the teacher's contributions that do not directly foster learning, and their imperfection as a measure of achievement in the first place.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 400,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Uses of Standardised Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the comparison of locally designed testing programmes with externally produced ones, the criticism levelled against the latter is that they:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"are less expertly designed than the locally built programmes\",\r\n      \"emphasise verbal and quantitative skills, penalising creative thinkers\",\r\n      \"cannot be used for selection or for placement decisions at all\",\r\n      \"provide no profile of a pupil's particular strengths and weaknesses\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) emphasise verbal and quantitative skills, penalising creative thinkers<\/b><br><br>The trade-off is stated on both sides. <b>Locally designed programmes are more relevant to local needs but less expertly designed<\/b>; externally produced programmes are expertly built but attract this criticism.<br><br><b>Option (A) reverses the comparison<\/b>, and <b>option (D) is contradicted directly<\/b> \u2014 profiles of standardised test scores indicate a pupil's general level of achievement together with his specific strengths and weaknesses, though <b>subtest scores may be quite unreliable<\/b> for effective use.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 401,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Planning the Testing Programme\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The first step in planning a testing programme is to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"select the best available test for the purpose in view\",\r\n      \"identify the teaching problem for which the results are needed\",\r\n      \"determine the type of test data relevant to the problem\",\r\n      \"make the preparation needed for administering the test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) identify the teaching problem for which the results are needed<\/b><br><br>The seven steps run: identify the <b>problem<\/b>; determine the <b>type of data<\/b> relevant to it; <b>select<\/b> the best available test; <b>prepare and administer<\/b> it; <b>score<\/b> it quickly, accurately and economically; <b>tabulate, analyse and interpret<\/b> the results; and <b>use<\/b> them to improve the conditions related to the problem.<br><br>The sequence closes where it began \u2014 with the problem \u2014 which is what distinguishes a testing programme from testing for its own sake.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 402,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The distinction between a norm and a standard is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a norm states the level actually attained, whereas a standard states the level aimed at\",\r\n      \"a standard states the level actually attained, whereas a norm states the level aimed at\",\r\n      \"a norm applies to a group, whereas a standard applies to an individual\",\r\n      \"a norm is expressed in raw scores, whereas a standard is expressed in percentiles\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) a norm states the level actually attained, whereas a standard states the level aimed at<\/b><br><br>A standard implies the <b>ultimate goal or intended level towards which to strive<\/b>, which may never actually be reached by anyone; norms represent the level that <b>typical pupils actually attain<\/b>. The process of securing such comparative scores is called <b>normalising<\/b>.<br><br>The illustration is exact. In arithmetic computation the <b>standard is 100 per cent accuracy<\/b>, since errors are useless; but the actual <b>norm on well-known tests is 70 to 75 per cent<\/b> for high school grades.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 403,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that a norm does not necessarily reflect a satisfactory level of achievement is particularly true of schools where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"instruction and environment are superior and the intake is good\",\r\n      \"the class size is large and the resources available are limited\",\r\n      \"the medium of instruction differs from the pupils' mother tongue\",\r\n      \"the pupils are all drawn from one and the same single age group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) instruction and environment are superior and the intake is good<\/b><br><br>In such a school the typical pupil may well exceed the national norm while still falling short of what he could achieve \u2014 so the norm, being merely descriptive of what is usual, is no guide to what is satisfactory <b>for him<\/b>.<br><br>This is why the two terms must not be used as synonyms. <b>Ross and Stanley<\/b> put the distinction thus: <b>'standard' carries an objective inherent in it and tells us our goal, while 'norm' indicates present achievement<\/b> \u2014 the goal remaining stable while norms lack that stability.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 404,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The figure of 60 on the Ayres Scale of Handwriting, at the rate of 70 letters a minute, is cited as an example of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a percentile norm for school averages\",\r\n      \"a minimum-essential standard accepted by schools\",\r\n      \"an age-at-grade norm derived by extrapolation\",\r\n      \"a grade-equivalent score for the sixth grade alone\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) a minimum-essential standard accepted by schools<\/b><br><br>Standards are of two kinds. The first are <b>minimum essentials<\/b> generally accepted by schools in reading, spelling and arithmetic, representing the minimum quality and speed that equip a pupil for post-school life. The second are formulated <b>subjectively<\/b> by a principal or teacher out of his own expectations, and are accordingly variable from teacher to teacher, school to school and year to year.<br><br>The interesting feature of the Ayres figure is that <b>60 is approximately the norm for pupils completing the sixth grade and is also taken as the standard for all pupils before they leave school<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 405,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The group of individuals on whom the norms of a test are established is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the criterion group\",\r\n      \"the reference group\",\r\n      \"the upper group\",\r\n      \"the try-out group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the reference group<\/b><br><br>Norms indicate the standard performance of the reference group, and it is against that performance that an individual's raw score acquires meaning. By itself a raw score \u2014 the number of answers agreeing with the key \u2014 <b>has little meaning<\/b>.<br><br>Norms are established for three stated reasons: to make raw scores capable of being <b>added to other scores<\/b>, capable of being <b>compared<\/b>, and <b>more meaningful<\/b>.<br><br>They answer four questions, among them where an individual stands relative to others and how his future success may be predicted.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 406,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Age norms are appropriate only for those variables which:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"increase with age\",\r\n      \"are measured on a ratio scale\",\r\n      \"are normally distributed in the population\",\r\n      \"can be observed directly without a test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) increase with age<\/b><br><br>This is the basic assumption of the type, and it confines age norms to variables such as <b>height, weight, intelligence, reading ability, vocabulary and mental age<\/b>.<br><br>The type originated in <b>Binet's<\/b> intelligence tests, and <b>mental age<\/b> is itself a form of age norm \u2014 a pupil of 15 who solves all the questions meant for an 18-year group is said to have a mental age of 18. In achievement testing the corresponding expression is <b>educational age<\/b>.<br><br>Age norms are easily established, which is why they are widely used in education.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 407,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following limitations of age norms:<br>1. Growth is not uniform across age groups, a child growing three times as much between 5 and 7 as between 11 and 14.<br>2. Some traits, such as maze tracing, cease to develop after adolescence.<br>3. They are the appropriate form of norm for personality, interest and aptitude tests.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Uneven growth makes the difference between successive norms non-uniform, and a trait that stops developing cannot be expressed on an age scale at all.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it states the opposite of the position.<\/b> Age norms <b>cannot be used<\/b> in personality, interest, aptitude and attitude tests; for those, <b>percentile or standard score norms<\/b> are appropriate.<br><br>The further limitations are that the unit of age is <b>unsuitable during adolescence and youth<\/b>, that age norms are appropriate only up to about <b>20 years<\/b>, and that selecting a representative sample is difficult.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 408,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"If the end-of-year norm for the seventh grade on a test is 120 points and that for the eighth grade is 140 points, a pupil scoring 130 points is assigned a grade equivalent of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"7\u00b75\",\r\n      \"8\u00b70\",\r\n      \"8\u00b75\",\r\n      \"9\u00b70\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 8\u00b75<\/b><br><br>A score of 130 lies exactly midway between the two end-of-year norms, and therefore represents achievement <b>half way through the eighth grade<\/b> \u2014 a grade equivalent of 8\u00b75.<br><br>Grade norms are based on the <b>median<\/b> scores obtained by large groups within each grade, and are commonly, though not universally, expressed in terms of end-of-year achievement. Where a test is made up of several parts, raw scores are frequently converted into <b>standard scores<\/b> before grade norms are established, the total being the median of the several standard scores.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 409,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Age norms are considered less useful at the secondary stage than at the elementary stage because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"secondary pupils are drawn from a wider geographical area\",\r\n      \"the growth curve flattens out rapidly in the sixteenth year\",\r\n      \"secondary syllabi vary too much from one board to another\",\r\n      \"secondary tests are almost always criterion-referenced\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the growth curve flattens out rapidly in the sixteenth year<\/b><br><br>Where growth has almost ceased, a difference of a year in age corresponds to almost no difference in score, and the norm loses its power to discriminate.<br><br>The consequence is a difference of practice between the two stages. Tests for <b>elementary grades<\/b> are usually accompanied by <b>age norms and grade norms<\/b>, and sometimes by percentile norms based on grade placement; tests for the <b>secondary stage<\/b> are more frequently provided with <b>percentile and grade norms only<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 410,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chief difficulty in establishing age-at-grade norms is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the number of markedly underage and overage pupils in a grade falls off rapidly\",\r\n      \"chronological age cannot be ascertained accurately in school records\",\r\n      \"grade placement varies from one school system to another\",\r\n      \"such norms cannot be converted into grade-equivalent scores\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the number of markedly underage and overage pupils in a grade falls off rapidly<\/b><br><br>Pupils of 10 and 11 make up a large part of a normal sixth grade, but those of 9, 8 or 7, and those of 12, 13 or 14, become very few. To obtain reliable norms for every age within a grade, <b>very large numbers must be tested<\/b> to secure adequate population in the fringe areas \u2014 failing which <b>estimation by extrapolation<\/b> has to be resorted to.<br><br>The type is nevertheless valuable, since the achievement of <b>underage pupils is significantly superior to that of overage pupils<\/b> within a grade.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 411,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"It is suggested that percentile grade norms rather than grade equivalents be used in interpreting an individual pupil's score because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"grade equivalents cannot be computed for tests having several subtests\",\r\n      \"successive grade distributions overlap, so grade equivalents mislead\",\r\n      \"percentile norms require a smaller standardisation sample than others\",\r\n      \"grade equivalents are available only for elementary school level tests\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) successive grade distributions overlap, so grade equivalents mislead<\/b><br><br>On most standardised tests at the elementary level the differences between successive grade medians are slight, so a grade equivalent invites unsound interpretation.<br><br>The illustration is the standing caution of the subject: <b>a seventh grade pupil assigned a grade equivalent of 9\u00b75 does not belong to the ninth grade<\/b>. It is more accurate to say, in percentile terms, that his achievement is superior in relation to <b>other pupils of his own grade<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 412,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Percentile norms for school averages must not be used in interpreting individual pupil scores because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"individual scores vary far more widely than school averages do\",\r\n      \"school averages are computed from medians rather than from means\",\r\n      \"individual scores are always expressed in standard score form\",\r\n      \"school averages are available only for state-wide testing programmes\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) individual scores vary far more widely than school averages do<\/b><br><br>Averaging suppresses variation, so a distribution of school averages is far narrower than a distribution of individual scores. Reading one against the other <b>introduces serious error into the interpretation<\/b> by confusing a norm for school averages with a percentile grade norm.<br><br>Such norms are worked out exactly as other percentile norms are, <b>except that averages are substituted for individual scores<\/b> in the grade distribution. Their purpose is to compare one school or one system with another, which norms based on individual scores cannot do.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 413,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil's score corresponds to the 75th percentile norm on a test. This means that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"he has answered 75 per cent of the items correctly\",\r\n      \"75 per cent of the reference group scored below him\",\r\n      \"he is 75 points above the mean of the reference group\",\r\n      \"he belongs to the upper 75 per cent of the reference group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 75 per cent of the reference group scored below him<\/b><br><br>A percentile is the <b>point on the scale below which a fixed percentage of the distribution falls<\/b>; the remaining 25 per cent lie above it.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the standing confusion of the subject.<\/b> <b>Percentile norms are often confused with percent scores<\/b>, and they are wholly different \u2014 a percentile locates a pupil within a group, while a percentage records how much of the paper he answered.<br><br>The race illustration makes it plain: the fastest of a hundred runners has beaten 99, so his percentile value is 99, and <b>the distance between the first and second does not affect their positions<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 414,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chief shortcoming of percentile norms, which standard score norms are designed to remedy, is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"they cannot be computed for personality and for aptitude tests\",\r\n      \"the units are not uniform, successive percentiles being unequal\",\r\n      \"they require the assumption of a normal distribution of scores\",\r\n      \"they can be established for only a single grade at a time\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the units are not uniform, successive percentiles being unequal<\/b><br><br>The difference between the 30th and 40th percentiles is not equal to that between the 60th and 70th, so percentile norms cannot be used to compare the <b>differences<\/b> between candidates. Where the actual scores are close together the corresponding percentile values differ widely, and at the <b>extreme ends<\/b> the reverse holds.<br><br>Standard score norms supply units that are <b>meaningful throughout the whole range<\/b>, their basic unit being the <b>standard deviation of the reference group<\/b>. A further limitation of percentile norms is that they cannot be subjected to statistical analysis.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 415,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following merits claimed for percentile norms:<br>1. They are easily developed and easily interpreted.<br>2. They are useful in educational, industrial and military fields alike.<br>3. They permit the actual ability of an individual to be analysed objectively.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> Percentile norms are easily developed and analysed, serve in every kind of setting, and can express scores of differing units and numerical standards meaningfully. They are generally the form used for <b>personality, intelligence, attitude and aptitude tests<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it states a limitation as though it were a merit.<\/b> Percentile norms establish only the <b>relative position<\/b> of an individual; <b>they do not permit his actual ability or capability to be analysed objectively<\/b>, nor do they disclose the size of the difference between two individuals.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 416,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Type of norm)<br>A. Age norm<br>B. Grade norm<br>C. Percentile norm<br>D. Standard score norm<br><br>List II (What it expresses)<br>1. The average score of pupils of a given class<br>2. The distance of a score from the mean in standard deviation units<br>3. The average score of pupils of a given chronological age<br>4. The point below which a stated proportion of the group falls\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2<\/b><br><br>The four types divide on two axes. <b>Age and grade norms<\/b> are classified by the <b>group<\/b> for which they are established; <b>percentile and standard score norms<\/b> by the <b>scale or unit of expression<\/b>.<br><br>Grade norms are accordingly also called <b>class norms<\/b>, and standard score norms also called <b>Z score norms<\/b>.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> fix A and B by the words 'age' and 'class', and C and D are separated at sight by 'proportion' and 'standard deviation'.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 417,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A limitation peculiar to grade norms, as distinct from age norms, is that they:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"can be used only within formal educational institutions\",\r\n      \"cannot be established for achievement tests\",\r\n      \"require the variable to decrease as the pupil advances\",\r\n      \"are unaffected by differences in the rate of educational achievement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) can be used only within formal educational institutions<\/b><br><br>Grade norms presuppose a system of classes, and outside such a system they have no application at all \u2014 whereas age is available for everyone.<br><br>A second limitation is that grade norms <b>do not assist in comparing pupils of the same age<\/b>: a seven-year-old may be compared with boys of eight, nine or ten, but not with others of his own age. That comparison requires <b>percentile norms<\/b>.<br><br>Grade norms are otherwise like age norms \u2014 the variance is not explicit, the rate of development is not uniform by grade, and <b>grade norms, like age norms, are not uniform<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 418,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The requirement that norms should not be constructed from test scores obtained a long time ago is described as the characteristic of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"representation\",\r\n      \"novelty\",\r\n      \"meaningfulness\",\r\n      \"comparability\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Novelty<\/b><br><br>Novelty means that norms should be up to date, because <b>the passage of time changes pupils' abilities<\/b>. Norms derived from a test administered in 1990 would not be a proper basis for interpreting scores obtained in 2004, and norms must therefore be revised from time to time.<br><br>The four characteristics required of norms are <b>novelty, representation, meaningfulness and comparability<\/b>.<br><br>Two precautions accompany them: norms should be calculated with care, referring to a pupil's scores <b>on several tests rather than on one<\/b>, and the sample must always represent the whole population.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 419,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The characteristic of norms described as 'meaningfulness' requires that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the type of norm chosen should suit the objectives of the test and the trait measured\",\r\n      \"the norms should be derived from a group large enough to represent the population\",\r\n      \"the reference points of the norms should be clearly described in words\",\r\n      \"the norms should be revised whenever a new syllabus is introduced\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the type of norm chosen should suit the objectives of the test and the trait measured<\/b><br><br>Where a trait <b>increases with age<\/b>, age or grade norms are proper; where <b>personality<\/b> is to be measured, percentile or standard score norms should be used. Where the object is to judge the adequacy of physical or educational achievement, age or grade norms serve; where it is to fix a pupil's <b>position in a large group<\/b>, percentile and standard norms serve.<br><br><b>Option (B) states representation<\/b>, and <b>option (C) states comparability<\/b>, which further requires that norms be <b>mutually comparable<\/b> if pupils are to be compared through them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 420,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation that age or grade norms locate a pupil in terms of age or grade groups, but not necessarily with pupils of his own age and grade, is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Baron and Bernard\",\r\n      \"Ross and Stanley\",\r\n      \"Kuder and Richardson\",\r\n      \"Cronbach and Meehl\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Baron and Bernard<\/b><br><br>The remark exposes the limitation that age-at-grade norms were devised to meet. A seventh-grade pupil given a grade equivalent of 9\u00b75 has been located against ninth graders, though he sits with pupils of his own grade and is being taught with them.<br><br><b>Ross and Stanley (B)<\/b> drew the distinction between standard and norm \u2014 the one carrying an objective and telling us our goal, the other indicating present achievement.<br><br>The other two pairs belong to reliability and to construct validity respectively.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 421,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Uses of Standardised Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following guidance uses of standardised tests:<br>1. Guiding pupils to select subjects in accordance with their mental abilities, aptitudes and interests<br>2. Directing children away from fields in which they have neither interest nor aptitude<br>3. Identifying special abilities and providing a challenge that calls for greater effort<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated. Test records held in the institution further enable teachers and principals to help a pupil <b>adjust to the school environment<\/b>, and the guidance centre serves also as a <b>test bureau<\/b>.<br><br>The records kept there include the results of physical and mental tests, aptitude tests, progressive tests, personality inventories, surveys, and analytical and diagnostic achievement tests.<br><br>The condition attached is significant for a Principal: <b>the guidance specialist must be well trained in the use and interpretation of measurement and evaluation data<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 422,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Uses of Standardised Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Standardised tests are said to be of particular value for selection decisions because such decisions:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"imply comparison with others, for which adequate norms are needed\",\r\n      \"require a criterion measured at a future point of time\",\r\n      \"are taken by the examining agency rather than by the school\",\r\n      \"rest on the mastery of a stated body of content\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) imply comparison with others, for which adequate norms are needed<\/b><br><br>Five kinds of decision are named as suited to standardised tests, and each for its own reason. <b>Placement<\/b> decisions call for a broad appraisal, which such tests supply on a scale of uniform scores. <b>Counselling and guidance<\/b> decisions need normative comparisons. <b>Selection<\/b> decisions need adequate norms. <b>Curriculum<\/b> decisions between alternative programmes imply broad-based comparison, supplemented by locally developed measures. <b>Public and policy<\/b> decisions call for a comprehensive and comparative view of a school's performance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 423,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Coverage of Objectives\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In language subjects, the three assessment objectives given proportionate weightage in a question paper are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"knowledge, understanding and application\",\r\n      \"knowledge of functional grammar, reading comprehension and written expression\",\r\n      \"listening, speaking and writing\",\r\n      \"vocabulary, structure and composition\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) knowledge of functional grammar, reading comprehension and written expression<\/b><br><br>In the illustration given, the weightages are <b>24, 36 and 40<\/b> marks respectively out of 100.<br><br><b>Option (A) names the three objectives used in content subjects<\/b>, where a fourth \u2014 psychomotor skill, mainly drawing \u2014 is added.<br><br><b>Option (D) is the near miss.<\/b> Orthography, structures, vocabulary and composition are the broad <b>content units<\/b> into which a language syllabus is divided; they are not assessment objectives. The two tables are separate steps in the design.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 424,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Formatting the Question Paper\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following requirements of the instructions printed on a question paper:<br>1. They must be relevant and adequate, omitting no significant direction such as negative marking.<br>2. They must be clear, unambiguous and comprehensible.<br>3. They must be confined to the paper as a whole, no direction being given within an individual question.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Directions operate at <b>three levels<\/b>: for the whole paper, for a particular section, and <b>within the question itself<\/b> \u2014 as in an instruction to describe a process in not more than a hundred words with the help of a diagram, which fixes the directional word, the length and the diagram together.<br><br>Numbering serves the same practical end. It is usually in Arabic or Roman numerals, with letters or small Roman numerals used where grouping runs to two or three levels within the paper.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 425,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Planning the Testing Programme\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In selecting a test for a school testing programme, point values are assigned to which of the following features?<br>1. Validity and reliability<br>2. Practicability and comparability<br>3. Utility<br>4. Cost of the answer sheets\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>The five features to which point values are assigned in rating a test are <b>validity, reliability, practicability, comparability and utility<\/b> \u2014 the same five that constitute the characteristics of a good test.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> Cost is not a separate head; it falls within <b>practicability<\/b>, along with administrative, scoring and interpretative ease.<br><br>The stated caution is simply that <b>there is need for care in selecting the tests<\/b>, since everything that follows in the programme depends on that choice.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 426,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 7: TEST CONSTRUCTION, STANDARDIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF NORMS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Test Construction and Standardization\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking Schemes\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In assembling a question paper, the difference between the scoring key and the marking scheme is that the scoring key:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"gives the letter of the correct answer and the marks carried by each question\",\r\n      \"gives the expected outline answer and the value points for each aspect of it\",\r\n      \"records the difficulty level estimated for each item in the paper\",\r\n      \"lists the instructions to be printed at the head of each section\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) gives the letter of the correct answer and the marks carried by each question<\/b><br><br>The two documents serve two forms of question. A <b>scoring key<\/b> is prepared for <b>objective-type<\/b> questions; a <b>marking scheme<\/b> for the rest, giving the <b>expected outline answer and the value points<\/b> for each aspect \u2014 which is what option (B) describes.<br><br>Detailed marking instructions are worked out alongside, specifying how many marks are to be deducted for spelling or structural mistakes and how a composition is to be graded.<br><br>Its purpose is <b>consistency and uniformity of scoring among different examiners \u2014 that is, the reliability of scoring<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 427,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Item analysis is correctly described as the process of finding out:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the age norms, the grade norms and the percentile norms of the test\",\r\n      \"the mean, the median and the mode of the distribution of the scores\",\r\n      \"the reliability, the validity and the usability of the test as a whole\",\r\n      \"the difficulty index, the discrimination index and distractor effectiveness\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the difficulty index, the discrimination index and distractor effectiveness<\/b><br><br>Item analysis examines the responses to <b>individual items<\/b> in order to assess the quality both of those items and of the test as a whole.<br><br>It serves two distinct purposes: it improves items that will be <b>used again in later tests<\/b>, and it identifies ambiguous or misleading items even in a <b>single administration<\/b>.<br><br>It also facilitates the development of an <b>item or question bank<\/b> from which later tests may be constructed (Anastasi, 2001).\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 428,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The definition of item analysis as the procedure used to judge the quality of an item is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Ryens\",\r\n      \"Freeman\",\r\n      \"Guilford\",\r\n      \"Lamark\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Lamark<\/b><br><br>The other three names belong to distinct propositions in the same field, and each is a genuine competitor.<br><br><b>Freeman<\/b> held that two aspects are chiefly to be considered in item analysis \u2014 the <b>difficulty level<\/b> of items and their <b>discriminating value<\/b>. <b>Guilford<\/b> held that the method of item analysis <b>must be applied before the final form of the test is constructed<\/b>, since the mean, variance, form of score distribution, reliability and validity of the whole test all depend on the items in it. <b>Ryens<\/b> observed that no specific assistance is offered by the external criterion.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 429,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The statement that test analysis is a general term covering a wide range of statistical and analytical techniques applied for the purpose of improving tests, examinations and other mental measurement devices is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Lein and Diederich\",\r\n      \"Blood and Budd\",\r\n      \"Stanley and Hopkins\",\r\n      \"Harper and Chauhan\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Harper and Chauhan<\/b><br><br>Harper stated it in his presidential address to the <b>62nd Indian Science Congress in 1974<\/b>.<br><br>Each distractor pairs two names that also belong to this chapter, which is what makes them credible. <b>Blood and Budd (1972)<\/b> supplied the interpretive bands for the <b>discrimination index<\/b>; <b>Stanley and Hopkins (1972)<\/b> the theoretical model of the relationship between difficulty and discrimination; <b>Lein (1980)<\/b> the bands for the <b>difficulty index<\/b>, and <b>Diederich (1971)<\/b> the quick classroom method of item analysis.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 430,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Need for Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The success of a test is said to depend on two factors. These are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"how many items it contains, and whether the items are of uniform difficulty\",\r\n      \"how well it measures the objectives, and whether each item discriminates\",\r\n      \"how closely it follows the syllabus, and whether it carries a time limit\",\r\n      \"how quickly it can be scored, and whether a large group can sit it at once\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) how well it measures the objectives, and whether each item discriminates<\/b><br><br>A test failing on either count cannot be called successful \u2014 the first is a question of <b>validity<\/b>, the second of <b>discrimination<\/b>.<br><br>It follows that the task of the test-maker is to <b>verify the items and select only those that are good, reliable, valid and fulfil the objectives<\/b>, and that whole process is item analysis. It is for this reason that the number of statements written at the outset is <b>far larger than the number required<\/b>, so that unfit items may be deleted.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 431,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Need for Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following purposes for which item analysis is needed:<br>1. Rejecting items that are weak or carry a double meaning<br>2. Determining the number of items to be included in the test<br>3. Bringing out the defects in the responses of the pupils<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, together with the requirement that <b>each selected item should represent the whole test<\/b>.<br><br>The chief object is to select items that are <b>suitable, reliable and valid for the very class of pupils for whom the test was constructed<\/b> \u2014 a reminder that item statistics are specific to the group on which they were obtained.<br><br>Item analysis is accordingly also called the <b>evaluation of the test<\/b> or the <b>try-out stage of test construction<\/b>, and no test can be completed without it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 432,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criteria for Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"For a survey-type test, items are considered suitable where the difficulty index lies between:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"10 and 50, with a discrimination index of about 0\u00b74 to 0\u00b75\",\r\n      \"20 and 80, with a discrimination index of 0\u00b73 or more\",\r\n      \"30 and 70, with a discrimination index of 0\u00b72 or more\",\r\n      \"40 and 60, with a discrimination index of 0\u00b71 or more\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 20 and 80, with a discrimination index of 0\u00b73 or more<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A) states the standard for a selection test<\/b>, where the difficulty index should lie between <b>10 and 50<\/b> and the discrimination index about <b>0\u00b74 or 0\u00b75<\/b> \u2014 narrower and harder, because a selection instrument must separate the ablest few.<br><br>There is <b>no definite formula or principle<\/b> fixing these limits; they depend on the <b>object of the test and the insight of the test-maker<\/b>. The two criteria on which an item is retained or rejected are the <b>difficulty index and the discrimination or validity index<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 433,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Process of Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the item-analysis chart prepared during item analysis, the entries recorded in the last two rows at the foot of the chart are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the content unit and the assessment objective\",\r\n      \"the mean score and the standard deviation\",\r\n      \"the number of attempts and the number of omissions\",\r\n      \"the difficulty index and the discrimination index\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the difficulty index and the discrimination index<\/b><br><br>The chart carries the <b>serial numbers of the items in the columns<\/b> and the pupils in the rows, and each cell receives a tick for a right response and a cross for a wrong one.<br><br>The difficulty index is obtained by <b>counting the ticks down each column and converting them into a percentage<\/b>.<br><br>The chart is prepared only after the answer scripts have been <b>arranged in ascending order of score<\/b> \u2014 the ordering being what makes it possible to mark off a top and a bottom group for the discrimination computation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 434,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Process of Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the method of item analysis in which the chart is divided into three approximately equal parts, the discrimination index of an item is obtained by dividing the difference between the top and bottom groups by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"N\",\r\n      \"N\/2\",\r\n      \"N\/3\",\r\n      \"2N\/3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) N\/3<\/b><br><br>The formula is <b>V.I. = (T \u2212 B) \/ (N\/3)<\/b>, where T is the number in the top group answering correctly, B the number in the bottom group, and N the sample size.<br><br>Where 100 pupils are tested, the first and third parts contain <b>33 each and the middle part 34<\/b>; the middle group is <b>covered with a white sheet and set aside<\/b>, being excluded from the computation.<br><br>The divisor is the size of <b>one<\/b> group, not of both \u2014 the standing trap in every discrimination calculation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 435,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a class of 45 pupils whose scripts have been arranged in order of score, the number of scripts to be taken into the high group by the 27 per cent method is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"10\",\r\n      \"12\",\r\n      \"15\",\r\n      \"22\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 12<\/b><br><br>45 \u00d7 0\u00b727 = 12\u00b715, <b>rounded to 12<\/b>. The same number is taken from the bottom of the pile, and the middle <b>21<\/b> scripts are set aside \u2014 using only the two extreme groups simplifies the procedure.<br><br>The figure of 27 per cent is <b>not inflexible<\/b>: any proportion <b>between 27 and 35 per cent<\/b> may be used.<br><br><b>Option (D), 22, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 it is roughly half the class, which is the basis of the <b>50 per cent<\/b> method used for small groups, not of the 27 per cent method.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 436,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Of 25 pupils in the high group and 25 in the low group, 20 and 10 respectively answer an item correctly. The difficulty index of the item is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b720\",\r\n      \"0\u00b740\",\r\n      \"0\u00b760\",\r\n      \"0\u00b780\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 0\u00b760<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> Difficulty Index = R \/ T, where R is the number answering correctly and T the total number who attempted.<br><br>R = 20 + 10 = <b>30<\/b>; T = 25 + 25 = <b>50<\/b><br>Difficulty Index = 30 \/ 50 = <b>0\u00b760<\/b><br><br><b>The point that trips candidates:<\/b> since the index reports the proportion getting the item <b>right<\/b>, <b>the smaller the figure the more difficult the item<\/b>. An index of 0\u00b760 marks a moderately easy item, not a difficult one. Although computed on the two extreme groups only, the figure closely approximates that of the whole group.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 437,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On Lein's guidelines for interpreting the difficulty index, an item with an index of 0\u00b725 is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"easy\",\r\n      \"moderate\",\r\n      \"difficult\",\r\n      \"of maximum discrimination\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Difficult<\/b><br><br><b>Lein (1980)<\/b> gives three bands:<br>\u2022 above <b>0\u00b770<\/b> \u2014 <b>easy<\/b><br>\u2022 <b>0\u00b730 to 0\u00b769<\/b> \u2014 <b>moderate<\/b><br>\u2022 below <b>0\u00b729<\/b> \u2014 <b>difficult<\/b><br><br>An index of 0\u00b725 therefore falls in the lowest band.<br><br>Where a teacher regards the achievement on an item as too low, two readings are open: he may <b>change the way he teaches<\/b> to meet the objective the item represents, or conclude that the item itself was <b>too difficult, confusing or invalid<\/b> and replace it \u2014 the discrimination index and distractor analysis helping him decide which.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 438,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a test administered to 150 pupils, 120 answer a particular item correctly. By the formula method, the difficulty index of the item is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"20 per cent\",\r\n      \"40 per cent\",\r\n      \"60 per cent\",\r\n      \"80 per cent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 80 per cent<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> D.I. = (N<sub>i<\/sub> \/ N<sub>t<\/sub>) \u00d7 100, where N<sub>i<\/sub> is the number answering correctly and N<sub>t<\/sub> the total number of pupils.<br><br>D.I. = (120 \/ 150) \u00d7 100 = <b>80 per cent<\/b>, or 0\u00b780<br><br><b>Option (A), 20 per cent, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 it is the proportion answering <b>incorrectly<\/b>. The difficulty index is really a <b>facility<\/b> index: it counts success, not failure, and a high value marks an easy item.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 439,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following methods of computing the difficulty index is preferred where the group is small, the number of pupils being fewer than a hundred?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The 27 per cent top and 27 per cent bottom method\",\r\n      \"The 50 per cent top and 50 per cent bottom method\",\r\n      \"Harper's 35 per cent facility index method\",\r\n      \"The 33 per cent top and 33 per cent bottom method\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) The 50 per cent top and 50 per cent bottom method<\/b><br><br>Where the group is small, extreme groups of 27 per cent would be <b>too few to support any inference<\/b>, so the whole group is divided into two halves.<br><br>The recognised methods are the <b>27\u201327<\/b> method, <b>Harper's 35 per cent facility index<\/b> method, the <b>50\u201350<\/b> method, the <b>33\u201333<\/b> method, and the <b>formula<\/b> method. The 27\u201327 method is generally used, and there is <b>no single suitable method<\/b> prescribed.<br><br>Note the general principle: <b>the larger the number in the top and bottom groups, the higher the discrimination index<\/b> tends to be.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 440,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the 50 per cent method of item analysis, the difficulty index of an item is obtained as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the difference between the proportions passing in the two halves\",\r\n      \"the mean of the proportions passing in the two halves\",\r\n      \"the product of the proportions passing in the two halves\",\r\n      \"the ratio of the proportion passing in the upper half to that in the lower half\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the mean of the proportions passing in the two halves<\/b><br><br>The proportions R<sub>H<\/sub> and R<sub>L<\/sub> are computed for each half and averaged: <b>D.I. = (R<sub>H<\/sub> + R<sub>L<\/sub>) \/ 2<\/b>.<br><br>Thus where all five of the upper half and three of the lower half answer correctly, the proportions are 1\u00b700 and 0\u00b760 and the index is <b>0\u00b780<\/b> \u2014 the easiest item in the worked illustration.<br><br><b>Option (A) states the discrimination index<\/b>, which is obtained from the same two figures by <b>subtracting<\/b> rather than averaging. One arithmetic operation separates the two indices.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 441,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correction for Chance\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Guilford's correction formula applied to the difficulty index is designed to remove the effect of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"unequal numbers in the upper and lower groups\",\r\n      \"variation in the marking of different examiners\",\r\n      \"differences in the time taken by pupils to reach the item\",\r\n      \"guessing by pupils who do not know the right answer\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) guessing by pupils who do not know the right answer<\/b><br><br>In a multiple-choice item there is every possibility that pupils will guess without knowing the answer, and the formula estimates <b>the percentage who actually know the right response<\/b>:<br><br><b>P<sub>c<\/sub> = (R \u2212 W\/(K\u22121)) \u00d7 1\/N<\/b><br><br>where R is the number of right responses, W of wrong responses, K the number of alternatives and N the number of candidates. The deduction is proportionate: with <b>four<\/b> alternatives one wrong answer in three is treated as cancelling a lucky guess, so the more alternatives an item offers, the smaller the correction.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 442,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correction for Chance\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Of 300 candidates, 240 answer a four-alternative item correctly. Applying Guilford's correction, the difficulty index of the item is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b7667\",\r\n      \"0\u00b7733\",\r\n      \"0\u00b7800\",\r\n      \"0\u00b7933\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 0\u00b7733<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> P<sub>c<\/sub> = (R \u2212 W\/(K\u22121)) \u00d7 1\/N<br><br>W = 300 \u2212 240 = <b>60<\/b><br>W\/(K\u22121) = 60 \/ 3 = <b>20<\/b><br>P<sub>c<\/sub> = (240 \u2212 20) \/ 300 = 220 \/ 300 = <b>0\u00b7733<\/b>, that is <b>73\u00b73 per cent<\/b><br><br><b>Option (C), 0\u00b7800, is the uncorrected index<\/b> \u2014 240\/300 \u2014 and is exactly what the correction exists to reduce. The gap between 0\u00b780 and 0\u00b7733 is the estimated contribution of guessing.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 443,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correction for Chance\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the corrected difficulty formula, an item is treated as 'unreached' where the candidate:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"has skipped it but has attempted later items in the paper\",\r\n      \"has not attempted it and has attempted nothing after it\",\r\n      \"has attempted it but recorded more than one response\",\r\n      \"has attempted it after the prescribed time limit expired\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) has not attempted it and has attempted nothing after it<\/b><br><br>The illustration makes the distinction sharp. In a 50-item test a candidate answers items 1 to 25, <b>omits 26 and 27<\/b>, answers 28 to 40 and stops. Items <b>41 to 50 are unreached<\/b>; items 26 and 27 are <b>not<\/b>, because he went on past them.<br><br>The consequence is a modified denominator. Candidates fall into <b>three<\/b> groups \u2014 right, wrong and non-responding \u2014 and the formula becomes P<sub>c<\/sub> = (R \u2212 W\/(K\u22121)) \u00d7 1\/(N \u2212 N<sub>R<\/sub>), the non-responders being excluded from the base.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 444,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correction for Chance\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A four-alternative item is attempted by 340 candidates, of whom 180 answer correctly, 90 answer wrongly and 40 do not reach the item. The corrected difficulty index is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b744\",\r\n      \"0\u00b750\",\r\n      \"0\u00b753\",\r\n      \"0\u00b760\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 0\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> P<sub>c<\/sub> = (R \u2212 W\/(K\u22121)) \u00d7 1\/(N \u2212 N<sub>R<\/sub>)<br><br>W\/(K\u22121) = 90 \/ 3 = <b>30<\/b><br>R \u2212 30 = 180 \u2212 30 = <b>150<\/b><br>N \u2212 N<sub>R<\/sub> = 340 \u2212 40 = <b>300<\/b><br>P<sub>c<\/sub> = 150 \/ 300 = <b>0\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 0\u00b744, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 it results from dividing by the full 340 instead of by 300. <b>Unreached items must be removed from the denominator<\/b>, since a candidate who never saw the item neither knew it nor guessed at it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 445,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correction for Chance\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Kelley's formula for the corrected difficulty index is stated to be convenient where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the test is a speed test rather than a power test\",\r\n      \"the items carry only two alternatives each\",\r\n      \"the number of pupils tested is very large\",\r\n      \"no candidate has left any item unattempted\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the number of pupils tested is very large<\/b><br><br>Kelley's formula applies the guessing correction <b>separately to the top 27 per cent and the bottom 27 per cent<\/b> and then averages the two results, which is why it suits a large group where those extreme groups are themselves substantial.<br><br>It carries eight quantities \u2014 R, W, N and N<sub>R<\/sub> for <b>each<\/b> of the two groups \u2014 against the four of Guilford's formula.<br><br><b>Kelley's justification for the 27 per cent figure<\/b> is that it alone permits the assertion that the top group is genuinely superior and the bottom genuinely inferior; smaller groups are too small to decide anything.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 446,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correction for Chance\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chi-square test formula in item analysis is resorted to because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the values yielded by the other formulae differ, making comparison difficult\",\r\n      \"the difficulty index cannot otherwise be expressed as a percentage\",\r\n      \"the discrimination index cannot otherwise take a negative value\",\r\n      \"the number of alternatives in the item is not known in advance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the values yielded by the other formulae differ, making comparison difficult<\/b><br><br>Where several methods give different figures for the same item, their comparative study becomes awkward, and the chi-square formula is applied to obtain a common footing.<br><br>The formula has <b>two forms<\/b>, and which is used depends on the direction of the difference: the <b>first<\/b> where R<sub>H<\/sub> exceeds R<sub>L<\/sub>, and the <b>second<\/b> where R<sub>L<\/sub> exceeds R<sub>H<\/sub>. The two are not interchangeable, and applying the wrong form to a negatively discriminating item gives a meaningless result.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 447,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correction for Chance\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In Horst's formula S = R \u2212 Dp, the symbol Dp denotes:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the difficulty percentage of the item\",\r\n      \"the most potent distractor in the item\",\r\n      \"the discrimination power of the item\",\r\n      \"the proportion of candidates not attempting the item\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the most potent distractor in the item<\/b><br><br>S is the number who <b>actually know<\/b> the right response and R the number who <b>gave<\/b> it, so the formula subtracts the pull of the strongest wrong option from the apparent success rate.<br><br>Three assumptions underlie it: distractors <b>do not attract pupils equally<\/b> but stand in an order of attraction; the <b>most potent<\/b> distractor is what matters in a multiple-choice item; and <b>the most potent distractor must not be more attractive than the right alternative<\/b> \u2014 if it is, it must be replaced.<br><br>A negative value of S indicates that <b>nobody in fact knew the right alternative<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 448,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The discrimination index of an item shows the extent to which:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the item is answered correctly by the group taken as a whole\",\r\n      \"performance on the item is related to overall mastery of the content\",\r\n      \"the item can be answered within the time that is allotted to it\",\r\n      \"the item samples the content domain in its due proportion\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) performance on the item is related to overall mastery of the content<\/b><br><br>The index differentiates between pupils in the high-marks group and those in the low-marks group, and may be read as showing how far a right response reflects <b>knowledge or ability rather than chance or test bias<\/b>.<br><br>The reasoning is one of consistency: an item discriminates positively where it separates pupils <b>in the same direction as the total test score does<\/b>. Where high scorers get it right more often than low scorers, the item is behaving like the test of which it forms part.<br><br>Options (A) and (D) describe the difficulty index and content validity.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 449,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"An item is answered correctly by 27 of the 30 pupils in the high-marks group and by 12 of the 30 pupils in the low-marks group. The discrimination index is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b725\",\r\n      \"0\u00b740\",\r\n      \"0\u00b750\",\r\n      \"0\u00b765\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 0\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> D = (R<sub>H<\/sub> \u2212 R<sub>L<\/sub>) \/ \u00bdT, where \u00bdT is <b>half the total number who attempted<\/b> \u2014 that is, the size of one group.<br><br>R<sub>H<\/sub> \u2212 R<sub>L<\/sub> = 27 \u2212 12 = <b>15<\/b><br>\u00bdT = 60 \/ 2 = <b>30<\/b><br>D = 15 \/ 30 = <b>0\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>The recurring error is option (A), 0\u00b725<\/b>, obtained by dividing by the combined total of 60. <b>The difficulty index divides by the combined total; the discrimination index divides by one group only.<\/b> On Blood and Budd's bands a value of 0\u00b750 marks high discrimination, and the item is retained.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 450,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On the guidelines of Blood and Budd, an item whose discrimination index falls between 0\u00b710 and 0\u00b719 should be:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"retained as it stands\",\r\n      \"checked and revised\",\r\n      \"removed or rewritten\",\r\n      \"used only in a mastery test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) removed or rewritten<\/b><br><br><b>Blood and Budd (1972)<\/b> give four bands:<br>\u2022 above <b>0\u00b740<\/b> \u2014 high discrimination, <b>question retained<\/b><br>\u2022 <b>0\u00b720 to 0\u00b739<\/b> \u2014 moderate discrimination, <b>checked and revised<\/b><br>\u2022 <b>0\u00b710 to 0\u00b719<\/b> \u2014 low discrimination, <b>removed or rewritten<\/b><br>\u2022 <b>0\u00b700 and negative<\/b> \u2014 no discrimination, <b>question removed<\/b><br><br>A low index admits of two readings: either the question was <b>too simple<\/b>, so that low scorers also answered it, or <b>too difficult<\/b>, so that high scorers also failed it. The remedy differs, which is why the item must be inspected and not merely discarded.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 451,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A negative discrimination index for an item indicates that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"pupils who scored low on the test were likelier to answer it correctly\",\r\n      \"no pupil in either of the two groups answered the item correctly\",\r\n      \"the item was answered correctly by every pupil in both the groups\",\r\n      \"the item was placed too late in the sequence of the question paper\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) pupils who scored low on the test were likelier to answer it correctly<\/b><br><br>This is described as a <b>strange situation suggesting poor validity for the item<\/b>, and it points to a miskeyed answer, an ambiguous stem or a misleading distractor. Such items are removed.<br><br>The reading of the index is otherwise straightforward: <b>the greater the positive value, the closer to 1\u00b70, the stronger the relationship between overall test performance and performance on that item<\/b>. At a minimum one hopes for a positive value, since only then can the right response be attributed to knowledge.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 452,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the item-analysis illustration where the discriminating value is expressed simply as the difference between the right responses of the superior and inferior groups, an item on which that value is zero is excluded because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"it cannot distinguish good from weak pupils, both answering it alike\",\r\n      \"its difficulty index cannot be computed at all from the data given\",\r\n      \"it was not attempted by any pupil in either of the two groups\",\r\n      \"it carries fewer marks than the other items included in the test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) it cannot distinguish good from weak pupils, both answering it alike<\/b><br><br>In the worked table, item 14 is answered correctly by three pupils in each group, giving V.I. = 0, and is described as <b>very bad<\/b> and excluded.<br><br>The gradations of that table run: <b>+5 best, +4 very good, +3 good, +2 ordinary, +1 bad, 0 very bad, negative<\/b>.<br><br>Item 15 is the instructive case: with one right response in the superior group against three in the inferior, its value is <b>\u22122<\/b> \u2014 <b>more weak pupils answered it correctly than able ones<\/b> \u2014 and it is unfit for the final draft.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 453,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the method of computing the discriminating value in which the top and bottom thirds of the scripts are compared, an item is regarded as satisfactorily discriminating where the value of D exceeds:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b796\",\r\n      \"1\u00b764\",\r\n      \"1\u00b796\",\r\n      \"2\u00b758\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1\u00b796<\/b><br><br>The formula sets the difference between the two proportions against its own standard error:<br><b>D = (P\u2081 \u2212 P\u2082) \/ \u221a(P\u2081Q\u2081\/N\u2081 + P\u2082Q\u2082\/N\u2082)<\/b><br><br>where P\u2081 and Q\u2081 are the proportions in the top third answering correctly and incorrectly, and P\u2082 and Q\u2082 the corresponding proportions in the bottom third.<br><br>Items with D above <b>1\u00b796 or 2\u00b700<\/b> are considered good. The value is not arbitrary: <b>1\u00b796 is the critical ratio at the 5 per cent level<\/b>, so the test asks whether the difference between the groups is greater than chance would produce.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 454,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a test given to 80 pupils, 50 answer a particular item correctly. Estimating the discriminating value of the item by the formula D.P. = P \u00d7 Q, the value obtained is approximately:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1875\",\r\n      \"2344\",\r\n      \"2500\",\r\n      \"3750\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 2344<\/b><br><br>P = (50 \/ 80) \u00d7 100 = <b>62\u00b75 per cent<\/b><br>Q = 100 \u2212 62\u00b75 = <b>37\u00b75 per cent<\/b><br>D.P. = 62\u00b75 \u00d7 37\u00b75 = <b>2343\u00b775 \u2248 2344<\/b><br><br><b>Option (C), 2500, is the benchmark and the trap.<\/b> An item with a discriminating value of <b>2500<\/b> is considered suitable \u2014 and that figure is the <b>maximum the product can reach<\/b>, since P \u00d7 Q is greatest when P = Q = 50.<br><br>The arithmetic thus restates a familiar proposition: <b>an item of 50 per cent difficulty carries the greatest discriminating potential<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 455,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The 27 per cent top and 27 per cent bottom right-response method of item analysis was set out by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Garrett\",\r\n      \"Diederich\",\r\n      \"Lein\",\r\n      \"Horst\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Garrett<\/b><br><br>Under the method the scripts are arranged in descending order, the top and bottom 27 per cent retained and the rest set aside. Of 300 scripts, the top <b>81<\/b> and bottom <b>81<\/b> are used and <b>138<\/b> are not considered.<br><br>The percentages answering correctly in the two groups are then read against a table giving the <b>bi-serial correlation<\/b>, which is the validity index, while the <b>average of the two percentages<\/b> gives the difficulty index.<br><br>Items with a validity index of <b>0\u00b720 or more<\/b> are satisfactory; for a very good test, only those above <b>0\u00b750<\/b> are selected.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 456,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Discrimination Index\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the 27 per cent method, the percentages of the top and bottom groups answering an item correctly are 74 and 50 respectively. The difficulty index of the item is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b724\",\r\n      \"0\u00b750\",\r\n      \"0\u00b762\",\r\n      \"0\u00b774\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 0\u00b762<\/b><br><br>The difficulty index is the <b>average of the two percentages<\/b>:<br>(74 + 50) \/ 2 = 124 \/ 2 = <b>62<\/b>, that is <b>0\u00b762<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 0\u00b724, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 it is the <b>difference<\/b> between the two percentages, which bears on discrimination rather than difficulty. In the worked illustration the validity index of this same item, read from the bi-serial table, is <b>0\u00b726<\/b>.<br><br>The two indices are computed from the very same pair of figures, one by <b>averaging<\/b> and the other by <b>contrasting<\/b> them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 457,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty and Discrimination\",\r\n    \"question\": \"According to the theoretical model of Stanley and Hopkins, the discrimination index attains its highest possible value where the difficulty index is about:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b71\",\r\n      \"0\u00b73\",\r\n      \"0\u00b75\",\r\n      \"0\u00b79\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 0\u00b75<\/b><br><br>The model traces an inverted curve. As the difficulty index rises from 0\u00b71 to 0\u00b75 the discrimination index rises with it; at <b>0\u00b75 \u2014 an item of moderate difficulty \u2014 the discrimination index can reach its maximum<\/b>; and beyond 0\u00b75 it falls away again.<br><br>The reason lies on both sides of the curve. <b>The more difficult a question, the harder it is for it to separate those who know from those who do not<\/b>; and <b>the easier a question, the harder it is likewise<\/b>. At either extreme almost everyone answers alike, and an item that everyone answers alike separates nobody.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 458,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Difficulty and Discrimination\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On the Stanley and Hopkins model, an item with a difficulty index of 0\u00b79 is expected to yield a discrimination index of about:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b72\",\r\n      \"0\u00b75\",\r\n      \"0\u00b78\",\r\n      \"1\u00b70\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 0\u00b72<\/b><br><br>Such an item is described as one of <b>low to moderate discrimination<\/b>, and an index of about 0\u00b72 is also what a difficulty index of <b>0\u00b71<\/b> yields \u2014 the curve being roughly symmetrical about 0\u00b75.<br><br>The practical consequence for a test constructor is direct: an item answered correctly by nine pupils in ten contributes very little to separating the group, however sound its content. This is why the <b>bulk of items in a discriminating test are pitched near the middle of the difficulty range<\/b>, and why items at either extreme are retained only for other purposes, such as building confidence at the start of a paper.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 459,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Effectiveness of Distractors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In analysing the effectiveness of the distractors in a multiple-choice item, a good distractor is one which:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"attracts more pupils from the low-marks group than from the high-marks group\",\r\n      \"attracts an equal number of pupils from both groups\",\r\n      \"attracts no pupil from either of the two groups\",\r\n      \"attracts more pupils from the high-marks group than from the low-marks group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) attracts more pupils from the low-marks group than from the high-marks group<\/b><br><br>A distractor exists to draw those who do not know the answer, so its pull should fall on the weaker group.<br><br>In the worked illustration, option D is a <b>relatively good distractor<\/b>, chosen by 2 of the high group and 5 of the low group. Option B is <b>less effective<\/b>, because as many as 5 high-marks pupils chose it \u2014 a sign that it is competing with the key rather than screening ignorance.<br><br><b>Option (D) describes the worst case<\/b>, which produces negative discrimination.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 460,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Effectiveness of Distractors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A distractor chosen by no pupil at all is objectionable because it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"makes correct guessing more likely and so hurts the validity of the item\",\r\n      \"raises the difficulty index of the item beyond acceptable limits\",\r\n      \"prevents the discrimination index from being computed\",\r\n      \"increases the time the item takes to answer\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) makes correct guessing more likely and so hurts the validity of the item<\/b><br><br>Where one option is never considered, the pupils are <b>not choosing among four options but effectively among three<\/b>, and the chance of a lucky guess rises accordingly. The distractor is simply <b>taking up space<\/b>.<br><br>The remedy is to modify the ineffective options rather than the key \u2014 improving them <b>raises the discrimination index of the item<\/b>.<br><br>The governing aim is stated plainly: to eliminate blind guessing, a teacher wants <b>as many plausible distractors as is feasible<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 461,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Effectiveness of Distractors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the analysis of response options in a multiple-choice item:<br>1. It shows which distractors appear attractive to pupils who do not know the correct answer.<br>2. It allows a teacher to fine-tune items he may wish to use again with later classes.<br>3. It is carried out on the responses of the high-marks group alone.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statements 1 and 2 \u2713<\/b> The analysis proceeds by <b>calculating the proportion of pupils choosing each answer option<\/b>, which discloses both the distractors that are working and those merely taking up space, and it is the means by which items are improved for later use.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> The whole value of the exercise lies in <b>comparing the two groups<\/b>. A count from the high group alone could not show whether a distractor is drawing the ignorant or misleading the able \u2014 which is the very question being asked.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 462,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Practical Approach to Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the practical classroom method of item analysis proposed by Diederich, the class is divided into a high group and a low group:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"by taking the top and bottom 27 per cent and setting aside the middle group\",\r\n      \"at the middle score, no middle group being set aside at all\",\r\n      \"by taking the top and bottom thirds and setting aside the middle third\",\r\n      \"by random allotment of pupils to the two groups\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) at the middle score, no middle group being set aside at all<\/b><br><br>The scripts are ordered by score, the middle script identified, and everything above it marked H and everything below it marked L. The two halves are then handed back to the pupils, a <b>counter<\/b> is appointed in each group, and the teacher reads out the key item by item while the counters report how many hands go up.<br><br>The method is described frankly as <b>less accurate \u2014 a 'quick and dirty' method<\/b>. <b>Selecting the top and bottom 27 per cent is recommended for a more refined analysis<\/b>, the essential requirement being a fraction large enough to yield useful information.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 463,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Practical Approach to Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a class of 30 divided into two halves by Diederich's method, 14 pupils of the high group and 8 of the low group answer an item correctly. The difficulty index and the discrimination index of the item are respectively:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b773 and 0\u00b740\",\r\n      \"0\u00b740 and 0\u00b773\",\r\n      \"0\u00b773 and 0\u00b720\",\r\n      \"0\u00b722 and 0\u00b740\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 0\u00b773 and 0\u00b740<\/b><br><br><b>Difficulty index<\/b> = (R<sub>H<\/sub> + R<sub>L<\/sub>) \/ N = (14 + 8) \/ 30 = 22 \/ 30 = <b>0\u00b773<\/b><br><b>Discrimination index<\/b> = (R<sub>H<\/sub> \u2212 R<sub>L<\/sub>) \/ \u00bdN = (14 \u2212 8) \/ 15 = 6 \/ 15 = <b>0\u00b740<\/b><br><br><b>Note the two different denominators.<\/b> Difficulty divides by the <b>whole<\/b> group of 30, discrimination by <b>half<\/b> of it. Option (C), 0\u00b720, is what results from dividing the difference by 30 as well \u2014 the commonest slip in the calculation, and one that halves every discrimination index a candidate computes.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 464,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"External Criterion\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where the validity of each item is judged by correlating it with the total score on the test itself, the criterion used is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"internal\",\r\n      \"external\",\r\n      \"concurrent\",\r\n      \"predictive\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Internal<\/b><br><br>The whole test is treated as the criterion measure, and the assumption is that it measures the trait for which it was constructed. Where an item correlates well with the total, it is taken to measure that trait, and so to be valid.<br><br>The reasoning is described as <b>rational, but limited<\/b>: it can establish that an item measures what the test as a whole measures, but <b>not how far it measures what it ought to<\/b>.<br><br>An <b>external criterion<\/b> is therefore sometimes used instead \u2014 though <b>Ryens<\/b> held that no specific assistance is offered by it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 465,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Process of Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following steps of item analysis in their correct sequence:<br>1. Counting the ticks in each column and converting them into difficulty indices<br>2. Marking each answer script and entering ticks and crosses on the analysis chart<br>3. Arranging the answer scripts in order of score<br>4. Selecting the items that satisfy the criteria of difficulty and discrimination\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"3 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 3 \u2013 1 \u2013 4\",\r\n      \"3 \u2013 1 \u2013 2 \u2013 4\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3 \u2013 4\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 3 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4<\/b><br><br>The order is fixed by what each step depends on. The scripts must be <b>ordered by score<\/b> before the chart can be marked off into groups; the chart must be <b>filled<\/b> before the ticks can be counted; and the indices must be <b>computed<\/b> before any item can be selected.<br><br>The whole exercise begins by administering the test to <b>a sample of the very pupils for whom it was constructed<\/b>, and it ends with the final form of the test being carried forward for the establishment of <b>reliability, validity and norms<\/b> \u2014 that is, for standardisation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 466,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criteria for Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Value obtained for an item)<br>A. Difficulty index 0\u00b785<br>B. Difficulty index 0\u00b720<br>C. Discrimination index 0\u00b745<br>D. Discrimination index \u22120\u00b715<br><br>List II (Reading of the value)<br>1. High discrimination; the item is retained<br>2. The item is difficult<br>3. Low scorers outperformed high scorers; the item is removed<br>4. The item is easy\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3<\/b><br><br>The two indices are read on different scales and must not be confused.<br><br><b>A-4<\/b> On Lein's bands, above 0\u00b770 is <b>easy<\/b>; <b>B-2<\/b> below 0\u00b729 is <b>difficult<\/b>.<br><b>C-1<\/b> On Blood and Budd's bands, above 0\u00b740 is <b>high discrimination<\/b> and the item is retained; <b>D-3<\/b> a <b>negative<\/b> value marks a defective item for removal.<br><br><b>Technique:<\/b> a high difficulty index means an <b>easy<\/b> item, which reverses the intuition the word invites \u2014 and that reversal is what the item is set to test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 467,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criteria for Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the size of the extreme groups used in item analysis:<br>1. The larger the number of candidates in the top and bottom groups, the higher the discrimination index tends to be.<br>2. There is a definite rule fixing the proportion that must be taken into the extreme groups.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> This is stated directly, and it is a reason for care in comparing indices obtained by different methods.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717<\/b> The position is expressly the opposite \u2014 <b>there is no definite rule in this regard<\/b>. The 27 per cent figure is a convention resting on <b>Kelley's<\/b> reasoning, and any proportion between <b>27 and 35 per cent<\/b> may be used; small groups permit the 50 per cent split.<br><br>It follows that a discrimination index is meaningful only alongside a statement of <b>how the groups were formed<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 468,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 8: ITEM ANALYSIS \u2014 ITEM DIFFICULTY, DISCRIMINATION INDEX AND EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTRACTORS\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Reliability, Validity & Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Item Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not a purpose that item analysis serves?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Improving items that are to be used again in later tests\",\r\n      \"Eliminating ambiguous or misleading items in a single administration\",\r\n      \"Facilitating the development of an item bank\",\r\n      \"Establishing the norms against which pupil scores are to be interpreted\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Establishing the norms against which pupil scores are to be interpreted<\/b><br><br>The derivation of norms is a <b>later stage of standardisation<\/b>, undertaken once the final form of the test has been settled. Item analysis is what settles that final form.<br><br>The relation between the two is sequential: items are analysed, the fit ones retained, and the resulting test then carried forward for <b>reliability, validity and norms<\/b>. Confusing the two stages inverts the order of construction \u2014 norms cannot be derived for a test whose composition is still undecided.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 469,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The classification of tests according to form, purpose, organisation, duration, abilities involved and type of response is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Stanley and Hopkins\",\r\n      \"Monroe and Carter\",\r\n      \"Blood and Budd\",\r\n      \"Yoak and Simpson\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Yoak and Simpson<\/b><br><br>Their scheme is offered as the most comprehensive of the several classifications, which are acknowledged to overlap. Its heads are <b>form, purposes, organisation, period of administering, duration, method of scoring and interpreting results, abilities involved, nature of material, mental functions involved and types of response<\/b>.<br><br><b>Monroe and Carter (B)<\/b> divided essay-type questions into 21 categories. <b>Blood and Budd<\/b> and <b>Stanley and Hopkins<\/b> belong to item analysis \u2014 the bands for the discrimination index and the difficulty-discrimination model respectively.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 470,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the classification of tests by purpose, which of the following are named?<br>1. Prognostic<br>2. Power<br>3. Accuracy<br>4. Standardized\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>Tests classified by <b>purpose<\/b> are prognostic, diagnostic, power, speed, accuracy, quality and range.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> Standardized and non-standardized is a classification by the <b>method of scoring and interpreting results<\/b>, not by purpose.<br><br>The remaining heads separate cleanly: by <b>form<\/b> \u2014 oral and written; by <b>organisation<\/b> \u2014 essay and objective; by <b>period<\/b> \u2014 daily, weekly, monthly, term and year; by <b>duration<\/b> \u2014 short and long; and by <b>mental functions<\/b> \u2014 association, memory, recall, recognition and problem solving.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 471,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the classification by type of response, the 'multiple response' category is divided into:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"true-false and yes-no varieties\",\r\n      \"best answer and correct answer varieties\",\r\n      \"completion and matching varieties\",\r\n      \"identification and enumeration varieties\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) best answer and correct answer varieties<\/b><br><br>The distinction matters in practice: a <b>correct-answer<\/b> item has one option that is right and the rest wrong, whereas a <b>best-answer<\/b> item may have several defensible options of which one is superior \u2014 which is why the best-answer variety is the harder to key and the likelier to be disputed.<br><br>The full list of response types runs: <b>alternate response<\/b> (true-false, yes-no, plus-minus), <b>multiple response<\/b>, <b>completion<\/b>, <b>matching<\/b>, <b>identification<\/b>, <b>enumeration<\/b> and <b>essay<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 472,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Standardized Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among standardized tests used for school-age children, an academic progress test such as the Iowa Basic Skills Test differs from an intelligence test in that it is used chiefly to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"identify pupils fit for gifted and talented programmes in the school\",\r\n      \"identify poor performance and judge the effectiveness of teaching\",\r\n      \"measure the readiness of the pupil for admission to a college\",\r\n      \"predict the future occupational success of the pupil in later life\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) identify poor performance and judge the effectiveness of teaching<\/b><br><br>Although the two use <b>similar questions and methodologies<\/b>, their uses diverge. <b>Intelligence tests<\/b> are often used for <b>gifted and talented<\/b> programmes, while academic progress tests show how pupils perform at a national level in core areas and <b>how well the school has taught certain subjects<\/b>.<br><br>The third category, <b>college entrance examinations<\/b> such as the SAT and ACT, resembles the academic progress test but demands a <b>higher level of reading and mathematics<\/b>, and allows aptitude to be compared without weighing scores from many different schools.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 473,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"The Question as an Instrument\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A question used as a teaching device is described as developmental, while a question used as a testing device is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"formative\",\r\n      \"diagnostic\",\r\n      \"prognostic\",\r\n      \"judgmental\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Judgmental<\/b><br><br>The same question may serve either purpose, and <b>the focus of both is the measurement of an instructional objective<\/b>.<br><br>The basic source of every question is the <b>prescribed syllabus<\/b>, though a question may also be set independently of it; but <b>every question has its roots in some content area of achievement<\/b>.<br><br>The distinction is worth carrying because it decides how the question should be worded: a developmental question invites the pupil forward, while a judgmental one must fix the scope of the expected response so that it can be scored.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 474,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"The Question as an Instrument\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding a well-framed question:<br>1. It should be worded with an in-built direction indicating the nature and scope of the expected response.<br>2. It should reflect the intended content elements and the assessment objectives.<br>3. It should be framed independently of any particular context or setting.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it contradicts the definition.<\/b> A question is defined as a verbal or non-verbal tool of inquiry <b>framed in a particular context or setting<\/b>, and <b>cognizance of context and purpose is the first requisite<\/b> for framing one.<br><br>The context varies widely \u2014 a unit test, an annual test, a review exercise, a selection test, a home assignment, a diagnostic test or an institutional question bank \u2014 and each serves a different purpose. A question further rests on <b>assumptions about learners, learning and the requirements of the subject area<\/b>, and aims at <b>feedback for decisions about instruction<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 475,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"The Question as an Instrument\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The question 'List one chemical property of carbon dioxide that differs from that of oxygen' is regarded as superior to 'List one chemical property of carbon dioxide' because the former:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"is pitched at the knowledge level rather than at understanding\",\r\n      \"can be answered in fewer words and so saves time\",\r\n      \"covers more content and is therefore the more valid question\",\r\n      \"avoids the use of a directional word altogether\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) covers more content and is therefore the more valid question<\/b><br><br>The governing proposition is that <b>the more the content coverage of a unit of testing, the more valid the question<\/b>. The second version reaches two content elements where the first reaches one.<br><br><b>Option (A) inverts the effect.<\/b> A comparison of two gases calls for <b>understanding<\/b>, not mere recall of factual information.<br><br>Since content elements \u2014 terms, facts, concepts, principles, processes and generalisations \u2014 are <b>hierarchical<\/b>, care must be taken that <b>higher-level content elements are matched with higher-order objectives<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 476,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"The Question as an Instrument\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the genotypic analysis of a question, its hidden or constitutional make-up is said to have three dimensions. These are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the syllabus unit, the class taught and the medium of instruction\",\r\n      \"the difficulty level, the discrimination index and the time estimate\",\r\n      \"the marks allotted, the directional word and the length of the answer\",\r\n      \"the assessment objectives, the content elements and the form of the question\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the assessment objectives, the content elements and the form of the question<\/b><br><br>Taking the three commonly used values of each \u2014 objectives <b>K, U, A<\/b>; content elements <b>facts, concepts, principles<\/b>; forms <b>objective, short-answer, essay<\/b> \u2014 yields a configuration of <b>3 \u00d7 3 \u00d7 3 = 27<\/b> genotypes.<br><br>These fall into <b>nine varieties of knowledge questions, nine of understanding and nine of application<\/b>, and are grouped into three sets ranging from easy (K) to difficult (D).<br><br>Options (B) and (C) name the observable attributes of a question, which is precisely what the <b>hidden<\/b> face is contrasted with.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 477,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"The Question as an Instrument\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the twenty-seven genotypes of a question, the type described as the most difficult to develop is one based on:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a fact, testing the knowledge objective, in objective form\",\r\n      \"a concept, testing the understanding objective, in short-answer form\",\r\n      \"a principle, testing the application objective, in essay form\",\r\n      \"a fact, testing the application objective, in essay form\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) a principle, testing the application objective, in essay form<\/b><br><br>This is the last question of the ninth set, and it combines the <b>highest content element with the highest objective and the most demanding form<\/b>. <b>Option (A) is the easiest<\/b> \u2014 the very first of the twenty-seven.<br><br>Two qualifications are added. Some forms are <b>more amenable<\/b> to testing a particular objective on a given content element than others; and it is <b>difficult, sometimes impossible, to develop a higher-level objective on a lower-level content element<\/b> \u2014 which is why option (D), application built on a bare fact, is barely constructible at all.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 478,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Guidelines for Item Writing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In selecting the form of a test item, a supply-type item is to be preferred where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the number of candidates is very large\",\r\n      \"the content to be tested is factual rather than conceptual\",\r\n      \"supplying the answer is itself an important element of the task\",\r\n      \"the results are to be declared within a few days\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) supplying the answer is itself an important element of the task<\/b><br><br>Writing is the illustration given: where the ability to produce the answer is part of what is being measured, a selection-type item cannot measure it.<br><br>A <b>selection-type<\/b> item is used where it is appropriate \u2014 identification, for instance \u2014 or where <b>both types are equally appropriate<\/b>.<br><br>The governing rule is stated first among the ten guidelines: <b>select the type of item that measures the intended learning competence most directly<\/b>. Options (A) and (D) are reasons for preferring multiple-choice questions administratively, not reasons of measurement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 479,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Guidelines for Item Writing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The direction that a test item should be free from non-functional material rests on the reasoning that irrelevant matter:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"renders the item wholly unsuitable for scoring by machine\",\r\n      \"makes the item easier for the informed candidate to answer it\",\r\n      \"prevents the item from being scored with complete objectivity\",\r\n      \"increases the reading load and detracts from the intent of the item\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) increases the reading load and detracts from the intent of the item<\/b><br><br>The rule carries an express exception: extraneous material may be used <b>where its detection is part of the task<\/b>, as in mathematical problems where the pupil must select the relevant data.<br><br>The companion rule concerns <b>irrelevant factors<\/b>: trick questions that lead a knowledgeable pupil to fix on the wrong aspect are to be avoided. A word problem measuring mathematical reasoning should keep the <b>reading level and computational demands simple<\/b>, if an uncontaminated measure of reasoning is wanted.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 480,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Guidelines for Item Writing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In guarding against irrelevant clues in a test, the item writer is also cautioned to ensure that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"every item in the test carries the same number of alternatives\",\r\n      \"the information given in one item does not supply the answer to another item\",\r\n      \"no item is drawn from material taught in an earlier class\",\r\n      \"the items are arranged in the order in which the content was taught\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the information given in one item does not supply the answer to another item<\/b><br><br>Clues within a single item are the obvious danger, but a test is a set and its items can leak to one another. Removing unwanted clues is said to require <b>alertness during item writing and a review of the items after setting them aside for a while<\/b>.<br><br>The same reasoning supports a further guideline: items should be written <b>far enough in advance to be reviewed and modified<\/b>, a good time being shortly after the material has been taught, while the questions and context are still clear in mind.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 481,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Guidelines for Item Writing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where experts disagree on what the best answer to an item is, the course recommended is to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"convert the item into a true-false item carrying the same marks\",\r\n      \"accept whichever answer the majority of the candidates have selected\",\r\n      \"ask what a particular named authority would consider the best method\",\r\n      \"drop the item from the test and replace it with a factual one\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) ask what a particular named authority would consider the best method<\/b><br><br>The device works because it converts a matter of opinion into a matter of fact: <b>when attributed to a source, the answer can be judged as correct or incorrect<\/b>.<br><br>The underlying rule is that an item should be written so that <b>there is no disagreement concerning the answer<\/b>, which typically means an answer <b>experts would agree is correct or best<\/b>. Most difficulty arises with best-answer items, since these involve a matter of judgement and must be <b>clearly identified as best by experts in the area<\/b> to be defensible.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 482,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Guidelines for Item Writing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The guideline that more items should be written than the test plan calls for is justified on the ground that it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"reduces the time required for moderating the paper\",\r\n      \"allows two parallel forms to be printed from the same pool\",\r\n      \"permits the difficulty of the paper to be raised at short notice\",\r\n      \"enables weak or inappropriate items to be discarded at the review stage\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) enables weak or inappropriate items to be discarded at the review stage<\/b><br><br>The surplus also makes it <b>easier to match the final set of items to the test specifications<\/b>, since a gap in the blueprint can be filled from stock rather than by writing afresh.<br><br>The same practice recurs at every stage of test construction \u2014 in the try-out sequence, where extra items allow immediate replacement of any that fail, and in standardisation, where <b>the preliminary form carries many more items than the final form<\/b> because item analysis will reject a proportion of them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 483,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Guidelines for Item Writing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where the difficulty of items is deliberately raised in order to obtain a wide spread of test scores, the item writer must further ensure that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"every item in the paper carries an equal number of marks\",\r\n      \"the added difficulty is relevant to the intended learning competence\",\r\n      \"the items are placed towards the end of the question paper\",\r\n      \"the items are all drawn from a single content unit of the syllabus\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the added difficulty is relevant to the intended learning competence<\/b><br><br>The item must remain <b>free from sources of irrelevant difficulty<\/b> \u2014 obscure material and overly fine discriminations being the examples given. Difficulty produced by obscurity spreads the scores without measuring anything more.<br><br>The governing rule is that difficulty should match <b>the intent of the learning competence, the age group tested and the use to be made of the results<\/b>. All three must be satisfied together: an item may be pitched correctly for the competence and still be wrong for the age group.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 484,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Objective Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"An objective test item is defined as one for which:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the response can be recorded in a single word, figure or symbol\",\r\n      \"the correct answer is drawn from a set of alternatives supplied to him\",\r\n      \"the scoring rules are so specific that no scorer can make an inference\",\r\n      \"the item can be scored by machine rather than by hand at all\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the scoring rules are so specific that no scorer can make an inference<\/b><br><br>The consequence follows directly: <b>any scorer who marks the item following the rules will assign the same score<\/b>. Objectivity is thus a property of the <b>scoring<\/b>, not of the format or of the brevity of the response.<br><br><b>Option (B) describes the selected-response format only<\/b>, which is one class of objective item; short-answer items are objective and yet require the candidate to <b>produce<\/b> the response. Option (D) confuses objectivity with a convenience it happens to permit.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 485,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Objective Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Objective tests came into use early in the twentieth century and gradually replaced the essay test because of their:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"low cost of printing and distribution\",\r\n      \"high reliability and predictive validity\",\r\n      \"suitability for measuring the affective domain\",\r\n      \"capacity to test the power of written expression\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) high reliability and predictive validity<\/b><br><br>They were adopted as a means of <b>evaluating learning outcomes and predicting future achievement<\/b>, and it was these two technical qualities that displaced the essay test.<br><br><b>Options (C) and (D) name the very things objective tests cannot do<\/b>, and are among their stated limitations \u2014 they measure the cognitive aspect and are unsuitable for the conative and affective, and their inability to measure language skill and power of expression is described as <b>the biggest demerit<\/b> of the form.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 486,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Objective Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The common misconception that the objective test item is confined to testing trivial factual detail was answered by Robert Ebel, who pointed out that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"trivial detail is itself a legitimate object of school testing\",\r\n      \"objective tests are in fact unsuitable for testing any factual detail\",\r\n      \"the essay test is equally confined to trivial factual detail alone\",\r\n      \"well-written objective tests can assess higher-order abilities in part\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) well-written objective tests can assess higher-order abilities in part<\/b><br><br>He named the multiple-choice test in particular. The misconception has real consequences, since it leads teachers to reach for an essay or performance test whenever comprehension of broad principles is to be assessed.<br><br>The broader proposition is the one worth carrying: while some kinds of knowledge and ability genuinely cannot be assessed by objective tests, <b>what an item can assess depends largely on the skill and effort of the test constructor rather than on the test format as such<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 487,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Objective Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Category of objective item : Illustration<br>1. Recall type : Sentence completion question<br>2. Recognition type : Analogy question<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br><b>Recall type<\/b> items have two forms \u2014 <b>simple recall<\/b> and <b>sentence completion<\/b>. <b>Recognition type<\/b> items have several \u2014 classified questions, true-false, multiple choice, matching, multiple choice with completion, and <b>analogy<\/b> questions.<br><br>The same divide is expressed in the other vocabulary of the subject: a <b>selected response<\/b> format, in which the candidate chooses from given alternatives, and a <b>constructed response<\/b> format, in which he produces the whole response. <b>Recognition corresponds to selection, recall to construction.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 488,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"True-False Items\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The chief advantage claimed for the true-false test is its:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"freedom from the effects of guessing\",\r\n      \"efficiency, yielding many independent responses per unit of testing time\",\r\n      \"capacity to measure the power of expression\",\r\n      \"suitability for testing higher-order objectives without special technique\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) efficiency, yielding many independent responses per unit of testing time<\/b><br><br>It follows that a teacher can <b>cover course material comprehensively in a single test<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) states the exact opposite of its recognised limitation<\/b> \u2014 susceptibility to guessing. Two qualifications are nevertheless entered: the effect of guessing can be <b>attenuated by increasing the number of items<\/b>, and guessing may itself <b>reflect partial knowledge<\/b>, which is a valid indication of achievement.<br><br>The true-false test is the <b>simplest of the selected-response formats<\/b>, the choice lying between two alternatives that remain constant throughout the series.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 489,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"True-False Items\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not a recognised form of the constant-alternative item?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The right-wrong variety\",\r\n      \"The agree-disagree variety\",\r\n      \"The yes-no variety\",\r\n      \"The premise-response variety\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) The premise-response variety<\/b><br><br>Premises and responses are the two columns of a <b>matching-type<\/b> item, not a form of the constant-alternative item.<br><br>The recognised forms are <b>true-false (T\/F), right-wrong (R\/W), agree-disagree (A\/D) and yes-no<\/b>, and the family extends to synonym-antonym and correct-wrong pairs. What unites them is that <b>the same two alternatives remain available for the whole series of items<\/b>.<br><br>Every such item must be <b>preceded by a clear direction<\/b> stipulating the responses and the mode of responding.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 490,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"True-False Items\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following steps in the construction of an objective-based true-false item in their correct order:<br>1. Finding the implications of the idea<br>2. Selecting a good concept, principle or proposition<br>3. Couching its antithesis<br>4. Restating the essence of the idea\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 3 \u2013 1\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>The five steps run: <b>select<\/b> a good concept or principle; <b>restate<\/b> its essence; <b>find its implications<\/b>; <b>couch its antithesis<\/b>; and <b>write the item<\/b>, using the same essential point for one true and one false version.<br><br>The value of the sequence is that the competency tested rises as it proceeds \u2014 from the ability to <b>recall<\/b>, through comparing, interpreting and establishing relationships, to the ability to <b>predict<\/b>.<br><br>It follows that a true-false item <b>can be built to test a higher-order objective<\/b>, provided the technique is mastered.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 491,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"True-False Items\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, listed among the shortcomings commonly attributed to true-false items:<br>1. Encouragement of blind guessing<br>2. Testing of trivialities and of verbal memory<br>3. The negative suggestion effect<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with <b>lack of qualifiers<\/b> and a tendency to <b>favour the aggressive pupil who is willing to take a chance<\/b> \u2014 a defect of fairness rather than of measurement.<br><br>Against these stand real advantages in classroom testing: such items offer <b>simple, direct tests of knowledge<\/b>, are efficient in scorable responses per hour of testing, are <b>simpler and less time-consuming to write<\/b>, and are good for testing <b>cause-and-effect relationships and the discrimination between fact and opinion<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 492,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Matching Type Items\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a matching-type item, where the number of responses exceeds the number of premises, the arrangement is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"simple matching\",\r\n      \"compound matching\",\r\n      \"perfect matching\",\r\n      \"imperfect matching\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Imperfect matching<\/b><br><br><b>Perfect matching<\/b> is where the two numbers are equal. The imperfect arrangement is generally preferred, because surplus responses prevent the last pairing from being obtained by elimination.<br><br>A second and independent division turns on the criterion used: <b>simple matching<\/b> employs a single criterion, while <b>compound matching<\/b> uses more than one, that is, more than two lists.<br><br>The <b>premises<\/b> \u2014 terms, events, phrases or definitions \u2014 are written on the left in column I, and the <b>responses<\/b> on the right in column II.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 493,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Matching Type Items\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that every matching-type item in a set is in effect a multiple-choice item rests on the fact that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the responses are always arranged in strict alphabetical order\",\r\n      \"the candidate chooses one response from several for each premise\",\r\n      \"each of the premises carries the same number of marks as the rest\",\r\n      \"the item is scored against a fixed key prepared in advance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the candidate chooses one response from several for each premise<\/b><br><br>He may have two, three, four, five, six or more responses to choose from for each premise, exactly as in a multiple-choice item.<br><br><b>The consequence deserves attention:<\/b> the number of choices <b>goes on decreasing as one premise after another is attempted<\/b>. The last premise in a perfectly matched set is therefore answerable without any knowledge at all \u2014 which is the practical reason for preferring <b>imperfect matching<\/b>.<br><br>Relationships used include term and definition, object and function, inventor and invention, author and work, date and event, problem and solution.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 494,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Rearrangement Type Items\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Requiring a pupil to arrange the steps in the manufacture of food by plants in the order in which they occur is an instance of a rearrangement item in:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"chronological order\",\r\n      \"functional order\",\r\n      \"order of difficulty\",\r\n      \"order of importance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Functional order<\/b><br><br>The two recognised types are <b>chronological order<\/b> \u2014 as in arranging the Presidents of India from earliest to latest \u2014 and <b>functional order<\/b>, where the sequence is fixed by the process itself rather than by dates.<br><br>In the illustration the correct sequence is <b>excitation of chlorophyll, formation of ATP, splitting of water, evolution of oxygen, formation of starch<\/b>.<br><br>In every rearrangement item a <b>direction must be provided<\/b> stating whether the responses are to be rewritten in order, serialled, or indicated by serial number.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 495,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Structured Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following principles governing the construction of structured questions:<br>1. Each subquestion must demand a reading of the introductory material before it can be answered.<br>2. Each subquestion must be independent and must not depend on knowledge of the previous subquestion.<br>3. All the subquestions must test recall, so that the introductory material is used uniformly.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it reverses the requirement.<\/b> <b>All the questions must test higher-order abilities, not simply recall<\/b>, and each should test a different ability so far as possible.<br><br>The remaining principles are that the <b>same introductory material<\/b> serves every subquestion; that the material be <b>neither inadequate nor redundant<\/b>; that subquestions be of short-answer or objective type, usually of one form within a set; that they be arranged by ability tested, difficulty, or sequence of events; and that the set be <b>time-effective<\/b> by keeping the number limited.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 496,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Multiple-Choice Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The exclusive use of multiple-choice questions is stated to be warranted where which of the following are required?<br>1. Complete objectivity of scoring under a severe time constraint<br>2. Computerisation of results and machine scoring<br>3. Post-examination statistical moderation and a record of the psychometric properties of items<br>4. Assessment of the candidate's power of written expression\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder<\/b>, and names the one thing multiple-choice questions cannot do.<br><br>The multiple-choice question is described as <b>the most potential and usable form of objective test<\/b>, used either exclusively, as in some selection tests, or in combination with other forms as in most board examinations.<br><br>The illustration given is the <b>National Talent Search Examination conducted by the NCERT<\/b>: where the purpose is to rank candidates for selection or scholarship, exclusive use of such questions ensures complete objectivity of scoring.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 497,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Multiple-Choice Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a multiple-choice item, the words common to all the alternatives are best shifted into the stem because doing so:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"raises the difficulty index of the item\",\r\n      \"increases the number of plausible distractors available\",\r\n      \"reduces the reading load without altering what is measured\",\r\n      \"permits the item to be scored by machine\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) reduces the reading load without altering what is measured<\/b><br><br>The illustration is exact. 'Entomology is \u2014 A. the study of birds; B. the study of fish; C. the study of insects' is <b>poor<\/b>; 'Entomology is the study of \u2014 A. birds; B. fish; C. insects' is <b>better<\/b>.<br><br>The same concern underlies the caution against <b>unnecessarily difficult vocabulary<\/b>, which can confuse pupils who would otherwise respond adequately.<br><br>The stated problems with most items are of three kinds \u2014 <b>reading load, embedded clues, and ambiguity of phrasing<\/b> \u2014 and a test of poorly constructed items will not rank pupils as a well constructed one would.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 498,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Multiple-Choice Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the demerits attributed to multiple-choice questions is that they often test literacy skills. The reasoning offered is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the options must be of equal length throughout the question paper\",\r\n      \"the vocabulary of the options is always drawn from the textbook\",\r\n      \"the stem of the item must be written in complete sentences\",\r\n      \"a careful reader can recognise the answer though he knows little\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) a careful reader can recognise the answer though he knows little<\/b><br><br>The other demerits stated are that such questions give the unprepared pupil an <b>opportunity to guess<\/b>, so that a lucky guess earns credit for what he does not know; that they <b>expose pupils to misinformation<\/b> which may influence later thinking; and that <b>good questions take time and skill to construct<\/b>.<br><br>Against these stand their merits: they are <b>quick and easy to score<\/b>, can be written to test a wide range of <b>higher-order thinking skills<\/b>, and can cover many content areas within a single class period.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 499,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Advantages of Objective Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following grounds on which objective tests are said to be valid:<br>1. The questions pertain to the field whose knowledge is to be measured.<br>2. The questions are numerous and spread over the entire range of the knowledge.<br>3. The evaluation of the questions is objective.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are given, and together they show why the qualities of a good test tend to travel together in this form. <b>Comprehensive coverage produces validity; definiteness of answer produces objectivity; and objectivity in turn produces reliability.<\/b><br><br>The claim is nevertheless qualified at the outset: objective tests have all the qualities of a good test, <b>though all the abilities of pupils cannot be measured by them<\/b>.<br><br>Their <b>comprehensiveness<\/b> is quantified: the time taken to write one essay answer, or four to six short answers, suffices for <b>40 to 50 objective questions<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 500,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Limitations of Objective Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is described as the biggest demerit of objective tests?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The expense involved in their printing and their administration\",\r\n      \"The difficulty of constructing the questions in sufficient numbers\",\r\n      \"Their inability to measure language skill and power of expression\",\r\n      \"The possibility of fluke answers arriving purely by chance\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Their inability to measure language skill and power of expression<\/b><br><br>It follows that such tests <b>cannot be relied upon for language testing<\/b>.<br><br>The other limitations are entered with reservations. The <b>difficulty of construction<\/b> is answered by the view that the questions can be constructed easily with a little interest, care and practice. The claim of <b>administrative difficulty and expense<\/b> is answered by the experience that they cost less than essay-type tests and can be evaluated by computer. And <b>fluke answers<\/b> are met by the statistical device of <b>negative marking<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 501,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Limitations of Objective Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The objection that pupils can easily copy in an objective test is answered on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the answer sheets are evaluated by computer rather than by hand\",\r\n      \"objective tests are always administered under closed-book conditions\",\r\n      \"the questions are drawn from outside the prescribed textbook\",\r\n      \"a pupil copying from a book cannot answer all within the time\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) a pupil copying from a book cannot answer all within the time<\/b><br><br>The number of items is itself the safeguard, and the objection is attributed to inexperience with the form.<br><br>The stated limitations that stand unqualified are the two of measurement rather than administration: such tests measure the <b>cognitive aspect only<\/b>, being unsuitable for the conative and affective; and they generally examine <b>memory<\/b>, the pupil having little occasion to use the higher faculties of logic and thinking. Both are defects of what is measured, which no arrangement of the examination hall can cure.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 502,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The time taken to answer one essay-type question is stated to suffice for answering:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"two to three short-answer questions or four to five very short-answer questions\",\r\n      \"four to six short-answer questions or eight to ten very short-answer questions\",\r\n      \"eight to ten short-answer questions or fifteen to twenty very short-answer questions\",\r\n      \"ten to twelve short-answer questions or twenty to twenty-five very short-answer questions\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) four to six short-answer questions or eight to ten very short-answer questions<\/b><br><br>The ratio is the basis of the claim that short-answer tests permit questions to be set on <b>almost the whole curriculum<\/b>, and hence that they are <b>more comprehensive, and accordingly more valid and reliable, than essay-type tests<\/b>.<br><br>The same figures recur in the account of objective tests, where the time for one essay answer or four to six short answers is said to suffice for <b>40 to 50 objective questions<\/b> \u2014 the three forms thus standing in a rough progression of coverage.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 503,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Very short-answer questions are said to be more difficult to frame than short-answer questions because they:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"require the use of a diagram or of a table in every single case\",\r\n      \"demand a specificity of response that must be objectively scorable\",\r\n      \"must be drawn from a single content unit of the prescribed syllabus\",\r\n      \"carry more marks than the short-answer questions in the same paper\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) demand a specificity of response that must be objectively scorable<\/b><br><br>The distinction between the two is expressed in the same terms used in the blueprint: <b>very short-answer questions are fixed-response and short-answer questions free-response<\/b>, and care must be taken while developing the blueprint to place each in the columns and rows that suit the content and the objectives.<br><br>The dichotomy is introduced <b>for convenience and practical reasons<\/b>, and its advantage is taken in consolidating questions into a format permitting separate administration of the sections.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 504,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The very short-answer question 'Stamen : Carpel :: Pollen : ______' illustrates which format?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The completion form\",\r\n      \"The identification type\",\r\n      \"The analogy type\",\r\n      \"The classification variety\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) The analogy type<\/b><br><br>The six formats of the very short-answer question are the <b>direct question<\/b>, the <b>selection form<\/b>, the <b>completion form<\/b>, the <b>identification type<\/b>, the <b>analogy type<\/b> and the <b>classification variety<\/b>, the last being the familiar odd-man-out item.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the closest competitor<\/b>, since a blank is to be filled in both. But a completion item such as '(a + b)\u00b2 = ______' simply requires the missing element; an <b>analogy requires the relationship in the first pair to be recognised and applied to the second<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 505,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the recognised formats of the short-answer question?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The tabular format, requiring the candidate to fill in a table\",\r\n      \"The graphic format, using a line, pie or bar graph\",\r\n      \"The figural format, requiring or supplying a diagram\",\r\n      \"The rearrangement format, requiring items to be placed in order\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) The rearrangement format, requiring items to be placed in order<\/b><br><br>Rearrangement is a form of <b>objective<\/b> item, with its chronological and functional varieties, and is not listed among short-answer formats.<br><br>The six formats of the short-answer question are the <b>interrogative<\/b>, using what, how, why, where, when and which; the <b>statement<\/b> format, in which a proposition is followed by a directional word; the <b>numerical<\/b>; the <b>tabular<\/b>; the <b>graphic<\/b>; and the <b>figural or diagrammatic<\/b>. Most are verbal in nature and are built through <b>appropriate directional words and language patterns<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 506,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The question 'Explain why an iron needle sinks in water' is improved to 'Why does an iron needle sink in water?' The nature of the improvement is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a superfluous directional word has been removed and the wording made more precise\",\r\n      \"the content coverage of the question has been doubled\",\r\n      \"the question has been converted from an essay type to a short-answer type\",\r\n      \"the credit points have been reduced to match the marks allotted\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) a superfluous directional word has been removed and the wording made more precise<\/b><br><br>The three distractors each name a genuine improvement made to a different question in the same set, which is what makes them plausible.<br><br><b>Doubling content coverage<\/b> is the effect of adding a comparison \u2014 'list one chemical property of oxygen <i>that differs from that of carbon dioxide<\/i>'. <b>Converting an essay question to a short-answer one<\/b> is achieved by substituting a more appropriate directional word \u2014 'name three theories' for 'describe briefly three theories'. <b>Reducing credit points<\/b> aligns them with marks that the value points must divide into.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 507,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following advantages claimed for short-answer type tests over essay type tests:<br>1. Questions can be set on almost the whole curriculum.<br>2. Their evaluation is generally objective, since the answers are definite.<br>3. They can be administered by the same personnel who administer essay type tests.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with the claims that such tests are <b>more valid, more reliable, more comprehensive and more discriminatory<\/b> than essay tests.<br><br>The reasoning behind <b>discrimination<\/b> deserves notice: because many questions can be asked across the whole curriculum, pupils must <b>understand the whole of it<\/b>, and the more a pupil understands the higher he scores and ranks. Coverage is thus the source of several of the advantages at once \u2014 it is also what makes such tests more valid than essay tests despite their reaching only the cognitive aspect.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 508,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following disadvantages of short-answer type tests:<br>1. They cannot measure the insight and foresight of pupils.<br>2. They place emphasis on rote learning.<br>3. They are fully objective, though neither valid nor reliable.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it overstates the position in one direction and misstates it in the other.<\/b> The stated conclusion is that such tests are <b>neither fully valid, nor fully reliable, nor fully objective<\/b>: their evaluation is more objective than that of essay questions, but not completely so.<br><br>The other disadvantages are the inability to measure <b>skill and attitude<\/b>, <b>linguistic skill and power of expression<\/b>, the <b>higher faculties of logic and decision<\/b>, and <b>personality<\/b> \u2014 pupils having no freedom to answer in their own way.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 509,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essay Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The purpose of an essay test is stated to be the assessment of a pupil's ability to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"construct a logical, cohesive and persuasive piece of writing\",\r\n      \"recall the largest possible quantity of factual information\",\r\n      \"select the correct response from among given alternatives\",\r\n      \"complete a specified task within a strictly limited time\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) construct a logical, cohesive and persuasive piece of writing<\/b><br><br>An essay test requires the pupil to respond thoroughly to a question or prompt by <b>developing, organising and writing an original composition<\/b>.<br><br>Its indispensability is defended on two grounds. Higher-order abilities demand the <b>integration of intra-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary subject matter<\/b> \u2014 critical analysis, creative synthesis, critical appraisal and evaluation reports being more validly tested by essay questions alone. And adults and pupils alike constantly meet situations in life requiring them <b>to express, explain or react<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 510,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essay Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Research on the validity and reliability of the grading of essay-type questions in India is associated with:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Taylor of Guwahati University and Edwin Harper of Allahabad\",\r\n      \"Weidman of Michigan and Monroe of the State of Illinois\",\r\n      \"Kelley of Stanford University and Garrett of Columbia\",\r\n      \"Lein of the State of Iowa and Diederich of Princeton\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Taylor of Guwahati University and Edwin Harper of Allahabad<\/b><br><br>Edwin Harper was of <b>Ewing Christian College, Allahabad<\/b>, and their work highlighted the inadequacies of essay-type questions.<br><br>The finding does not amount to a case for abandoning them. Essay questions are <b>criticised more than any other form for want of validity and reliability<\/b>, yet no examination system can ignore the reality of assessing the skills that discipline daily life.<br><br><b>Weidman (B)<\/b> and <b>Monroe and Carter<\/b> classified essay questions by directional word; the remaining names belong to item analysis.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 511,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essay Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following questions:<br>1. Write an essay on India's struggle for independence.<br>2. In what way did the Kalinga war influence King Asoka?<br>3. Write in about 150 words an essay on 'A Village Fair'.<br>Which of the above are restricted-response essay-type questions?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>Restriction may be imposed either by <b>limiting the scope of the content tested<\/b>, as in question 2, or by <b>limiting the length of the expected answer<\/b>, as in question 3. Question 1 leaves the freedom of response almost unlimited and is an <b>extended-response<\/b> question.<br><br>The restriction touches scope only. <b>Freedom of writing, organising and presenting the answer still remains with the examinee<\/b> \u2014 which is what keeps a restricted-response question an essay question rather than a long short-answer question.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 512,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essay Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The restricted-response variety of the essay-type question is favoured at the secondary and senior secondary stages chiefly because it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"lends itself to less subjectivity in marking\",\r\n      \"can be answered without any knowledge of the content\",\r\n      \"permits the candidate to select and organise material freely\",\r\n      \"is easier for the paper setter to frame than the extended-response variety\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) lends itself to less subjectivity in marking<\/b><br><br>The <b>extended-response<\/b> variety suits the college and university stages better, where the examinee is free to select, organise, integrate, evaluate and express as he thinks fit.<br><br>The choice between them turns on the object of measurement. Where <b>thorough understanding of a set of topics and the best presentation of subject matter<\/b> are to be appreciated, the extended-response variety is the better instrument. Where the focus is on <b>interpretation, application of data, or outcomes that clearly define the intended response<\/b>, the restricted variety is preferred.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 513,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essay Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The classification of essay-type questions into eleven types on the basis of the directional words used, ranging from the simple to the most complex, was made by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Weidman\",\r\n      \"Monroe and Carter\",\r\n      \"Harper\",\r\n      \"Taylor\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Weidman<\/b><br><br>Weidman's classification of <b>1941<\/b> runs from what, when, who, which and where, through list, outline, describe, contrast, compare, explain, discuss, develop and summarise, to <b>evaluate<\/b>.<br><br><b>Monroe and Carter (B)<\/b> divided essay-type questions into <b>21 categories<\/b>, ranging from selective recall through cause and effect, application of principles and criticism to inferential thinking.<br><br>Both schemes make the same point: <b>the directional word fixes the mental operation demanded<\/b>, which is why the choice of that word is treated as a matter of construction rather than of style.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 514,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essay Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following directional words are to be avoided in framing essay-type questions?<br>1. 'What do you know of'<br>2. 'Write short notes on'<br>3. 'Give an account of'<br>4. 'Justify'\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>These three fail to evoke a determinate response and leave the scope of the answer open, which is fatal to any marking scheme.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> 'Justify' appears among the <b>familiar and appropriate<\/b> directional words that evoke the desired response and demand the exercise of the intended mental process \u2014 the others being <b>list, describe, compare, discuss and evaluate<\/b>.<br><br>The wider requirement is to <b>structure the question so as to pinpoint the area of response and delimit its scope<\/b>, avoiding semantic difficulty by simple, precise and unambiguous language.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 515,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essay Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the general hints for constructing essay-type questions, the advice to avoid free options of the 'six out of nine' kind is given because such options:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"they encourage selective teaching and impair comparison of pupils\",\r\n      \"they make the paper impossible to moderate before the examination\",\r\n      \"they prevent part-wise marks being indicated against each question\",\r\n      \"they raise the difficulty of the paper beyond the intended range\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) they encourage selective teaching and impair comparison of pupils<\/b><br><br>The companion hints run in the same direction: <b>use essay questions where you must and avoid them where you can<\/b>; <b>increase the number of questions<\/b> by preferring the restricted-response variety; and where only essay questions are set, <b>ensure a wide range of difficulty<\/b> through lower-order, middle-order and higher-order questions so as to cater to poor, average and bright pupils.<br><br>Each question is further to be framed <b>with the stipulated time requirement in view<\/b>, and explicit instructions written for the examinees.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 516,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Essay Type Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the specific hints for constructing essay-type questions is the direction to write a model answer. Its purpose is to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"test the efficacy of the question, so that it may itself be improved\",\r\n      \"provide the examinee with a specimen of the answer that is expected\",\r\n      \"establish the reliability coefficient of the question in advance\",\r\n      \"fix the number of candidates likely to answer the question correctly\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) test the efficacy of the question, so that it may itself be improved<\/b><br><br>Writing the answer oneself exposes what the wording actually invites, as against what it was meant to invite. The marking scheme is worked out alongside, indicating the <b>major value points, their corresponding marks and the mode of deduction of marks<\/b>.<br><br>Two further specific hints govern content: <b>pinpoint the assessment objective<\/b> that is to be the basis of the question, and <b>set a task requiring command of essential knowledge rather than of factual information<\/b>. Part-wise marks must be shown for a question having more than one part.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 517,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Grading of Essay Type Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The method of grading essay answers in which a model answer is broken into specific value points, each carrying a proportionate share of the marks, is called:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the analytical or point score method\",\r\n      \"the global or holistic method\",\r\n      \"the anchor point method\",\r\n      \"the double grading method\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the analytical or point score method<\/b><br><br>The alternative is the <b>global scoring method<\/b>, also called the <b>holistic or rating method<\/b>, in which the rater reads the response, <b>forms a general impression and assigns a rating<\/b> on a quality continuum having a number of standards or anchor points \u2014 commonly a three- or five-point scale from excellent to poor.<br><br>Under the global method the reader may, after rapid reading, <b>assign the scripts into five piles<\/b>, and each question may then be re-read to reclassify. <b>Two independent raters<\/b> improve objectivity further.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 518,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Grading of Essay Type Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following measures for improving the reliability of scoring essay-type questions:<br>1. Reshuffling the answer scripts after each question has been marked<br>2. Totalling the marks of the scripts only after all the scripts have been marked<br>3. Taking account of spelling, handwriting and neatness in awarding the marks<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Reshuffling reduces the <b>carry-over effect<\/b> \u2014 the influence of the script just marked upon the one that follows.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> Deferring the totalling avoids carrying over any impression already formed about the quality of a script.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it states the opposite of the rule.<\/b> Scores are to be protected from <b>contamination by extraneous factors such as spelling, handwriting, punctuation and neatness<\/b>, unless those are themselves what is being assessed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 519,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Grading of Essay Type Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The allocation of scripts to examiners question-wise, so that each examiner marks the same question in every script, improves scoring objectivity but carries which drawback?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Separate answer sheets must be provided for each question, at a cost\",\r\n      \"The examiner cannot form any impression of the pupil taken as a whole\",\r\n      \"The marks cannot be totalled until the whole examination is over\",\r\n      \"The carry-over effect is found to operate with much greater force\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Separate answer sheets must be provided for each question, at a cost<\/b><br><br>The device works because an examiner applying the same standard to one question across all scripts is more consistent than one moving between questions.<br><br>The other measures for controlling reliability are <b>precise and unambiguous language<\/b> in the question, so that examinees construe the scope as the framer intended; <b>double grading<\/b> where the test is used for selection or for awarding a scholarship; and a <b>meeting of examiners after some scripts have been marked<\/b>, to discuss the marking scheme and compare their marking.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 520,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Advantages of Essay Type Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following advantages claimed for essay-type tests:<br>1. They induce good study habits in pupils.<br>2. Guess work can be eliminated to a large extent.<br>3. They give the pupil an opportunity to show initiative and originality of thought.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with the claims that such tests are <b>easier to prepare and administer<\/b>, can be used by <b>all types of schools<\/b>, can measure <b>all degrees of comprehensiveness and accuracy<\/b>, and develop the powers of <b>logical thinking, critical reasoning and systematic presentation<\/b>.<br><br>They are further described as the best instrument for measuring the ability to <b>organise ideas effectively, to criticise or justify a statement, and to interpret<\/b> \u2014 the very abilities that the objective test is least able to reach.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 521,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Limitations of Essay Type Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the defects of essay-type tests considered from the point of view of the teacher is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"he covers a limited portion, his aim being that the maximum pass\",\r\n      \"he is unable to complete the marking within the time available to him\",\r\n      \"he cannot frame questions above the knowledge level of the taxonomy\",\r\n      \"he must obtain the approval of an external moderator for each question\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) he covers a limited portion, his aim being that the maximum pass<\/b><br><br>The defects are grouped under three heads. From the <b>teacher's<\/b> point of view his programme becomes <b>wholly examination-oriented<\/b>, the basic principles of teaching receiving least consideration; he is driven to <b>encourage cramming<\/b>; and since he is judged by his pupils' results, he may spend time on <b>guess work<\/b>, which affects his teaching.<br><br>From the <b>pupil's<\/b> point of view the test is less objective and lacks validity, revealing only cramming capacity; it invites <b>selective reading<\/b> and dependence on guess papers; and it produces <b>irregular study<\/b> concentrated just before the examination.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 522,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Limitations of Essay Type Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"From the point of view of achievement, essay-type tests are said to be defective because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"some pupils score well merely because the questions suited them\",\r\n      \"the questions cannot be arranged in ascending order of difficulty\",\r\n      \"the answers cannot be scored by more than one examiner at a time\",\r\n      \"the marks obtained cannot be converted into percentages at all\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) some pupils score well merely because the questions suited them<\/b><br><br>This is the consequence of their <b>want of comprehensiveness<\/b>: a paper of six or eight questions cannot sample a syllabus.<br><br>The two further defects under this head are that the tests are <b>not objective<\/b>, a pupil's score depending on the examiner's mood and whims; and that they are <b>useless from the point of view of improvement<\/b>, throwing no light on the defects of the teaching-learning process or of the curriculum. The last is the most serious, since it denies the teacher any feedback at all.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 523,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Planning Essay Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the guidelines for improving essay examinations, the direction that essays be evaluated anonymously is given effect by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"mixing the papers and masking the names\",\r\n      \"engaging examiners from another institution\",\r\n      \"requiring pupils to write under a roll number only\",\r\n      \"scoring the papers by machine\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) mixing the papers and masking the names<\/b><br><br>The companion directions form a sequence of practice: <b>frame questions so that the task is clearly defined<\/b>; specify the <b>value and approximate time limit<\/b> for each; <b>do not employ optional questions<\/b>; <b>write a trial response<\/b> to each; <b>prepare a tentative scoring key in advance<\/b>; <b>alert pupils<\/b> if penalties for spelling or grammar are to be given; <b>scan longer essays into high, medium and low stacks<\/b> before rereading to assign marks; and <b>score all answers to one question before scoring the next<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 524,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Planning Essay Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The difficulty in using a single scale of 0 to 50 points for initially rating an essay is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the marks cannot be expressed as a percentage of the total\",\r\n      \"the scale cannot be combined with a multiple-choice section in the same paper\",\r\n      \"a reader cannot reliably distinguish a paper worth 36 points from one worth 38\",\r\n      \"the scale requires two independent raters in every case\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) a reader cannot reliably distinguish a paper worth 36 points from one worth 38<\/b><br><br><b>A second reading might well reverse the two scores.<\/b><br><br>The remedy is to rate on a coarse scale and then convert. Where an essay section and a multiple-choice section each carry 50 per cent, the essay may be rated <b>0 to 10 points<\/b>, holistically or analytically, and the total <b>multiplied by 5<\/b> to give a range of 0 to 50.<br><br>The principle is general: <b>a rating scale should be no finer than the rater's judgement can actually discriminate.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 525,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Planning Essay Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The most general suggestion offered for improving essay testing is that the task set for the pupil should:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"first be clearly understood by the teacher and then clearly presented\",\r\n      \"be confined to material presented in class during the current session\",\r\n      \"always be broken into parts each carrying its own separate marks\",\r\n      \"be settled by a panel of experts rather than by an individual teacher\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) first be clearly understood by the teacher and then clearly presented<\/b><br><br>The reasoning given is that <b>it is unreasonable to present the pupil with the combined tasks of reading the examiner's intent in the question and meeting his expectation as to the answer<\/b>. Ambiguity of meaning produces ambiguity of response, and unreliable marking follows.<br><br>The weaknesses that have characterised essay questions are traced to a lack of awareness that <b>preparing them requires as much time and effort as reading them<\/b> \u2014 overemphasis on factual information and memorised extracts, ambiguity, and variation in the standards used to judge performance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 526,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"The Question as an Instrument\",\r\n    \"question\": \"To judge a pupil's ability to interpret, the question 'Observe the given graph showing population growth over the years. What does this graph indicate?' is preferred to 'Convert the given population data into the form of a graph' because the former:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"generates a response at the acceptable level for the ability being judged\",\r\n      \"can be answered in a shorter time than the latter\",\r\n      \"requires no directional word to be used in the stem\",\r\n      \"covers a wider range of the prescribed syllabus\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) generates a response at the acceptable level for the ability being judged<\/b><br><br>Converting data into a graph tests the ability to <b>represent<\/b>, not to <b>interpret<\/b>. Every question must yield responses acceptable in terms of its own criterion, so where the ability sought is to differentiate, interpret, analyse or predict, the question must be built on <b>that very ability<\/b>.<br><br>The companion requirement is that a question <b>evoke the intended response<\/b> \u2014 corresponding exactly to the three dimensions of its hidden face, the objective, the content and the form. A question so framed yields valid evidence.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 527,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"The Question as an Instrument\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The question 'State Archimedes principle and illustrate it with the help of examples' is said to cover:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the knowledge objective alone\",\r\n      \"the knowledge and understanding objectives together\",\r\n      \"the understanding and application objectives together\",\r\n      \"the application objective alone\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the knowledge and understanding objectives together<\/b><br><br>'State Archimedes principle' by itself covers knowledge only; the addition of 'illustrate with examples' brings in <b>understanding<\/b>.<br><br>A question may cover <b>one objective or two<\/b>, and may rest on a <b>single competency or more than one<\/b> \u2014 as where a pupil must both <b>observe<\/b> a population graph and <b>interpret<\/b> it. Which course is taken depends on the purpose of the test and the use to which the evidence is to be put.<br><br>The caution attached is that <b>adequate coverage of competencies must be secured across the test<\/b>, since it cannot be secured within a single question.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 528,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 9: TYPES OF TESTS AND TEST ITEMS \u2014 OBJECTIVE, SHORT ANSWER AND ESSAY TYPE\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Types of Tests and Test Items\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Advantages of Objective Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Objective tests are said to have become practicable in construction, administration and evaluation chiefly because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"multiple-choice questions alone are now set, and answer sheets can be evaluated by computer\",\r\n      \"the number of items required has been reduced to about twenty per paper\",\r\n      \"the questions may now be drawn directly from the prescribed textbook\",\r\n      \"candidates are permitted to answer only a selection of the questions set\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) multiple-choice questions alone are now set, and answer sheets can be evaluated by computer<\/b><br><br>The difficulty being met is real: constructing a hundred or two hundred questions takes time, and so does marking them.<br><br>The claim to being <b>discriminative<\/b> rests on a different footing \u2014 the questions are spread over the whole course and are of several types, some answered by recall, some by knowledge and some by <b>logic and prudence<\/b>, so that the classification of pupils on their basis can be relied upon.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 529,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The definition of an achievement test as one designed to measure a pupil's grasp or knowledge, or his proficiency in certain skills, is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Durrell\",\r\n      \"Gronlund\",\r\n      \"Popham\",\r\n      \"Ebel\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Ebel<\/b><br><br>Each of the other three defined the same instrument differently, and the differences are instructive. <b>Gronlund<\/b> called it <b>a systematic procedure for determining how much a pupil has learned through instruction<\/b> \u2014 emphasising the process. <b>Popham<\/b> said it <b>focuses upon an examinee's attainments at a given point in time<\/b> \u2014 emphasising the moment. <b>Durrell<\/b> belongs to diagnostic testing, and observed that informal and observation charts indicate the level at which remedial instruction should begin.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 530,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the light of the modern statement of teaching objectives, achievement tests are best defined as tests constructed to measure:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the knowledge of the subject matter that has been acquired by the pupil\",\r\n      \"cognitive, conative and affective changes wrought by school teaching\",\r\n      \"the relative position of the pupil within the group that was taught\",\r\n      \"the readiness of the pupil to undertake a fresh course of instruction\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) cognitive, conative and affective changes wrought by school teaching<\/b><br><br>Teaching objectives are now stated as changes in the three domains, and the definition of an achievement test has been widened accordingly \u2014 <b>option (A) states the older and narrower conception<\/b>.<br><br>An achievement test is designed to evaluate a <b>unit<\/b> during the teaching-learning process, and the unit may be <b>one lesson or a group of lessons<\/b> transacted in a particular period.<br><br>Its feedback runs two ways: to the learner, and to the teacher, who thereby <b>evaluates his own work<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 531,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Aims of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following functions for which achievement tests are used in schools:<br>1. Selection of pupils for admission<br>2. Issue of certificates on the basis of public examinations<br>3. Evaluation of the teaching work of teachers<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with the <b>classification<\/b> of pupils, their <b>encouragement<\/b>, their <b>promotion<\/b> and the <b>evaluation of educational problems<\/b>.<br><br>The list repays notice because it spans three quite different purposes \u2014 <b>administrative<\/b> decisions about the pupil, <b>motivational<\/b> effects on him, and <b>evaluative<\/b> judgements about the system that taught him. The same instrument serves all three, which is why the achievement test is described as indispensable in the teaching-learning process.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 532,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Educational Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On the basis of the field of measurement, tests used in education are divided into educational and psychological tests. Which of the following belong to the educational class?<br>1. Achievement tests<br>2. Diagnostic tests<br>3. Aptitude tests<br>4. Personality tests\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Educational tests<\/b> measure educational achievement and educational problems, and comprise <b>achievement and diagnostic tests<\/b>. <b>Psychological tests<\/b> measure mental abilities, and comprise <b>intelligence, aptitude and personality tests<\/b>.<br><br>The definition offered of an educational test is general: a tool or method of measuring the abilities of pupils, in which <b>questions about the measurable ability are asked, or problems are presented to which the pupils respond<\/b>, the measurement being made on the basis of those answers.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 533,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Educational Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is stated as the chief characteristic of the oral test?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The practical aspects of art and science subjects can be measured\",\r\n      \"A large number of pupils can be examined together at one sitting\",\r\n      \"The marking does not depend upon the judgement of the examiner\",\r\n      \"The examiner and examinee are face to face, so qualities can be seen\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) The examiner and examinee are face to face, so qualities can be seen<\/b><br><br>Oral tests are used to ascertain a pupil's <b>pronunciation, expression and lecture style, his confidence, and his general knowledge of other subjects<\/b>, and generally consist of short-answer and objective-type questions.<br><br><b>Options (B), (C) and (A) each state one of the recognised shortcomings.<\/b> Only one pupil can be tested at a time, demanding much time and energy; the tests are <b>subjective<\/b>, marking depending greatly on the examiner; and the practical aspects of art and science cannot be measured by them. They further <b>depend greatly on the ability and honesty of the examiner<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 534,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Educational Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that a flaw in the theoretical knowledge of a doctor or an engineer may create havoc if he is not tested practically is offered in support of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"oral tests\",\r\n      \"written tests\",\r\n      \"practical tests\",\r\n      \"non-verbal tests\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Practical tests<\/b><br><br>Practical tests measure skills and activities by asking the pupil to <b>display the skill or activity<\/b> \u2014 as in asking a child to sing in order to measure his proficiency in singing \u2014 and are used in art, music, science and other practical subjects.<br><br>Their chief merit is that <b>they alone can test practical knowledge<\/b> of arts and science.<br><br>Their limitations are that the <b>theoretical knowledge and emotional aspect<\/b> of a person cannot be correctly measured by them, and that they need comparatively <b>more energy and time<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 535,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Educational Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Non-verbal tests, which use scenery, symbols, signs and pictures instead of language, are employed chiefly to measure:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the educational achievement of pupils in language subjects\",\r\n      \"the mental abilities of children and of illiterate persons\",\r\n      \"the practical skills of pupils in art and music\",\r\n      \"the attainment of pupils against a criterion of mastery\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the mental abilities of children and of illiterate persons<\/b><br><br>They are further used in measuring the <b>intelligence and personality of all persons, literate or illiterate<\/b>, since the removal of language removes one source of disadvantage.<br><br><b>Verbal tests<\/b>, in which words or language are used, whether written or oral, are described as the type <b>mostly used in the field of education<\/b> \u2014 which is precisely why a language-free alternative is needed for those whom the verbal medium would exclude.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 536,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Educational Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On the basis of their construction, tests are divided into general and standardized tests. General tests are so called because they are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"administered generally to groups rather than to individuals\",\r\n      \"applicable generally to pupils of every class and stage\",\r\n      \"constructed on the general objectives rather than on specific ones\",\r\n      \"constructed by teachers, and are therefore also called teacher-made tests\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) constructed by teachers, and are therefore also called teacher-made tests<\/b><br><br>They are the tests used in weekly, fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, half-yearly and annual examinations.<br><br>The candid observation entered about them is that although attempts are made to render them valid, reliable and objective, <b>nothing much can be said with certainty about their validity, reliability and objectivity<\/b> \u2014 which is why the emphasis falls on making them <b>more and more<\/b> so rather than on claiming that they already are.<br><br><b>Standardized tests<\/b> are built by specialists, tried on different groups, and then pruned and supplemented.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 537,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Educational Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding individual and group tests:<br>1. The chief merit of an individual test is that the measurer's attention is turned wholly to the particular pupil.<br>2. Written tests are generally administered collectively.<br>3. A group test permits the difficulty of a particular pupil to be attended to.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it states the very shortcoming of the group test.<\/b> The problem of a particular pupil <b>cannot be attended to<\/b> in a group test, and it is for that reason that individual tests have to be administered.<br><br>The trade-off is plain. Individual tests give undivided attention but <b>need more time, energy and money<\/b>, and are therefore administered <b>only in necessary situations<\/b>. Group tests examine large numbers at once and save all three. <b>Oral tests and some intelligence tests<\/b> are administered individually.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 538,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following distinctive features attributed to short-answer questions:<br>1. They usually take less than five minutes to read and answer.<br>2. They include some guidance on the extent of the answer.<br>3. The answer is pre-selected rather than supplied by the pupil.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it reverses the defining feature.<\/b> In a short-answer question <b>the answer is supplied by the pupil, not pre-selected as in an objective question<\/b>. That is what separates the two forms.<br><br>The guidance on extent may be given by the <b>space allowed<\/b> or by a specific instruction such as 'in not more than 20 words'.<br><br>Short-answer questions fall into two broad categories \u2014 the <b>extended answer<\/b> type and the <b>insert and completion<\/b> type.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 539,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The extended-answer variety of the short-answer question is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"usable only in language subjects and not in content subjects\",\r\n      \"difficult to set but easy to mark with both speed and consistency\",\r\n      \"equally easy to set and equally easy to mark with consistency\",\r\n      \"deceptively easy to set and difficult to mark with speed and consistency\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) deceptively easy to set and difficult to mark with speed and consistency<\/b><br><br>They are <b>probably the commonest form of question used in schools<\/b> and are frequently used by examining boards, which is why the warning matters.<br><br>The variety covers questions requiring the pupil to write a brief description, <b>draw a map, make a list, perform a calculation, translate a sentence, or write down a definition or formula<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) is contradicted by that range<\/b> \u2014 the form serves mathematics, science, history and language alike.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 540,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Short Answer Questions\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where the words to be supplied by the pupil lie in the body of the statement rather than at its end, the question is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a completion type\",\r\n      \"an insert type\",\r\n      \"a simple recall type\",\r\n      \"an extended answer type\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) an insert type<\/b><br><br>Where the words are required <b>at the end<\/b> of the statement, it is a <b>completion type<\/b>. The two are close cousins and the distinction turns solely on the position of the blank.<br><br>The use of insert and completion questions is <b>not limited to written statements<\/b>: extremely good questions can be built on <b>incomplete maps, drawings, diagrams, formulae and calculations<\/b>.<br><br>The device is also noted as <b>a useful technique for testing vocabulary and spelling<\/b>, where partial letters are supplied and the pupil completes the word.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 541,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construction of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In constructing the preliminary draft of an achievement test, which one of the following precautions is prescribed for objective-type questions?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"They should be placed at the end of the paper, after the essay questions\",\r\n      \"They should be confined to the knowledge level of the cognitive taxonomy\",\r\n      \"They should carry the same marks as the short-answer questions do\",\r\n      \"They should suit the objectives, and compel recall, reasoning and analysis\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) They should suit the objectives, and compel recall, reasoning and analysis<\/b><br><br>The parallel precautions for the other forms are that <b>essay-type questions<\/b> be pitched to the level of the class \u2014 descriptive, argumentative or analytical \u2014 be framed in simple, clear and pointed language, and carry <b>separate marks for each part<\/b>; and that <b>short-answer questions<\/b> be still more pointed, their answers almost definite, with <b>model answers prepared<\/b> so that they may be evaluated objectively.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 542,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construction of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following final steps in the construction of an achievement test in their correct order:<br>1. Typing or printing the test for administration<br>2. Constructing the preliminary draft according to the blueprint<br>3. Review of the test by specialists\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"3 \u2013 2 \u2013 1\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 3 \u2013 1\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"1 \u2013 2 \u2013 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 2 \u2013 3 \u2013 1<\/b><br><br>The draft is written to the blueprint; it is then <b>reviewed by specialists<\/b>, on whose advice <b>errors of language and the weightage given to different parts<\/b> are amended; and only then is it typed or printed.<br><br>Before printing, the paper is to be checked <b>several times<\/b> to satisfy the setter that the questions meet the measurable objectives, that their construction is sound, and that they are objective to a great extent.<br><br>Instructions must be given clearly, and the questions so classified that pupils can be sorted into <b>high, medium and low<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 543,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standardization of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In standardising an achievement test, the extra care to be taken at the construction stage is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"no essay-type question at all should be included in the preliminary draft\",\r\n      \"the questions should all be of the objective type and none of any other\",\r\n      \"the questions should be drawn from a single unit of the whole syllabus\",\r\n      \"the questions of each type should be double the number finally decided\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the questions of each type should be double the number finally decided<\/b><br><br>The surplus is needed because item analysis will reject a proportion of the items.<br><br>A design point accompanies it: some essay and short-answer questions should be such as <b>only about 20 per cent of pupils of high ability can answer<\/b>, the rest being answerable by all; and among objective questions, <b>27 per cent should be answerable only by the higher-level pupils<\/b> and 27 per cent by all.<br><br>Standardisation is defined here as the process by which a teacher-made test is made <b>valid, reliable, objective and discriminative, and for which norms are prepared<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 544,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standardization of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"By the ratio method, if 110 pupils out of 150 answer an item correctly, the difficulty level of the item is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"27 per cent\",\r\n      \"40 per cent\",\r\n      \"73 per cent\",\r\n      \"85 per cent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 73 per cent<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> DL = R \/ N, where R is the number answering correctly and N the total number of pupils.<br><br>DL = 110 \/ 150 = 0\u00b7733, or <b>73 per cent<\/b><br><br><b>The rule of reading is the one candidates most often invert:<\/b> the <b>higher the percentage, the easier the item<\/b>. Option (A), 27 per cent, is the proportion answering incorrectly.<br><br>Items answered correctly by <b>all<\/b> pupils are easy and those answered by <b>none<\/b> are extremely difficult; neither is accepted in a good test. Items in the range of <b>30 to 70 per cent<\/b> are generally selected.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 545,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Significance of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following uses attributed to achievement tests:<br>1. Identification of backward pupils for diagnostic and remedial teaching<br>2. Comparative study of the educational levels of different schools<br>3. Amendment and revision of the curriculum<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated among the fifteen uses listed, along with selection and admission, promotion, educational and vocational guidance, evaluation of a teacher's proficiency and effectiveness, amendment of content, and the issue of reports and certificates.<br><br>Two of the fifteen deserve particular notice for a Principal. Such tests <b>assist learning directly<\/b>, since a pupil learns how much he has studied and how much remains, which motivates him; and constructing them and studying the related literature <b>helps teachers develop a professional attitude<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 546,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Significance of Achievement Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is not among the stated characteristics of a standardised achievement test?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The number of questions is large, so that the chance factor does not operate\",\r\n      \"The scoring key, manual of instructions and norms are prepared in advance and printed\",\r\n      \"The purpose of the test is settled only after the results have been analysed\",\r\n      \"The tests are made separately for different classes\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) The purpose of the test is settled only after the results have been analysed<\/b><br><br>The stated characteristic is the opposite: <b>the purpose of these tests is predetermined<\/b>, as are the scoring and the time limit, both fixed <b>before administration<\/b>.<br><br>The other characteristics are that the content suits the pupils' level, abilities, interests and aptitudes; that the items are <b>objective, so that no question of partial marks arises<\/b>; that the tests are discriminating, reliable and valid; that they are <b>economical of money, time and energy<\/b>; that they have wide content; and that their results give the teacher material on which to build his whole instructional plan.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 547,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Practical Uses of Achievement Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following steps prescribed for developing a good achievement test:<br>1. Preparation of the design of the question paper<br>2. Development of the blueprint on the design provided<br>3. Preparation of the question-wise analysis<br>4. Moderating of the question paper<br>Which of the above is the last in sequence?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Preparation of the design\",\r\n      \"Development of the blueprint\",\r\n      \"Preparation of the question-wise analysis\",\r\n      \"Moderating of the question paper\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Moderating of the question paper<\/b><br><br>The nine steps run: knowledge of the <b>criteria<\/b> of a good achievement test; preparation of the <b>design<\/b>; development of the <b>blueprint<\/b>; <b>framing of questions<\/b> to it; development of <b>key, model answers and marking schemes<\/b>; <b>consolidation and formatting<\/b>; <b>question-wise analysis<\/b>; <b>final editing and review<\/b>; and <b>moderation<\/b>.<br><br>Moderation comes last because it is a check upon everything that precedes it \u2014 the paper, the key, the scheme and the format together.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 548,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Practical Uses of Achievement Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the practical uses of achievement tests, which one is directed at those outside the school?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Class analysis and diagnosis\",\r\n      \"Individual pupil diagnosis\",\r\n      \"Aid to the parents\",\r\n      \"Alternative uses\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Aid to the parents<\/b><br><br>The listed uses are <b>class analysis and diagnosis, individual pupil diagnosis, guidance use, alternative uses, administrative uses and aid to the parents<\/b>.<br><br>The governing principle is stated at the outset and is worth carrying: <b>the value of such tests is directly proportional to the extent to which their results are translated into improved instructional, guidance and administrative practice in the school<\/b>.<br><br>A test whose results are filed rather than acted upon has, on that principle, no value at all \u2014 however sound its construction.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 549,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Diagnostic Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A diagnostic test is best described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a form of aptitude test, predicting the pupil's capacity for future learning\",\r\n      \"a form of achievement test, evaluating the shortcomings of learning on a specific topic\",\r\n      \"a form of intelligence test, measuring general mental ability\",\r\n      \"a form of personality test, measuring the pupil's attitude to the subject\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) a form of achievement test, evaluating the shortcomings of learning on a specific topic<\/b><br><br>The two are nevertheless different in kind. <b>A diagnostic test is an original skill test<\/b>, whereas an achievement test is not constructed with a view to any particular skill and <b>tells only of general achievement in a subject<\/b>.<br><br>The purpose is not to find the pupil's <b>level<\/b> but to find <b>what difficulty he faces in understanding a topic, what its possible cause is, and how the difficulty can be removed<\/b>. Achievement tests raise that question; diagnostic tests answer it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 550,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Diagnostic Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that a diagnostic test remains incomplete until it is connected with remedial teaching rests on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"such tests have no norms against which scores may be interpreted\",\r\n      \"such tests cannot be scored without a remedial programme in place\",\r\n      \"such tests are useful only when the causes found are removed\",\r\n      \"such tests cannot be standardised in the ordinary way\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) such tests are useful only when the causes found are removed<\/b><br><br>The definition itself carries the remedial limb: a diagnostic test is one constructed to find the <b>causes of the failure of a pupil or group of pupils<\/b> in learning a particular part of the subject matter, <b>and with the help of whose findings remedial suggestions are given<\/b>.<br><br>The medical analogy is drawn expressly. A patient is prescribed medicine <b>on the basis of the diagnosis<\/b>, and if the diagnosis is proper the cure follows; in education likewise, if the true causes of failure are found, the remedy can be properly applied.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 551,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Objectives of Diagnostic Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following objectives of diagnostic tests:<br>1. To assist in selecting the tests, techniques and tools by which the causes of a problem may be known<br>2. To assist in selecting the types of question for constructing achievement tests<br>3. To amend the textbooks of different subjects on the basis of the shortcomings found<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with providing <b>educational and vocational guidance<\/b> to pupils and guardians, making the teaching-learning circumstances and the evaluation process <b>more effective<\/b>, arranging for <b>remedial teaching<\/b>, advising the teacher on improving his own process, and knowing the <b>weaknesses, deficiencies and difficulties<\/b> of a pupil.<br><br>The range shows that diagnosis reaches beyond the individual pupil: its findings bear on the <b>instrument, the teaching and the textbook<\/b> alike.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 552,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of Diagnostic Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following characteristics of a diagnostic test:<br>1. No time limit is specified for it.<br>2. The scores obtained by pupils are of no importance; what is seen is the level of difficulty at which a pupil can still succeed.<br>3. Its purpose is to measure the pupil's ability rather than to diagnose his weakness.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it inverts the position.<\/b> These tests <b>do not measure a child's ability; they diagnose his weakness in order to provide a remedy<\/b>.<br><br>The other stated characteristics are that such tests are <b>analytical<\/b>, analysing every part of a process fully; that they form an <b>essential part of the curriculum<\/b>; that they reveal the <b>form of the learner's mental process<\/b>; that they follow specific objectives; that their basis is facts or norms <b>established experimentally<\/b>; and that they test progress objectively.<br><br>On standardisation, opinion is divided: they are usually standardised, but <b>some specialists hold that they should not be<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 553,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Characteristics of Diagnostic Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation that the chief purpose of a diagnostic test is to find some specific weakness of a pupil, so that the causes may be found and steps taken for remedial teaching, is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Bukner and Melbi\",\r\n      \"Lee and Orleans\",\r\n      \"Goode and Hatt\",\r\n      \"Barr, Davis and Johnson\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Bukner and Melbi<\/b><br><br><b>Stone<\/b>, on the strength of his experiments in mathematics, added that diagnostic tests are <b>particularly useful for small classes<\/b> \u2014 a caution about scale that a Principal will recognise.<br><br><b>Lee and Orleans (B)<\/b> constructed a <b>Prognostic Test of Algebraic Ability<\/b>, which belongs to prediction rather than diagnosis.<br><br><b>Goode and Hatt<\/b> and <b>Barr, Davis and Johnson<\/b> defined the questionnaire, and belong to research tools rather than to diagnostic testing.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 554,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construction of Diagnostic Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In constructing a diagnostic test, the analysis undertaken before any question is framed covers:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the concepts, rules and formulae, with the mental faculties related to them\",\r\n      \"the norms of the reference group against which the scores will be read\",\r\n      \"the difficulty and discrimination indices from a previous administration\",\r\n      \"the time limit within which the whole of the test must be completed\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the concepts, rules and formulae, with the mental faculties related to them<\/b><br><br>The illustration given is arithmetic: ability in mathematics is linked to <b>multiplication, division, addition and subtraction<\/b>, and equally to mental abilities such as <b>logic, thinking power and observation power<\/b>.<br><br>Only after the different <b>mental processes at work in the subject<\/b> have been analysed and noted are questions framed on the related concept, rule, formula, process or mental process.<br><br><b>Option (D) is contradicted directly<\/b> \u2014 no time limit is specified for a diagnostic test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 555,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Construction of Diagnostic Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In constructing the items of a diagnostic test, the stems and distractors are settled by reference to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the type of errors the pupils commit and the direction of those errors\",\r\n      \"the weightage given to each unit in the prescribed syllabus\",\r\n      \"the marks allotted to the corresponding items of the achievement test\",\r\n      \"the norms published in the manual of the standardised test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the type of errors the pupils commit and the direction of those errors<\/b><br><br>Common and specific errors are first collected, and <b>the minuteness with which the distractors are determined brings diversity to the test<\/b> \u2014 the distractor is thus not a filler but a hypothesis about how the pupil goes wrong.<br><br>A diagnostic test may be <b>individual-oriented<\/b>, its items built on the weaknesses of a particular pupil, or <b>group-oriented<\/b>, built on the errors common to a group. The scores are interpreted separately under individual and group errors, and <b>different remedial methods are adopted for the two<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 556,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Diagnostic Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Diagnostic tests are broadly classified into two categories. These are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"individual and group diagnostic tests\",\r\n      \"educational and clinical diagnostic tests\",\r\n      \"verbal and non-verbal diagnostic tests\",\r\n      \"formal and informal diagnostic tests\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) educational and clinical diagnostic tests<\/b><br><br><b>Educational<\/b> diagnostic tests relate to different subjects at a specific level, class or grade. <b>Clinical<\/b> diagnostic tests are of several kinds, relating to <b>hearing, vision and other aspects<\/b>.<br><br>The division carries a practical direction for the school: the regular classroom teacher <b>should take the help of a clinical specialist<\/b>. Knowing his pupils, the teacher can be confident in group approaches and can deal with reasonable departures from normal behaviour; but for <b>unusual cases<\/b> he should feel free to invite a person with special skill in diagnosing and treating them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 557,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Diagnostic Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the four functions attributed to diagnosis, the aetiology function refers to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"classification by intellectual, vocational and aptitude level\",\r\n      \"assessment of the level of adjustment and abnormality\",\r\n      \"the study of the causes of the condition diagnosed\",\r\n      \"the prediction of the pupil's future learning\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the study of the causes of the condition diagnosed<\/b><br><br>The word is borrowed from medicine, where aetiology is the study of causation \u2014 a borrowing entirely of a piece with the medical analogy that runs through this subject.<br><br><b>Options (A) and (B) name two of the other functions.<\/b> <b>Classification<\/b> covers intellectual, vocational and aptitude or musical level; <b>assessment of specific ability<\/b> covers the level of adjustment, of abnormality, and of depression and anxiety.<br><br>Diagnosis is described as <b>an individual activity<\/b>, notwithstanding that its functions extend to classification.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 558,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnosis and Preventive Work\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that a general survey test cannot serve as the basis of remedial work rests on the ground that such a test:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"it reports a single unanalysed score and lacks sufficient detail\",\r\n      \"it is administered to a group rather than to an individual pupil\",\r\n      \"it cannot be constructed by the classroom teacher for himself\",\r\n      \"it carries no time limit within which it has to be completed\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) it reports a single unanalysed score and lacks sufficient detail<\/b><br><br>The success of remedial or corrective teaching depends on <b>the accuracy and detail with which the specific skills involved in successful achievement are identified and isolated in the test<\/b>. A total score isolates nothing.<br><br>Accurate diagnosis of class and individual difficulties, <b>coupled with the application of a remedy<\/b>, is described not merely as important but as necessary for teachers. The two limbs go together: detail without remedy is idle, and remedy without detail is guesswork.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 559,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnosis and Preventive Work\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where diagnosis of the addition of fractions in the fifth grade shows that pupils commonly fail to reduce fractions to their lowest terms, the course indicated is to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"correct the defect at once and reconstruct the earlier instruction\",\r\n      \"lower the difficulty of the items on fractions in the next test\",\r\n      \"postpone the teaching of fractions to a higher grade altogether\",\r\n      \"record the weakness in the cumulative record card of each pupil\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) correct the defect at once and reconstruct the earlier instruction<\/b><br><br>The illustration carries the principle that diagnosis serves <b>prevention<\/b> as well as cure. Diagnosis in education has taken on a meaning indicative of <b>a breakdown in method, a failure of instructional technique<\/b>, and <b>the existence of a weakness implies a failure at some point in the programme<\/b>.<br><br>The real importance of the discovery therefore lies less in the cure than in <b>preventing the weakness from reappearing elsewhere under similar conditions<\/b> \u2014 exactly as case records in medicine became the basis of preventive practice.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 560,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Process of Diagnosis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Arrange the following steps in the process of instructional diagnosis in their correct order:<br>1. Analysis of the difficulty points to locate their causes<br>2. Selection of the pupils who require diagnosis<br>3. Adoption of preventive measures<br>4. Identification of the difficulty points\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"4 \u2013 2 \u2013 1 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 1 \u2013 4 \u2013 3\",\r\n      \"2 \u2013 4 \u2013 3 \u2013 1\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 2 \u2013 4 \u2013 1 \u2013 3<\/b><br><br>The five steps run: <b>selection of pupils for diagnosis<\/b>; <b>identification of the difficulty points<\/b>; <b>analysis of those points<\/b> to find their causes; <b>remedial procedures<\/b>; and <b>preventive measures<\/b>.<br><br>The order is one of narrowing followed by widening. The first three progressively narrow the inquiry from the pupil to the exact point and then to its cause; the last two widen again, from curing this pupil to <b>altering the conditions<\/b> so that the difficulty does not recur.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 561,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Process of Diagnosis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In selecting pupils for diagnosis, particular care is directed towards two categories. These are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"pupils who ask the most questions, and pupils who ask none at all\",\r\n      \"pupils who are absent frequently, and those who arrive late for class\",\r\n      \"pupils of high ability whose performance is low, and social misfits\",\r\n      \"pupils newly come to the school, and pupils about to leave it\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) pupils of high ability whose performance is low, and social misfits<\/b><br><br>These are the <b>low-achievers and the misfits<\/b>, and they are to be located very carefully \u2014 precisely because neither announces himself in the ordinary way.<br><br>The other methods of locating pupils needing diagnosis are that <b>they may come to the teacher themselves<\/b>; selection on the basis of <b>school test results<\/b>; selection on the <b>teacher's experience<\/b>; administering <b>achievement and intelligence tests<\/b> to those performing unsatisfactorily; and the <b>interview<\/b> method, which is described as very effective.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 562,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Process of Diagnosis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation that informal and observation charts usually indicate the correct level at which to begin remedial instruction is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Durrell\",\r\n      \"Stone\",\r\n      \"Melbi\",\r\n      \"Ebel\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Durrell<\/b><br><br>The remark supports a broader proposition worth carrying: <b>the diagnostic importance of a test depends more on the teacher and less on the form of the test<\/b>, and <b>informal tests too prove helpful<\/b> in this field.<br><br>The most suitable instrument nevertheless remains the diagnostic test proper, which presents the correct picture of a pupil's weaknesses and abilities. Though <b>the scope of each such test is limited and narrow, the manner in which it tests that narrow field is unique<\/b> \u2014 which is precisely why it cannot be replaced by a survey test.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 563,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Process of Diagnosis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In analysing the difficulty points of a pupil, which of the following are named among the school-related causes of weakness?<br>1. Lack of good teaching<br>2. Prejudiced behaviour and harsh discipline<br>3. Failure in tests<br>4. Lack of proper resources for study at home\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 belongs to the domestic causes<\/b>, along with ill-treatment by parents or relatives, want of a suitable environment, poverty, and being kept busy with household tasks.<br><br>The school-related causes further include <b>bad behaviour by teachers or classmates<\/b> and the <b>teacher's own disinterest in the pupil<\/b>.<br><br>Beyond these two groups lie the personal causes \u2014 <b>physical defects, emotional instability, disinterest, indifference, bad habits, and want of general or specific intelligence<\/b>. The task is difficult because <b>the mind of each pupil functions in a peculiar manner<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 564,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Remedial Teaching\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The urgency with which remedial measures must be applied after diagnosis is justified on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the shortcomings may otherwise become permanent\",\r\n      \"the diagnostic test loses its validity with the passage of time\",\r\n      \"the pupil may be transferred to another section\",\r\n      \"the norms of the test are revised every year\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the shortcomings may otherwise become permanent<\/b><br><br>The success of remedial measures is said to depend on <b>how widely the teacher knows the pupils' shortcomings<\/b>, and the plan may be individual or collective <b>according to the nature of the shortcoming<\/b> \u2014 pupils being divided into groups such as dull, average and intelligent, with separate measures for each.<br><br>The form the measures take is left to the teacher, <b>but the task must be undertaken immediately<\/b>. Delay is the one thing the process cannot absorb.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 565,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Remedial Teaching\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following measures prescribed in conducting remedial teaching:<br>1. Weak pupils should be asked to sit on the front seats in the class.<br>2. Correction of the pupils' written work should be done in their presence.<br>3. Pupils should be given individual counselling even after the class.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with developing the subject matter <b>with examples and illustrations<\/b>; drawing attention to the concepts and principles in which errors are committed; teaching the <b>fundamental concepts<\/b> such as factors, percentage, unit and square root with care; giving sufficient opportunity for <b>thinking and reasoning<\/b>; using <b>models, charts and audio-visual aids<\/b>; keeping blackboard work clear and orderly; and setting exercises on each sub-topic that pupils can think through for themselves.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 566,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Remedial Teaching\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is stated among the cautions to be observed while applying remedial measures?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Where remedial work does not succeed, the form of the programme should be changed\",\r\n      \"Remedial work should be discontinued once the pupil begins to make progress\",\r\n      \"Remedial work is more successful with brilliant pupils than with dull ones\",\r\n      \"Remedial work should be undertaken only where the whole class is affected\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Where remedial work does not succeed, the form of the programme should be changed<\/b><br><br><b>Option (B) inverts a stated direction<\/b> \u2014 pupils who are making progress <b>should be admired, for motivation<\/b>. <b>Option (C) is contradicted expressly<\/b>: such measures are <b>not so successful with brilliant pupils as with dull ones<\/b>, and eradicating the bad habits of a brilliant pupil may take time, so the teacher <b>should work with patience<\/b>.<br><br>Two further cautions are entered: a <b>graph or chart of each pupil's progress<\/b> should be maintained, and he should be given related literature and periodicals in the subject in which he is weak.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 567,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Remedial Teaching\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the illustrative sequence of diagnosis and remediation in the teaching of square root, the step that immediately follows the classification of pupils according to the errors they have committed is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the formulation of hypotheses about the hindering factors\",\r\n      \"the conduct of remedial teaching on the basis of the findings\",\r\n      \"the construction of fresh questions on decimal numbers\",\r\n      \"the analysis of the answers written by the pupils\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the formulation of hypotheses about the hindering factors<\/b><br><br>The eight-step sequence runs: <b>construct questions<\/b>; give them to the group that errs; <b>analyse the answers<\/b> and arrange their causes; <b>classify the pupils<\/b> and prepare lists; <b>formulate hypotheses<\/b>; <b>construct questions to test those hypotheses<\/b>; <b>select the correct hypotheses<\/b> by analysing the answers; and only then <b>conduct remedial teaching<\/b>.<br><br>The hypotheses are drawn from four sources of hindrance \u2014 <b>pupil-related, teacher-related, home-related and culture-related<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 568,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Remedial Teaching\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, offered as examples of teacher-related hypotheses about why pupils continue to err:<br>1. There is no coordination between the pupils' rate of learning and the teacher's rate of teaching.<br>2. The teacher has not made the pupils practise enough.<br>3. The teacher has not corrected the errors while checking their work.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are teacher-related, and the fourth of that group is that <b>the teaching method is not suitable<\/b>.<br><br>The pupil-related hypotheses set against them are that <b>he is not attentive in class<\/b>, that <b>he thinks the subject difficult and neglects it<\/b>, and that <b>he has not done sufficient exercise<\/b>.<br><br>The structure of the exercise is what matters: the teacher frames hypotheses <b>about his own conduct as readily as about the pupil's<\/b>, and tests both before deciding which is true.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 569,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Prognostic Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A prognostic test differs from a diagnostic test in that it is administered to determine:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"whether a pupil is ready to learn abstract topics\",\r\n      \"why a pupil has failed to learn a topic already taught\",\r\n      \"how a pupil compares with others of his own class\",\r\n      \"what proportion of the syllabus a pupil has covered\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) whether a pupil is ready to learn abstract topics<\/b><br><br>Prognostic tests <b>predict a pupil's learning in future<\/b>, and are therefore listed under <b>preventive measures<\/b> rather than remedial ones.<br><br>The practical use given is exact: where a pupil is weak in arithmetic and also lacks intelligence, it would be proper to teach him <b>generalised arithmetic<\/b>, and a prognostic test is constructed with that decision in view.<br><br>The <b>Prognostic Test of Algebraic Ability made by Lee and Orleans<\/b> is named as an available instrument of this kind.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 570,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Prognostic Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Preventive measures following diagnosis are said to require a multidimensional project. Which of the following are named among them?<br>1. Improvement of the school environment<br>2. Amendment of the curriculum<br>3. Improvement of the examination system<br>4. Immediate correction of the pupil's written work in his presence\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 is a remedial measure<\/b>, applied to the pupil who has already erred, not a preventive one.<br><br>The distinction is the whole point of the fifth step. Remedial measures address <b>the error that has occurred<\/b>; preventive measures aim at changing the pupil's school and domestic environment so that his <b>problem of maladjustment is permanently eradicated<\/b>. The project further includes <b>construction of suitable ability tests<\/b> and the provision of a better environment generally.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 571,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 10: ACHIEVEMENT AND DIAGNOSTIC TESTS AND REMEDIAL TEACHING\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Achievement and Diagnostic Testing\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Diagnostic Chart\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the illustrative diagnostic chart of an algebra test, the entry recorded in the column headed 'absence in class' serves to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"suggest a possible cause of the weakness disclosed by the errors\",\r\n      \"establish the reliability of the diagnostic test itself\",\r\n      \"determine the marks to be deducted from the pupil's score\",\r\n      \"fix the order in which pupils are to receive remedial teaching\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) suggest a possible cause of the weakness disclosed by the errors<\/b><br><br>In the illustration the weakest pupil, scoring 10 out of 20, is also the one <b>most frequently absent<\/b>, and the reading offered is that <b>disinterest, carelessness, misunderstanding or absence<\/b> may account for his weakness.<br><br>The chart works at two levels at once. Read <b>across<\/b>, it shows which pupil erred where and what remedy he needs; read <b>down<\/b>, it shows which topic the class as a whole found hard \u2014 decimal fractions, at 62 per cent, being the point at which the teacher should give more exercise.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 572,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Glaser's Classification\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The division of measurement into norm-referenced and criterion-referenced measurement was made by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Benjamin Bloom\",\r\n      \"Robert Ebel\",\r\n      \"Norman Gronlund\",\r\n      \"Robert Glaser\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Robert Glaser<\/b><br><br>He called the traditional measurement, by which the <b>relative ability<\/b> of a pupil in a subject is measured, <b>norm-referenced<\/b>; and the measurement by which the <b>real knowledge<\/b> of a pupil in a subject is measured, <b>criterion-referenced<\/b>.<br><br>The criterion-referenced test as a type is credited to <b>Glaser (1962)<\/b> and to <b>Popham and Husek (1969)<\/b>.<br><br>The three distractors all belong to this field but to other propositions \u2014 Ebel on objective items and the discrimination index, Gronlund on criterion-related validity, Bloom on the taxonomy.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 573,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Glaser's Classification\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Glaser did not define what he meant by 'criterion', and Indian writers have accordingly used several names for such tests. The name regarded as most suitable is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Content Referenced Tests\",\r\n      \"Ability Referenced Tests\",\r\n      \"Objective Referenced Tests\",\r\n      \"Domain Referenced Tests\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Objective Referenced Tests<\/b><br><br>The reason given is that it <b>includes all the three domains \u2014 cognitive, affective and psychomotor<\/b>.<br><br>The competing readings each take 'criterion' differently. Scholars who read it as <b>content<\/b> argue that questions should cover the whole curriculum, and call such tests <b>Content Referenced or Ability Referenced Tests<\/b>. Those who define teaching objectives as behavioural change classified into three domains call them <b>Domain Referenced Tests<\/b>. Most, however, take the criterion to be the <b>teaching objectives<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 574,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are among the other names by which criterion-referenced tests are known?<br>1. Mastery tests<br>2. Competency tests<br>3. Credentialing examinations<br>4. Percentile tests\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br>The full list further includes <b>domain-referenced tests, basic skills tests, performance tests or assessments, authentic assessments, objective-referenced tests and standards-based tests<\/b>.<br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder<\/b> \u2014 the percentile is a device for reporting a <b>norm-referenced<\/b> score.<br><br>What all the names have in common is that each attempts to determine a candidate's level of performance <b>in relation to a well-defined domain of content<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 575,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The distinction between the two forms of testing is sometimes expressed by saying that criterion-referenced interpretation is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"process-centred, while norm-referenced interpretation is product-centred\",\r\n      \"examinee-centred, while norm-referenced interpretation is content-centred\",\r\n      \"teacher-centred, while norm-referenced interpretation is curriculum-centred\",\r\n      \"content-centred, while norm-referenced interpretation is examinee-centred\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) content-centred, while norm-referenced interpretation is examinee-centred<\/b><br><br>A criterion-referenced test permits a score to be interpreted <b>in relation to a domain of content<\/b>; a norm-referenced test permits it to be interpreted <b>in relation to a group of examinees<\/b>, called the <b>norm group<\/b>.<br><br>The phrase captures the whole difference in two words, and every further contrast between the two forms follows from it \u2014 including how items are selected, how reliability is defined, and what counts as evidence of validity.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 576,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A coach, having established that ten seconds in the hundred-yard dash is competitive, holds a trial and selects those who run it in ten seconds or less. This illustrates:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"norm-referenced testing, since the runners are compared with one another\",\r\n      \"diagnostic testing, since the causes of slow running are sought\",\r\n      \"criterion-referenced testing, since a standard of performance was fixed in advance\",\r\n      \"prognostic testing, since future performance is being predicted\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) criterion-referenced testing, since a standard of performance was fixed in advance<\/b><br><br>The point of the illustration is what the coach can say afterwards: <b>he knows the runners he selected can compete<\/b>. Selecting the fastest of those who turned up would have told him only who was fastest that day.<br><br>The same logic governs the classroom form: questions are written to <b>specific predetermined criteria<\/b>, the test carries an <b>established passing score which the pupil knows in advance<\/b>, and he <b>competes only against himself<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 577,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the development of a norm-referenced test, item selection beyond the content specifications is driven chiefly by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the judgement of subject specialists upon the wording of the items\",\r\n      \"the sequence in which the content was taught during the school year\",\r\n      \"item statistics, items of middling difficulty that discriminate highly\",\r\n      \"the time that has been estimated for answering each item in the paper\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) item statistics, items of middling difficulty that discriminate highly<\/b><br><br>Such items <b>contribute most to score spread<\/b>, and so enhance the reliability and validity of the test.<br><br>In criterion-referenced test development the balance is reversed: <b>extensive effort goes into ensuring content validity, and item statistics play a lesser part<\/b> \u2014 though highly discriminating items are still greatly valued, and statistics are sometimes used to <b>maximise discrimination at the performance standards of interest<\/b> on the score scale.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 578,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that each of the two types of test can serve the other's purpose, but never optimally, is illustrated by the fact that a criterion-referenced test:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"cannot be administered to more than one candidate at any one time\",\r\n      \"cannot be standardised in the way that a norm-referenced test can be\",\r\n      \"is not built to maximise score variability, so comparison may be poor\",\r\n      \"yields no numerical score that could be compared with another at all\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) is not built to maximise score variability, so comparison may be poor<\/b><br><br>If the scores it produces are relatively similar, ranking candidates on them means little.<br><br>The converse test of quality is stated for each form. <b>A good norm-referenced test is one that produces a wide distribution of scores<\/b>, without which reliable comparison is impossible. <b>A good criterion-referenced test is one that permits content-referenced interpretation<\/b>, which requires the content domains to be very clearly defined.<br><br><b>Option (B) is false<\/b> \u2014 both kinds can be standardised.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 579,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"For a criterion-referenced test, reliability has commonly been defined as the extent to which:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"performance classifications are consistent over parallel-form administrations\",\r\n      \"items correlate with one another within a single administration of it\",\r\n      \"scores are consistent over parallel-form administrations of the test\",\r\n      \"the test correlates with an independent and external criterion measure\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) performance classifications are consistent over parallel-form administrations<\/b><br><br>Because such scores are used to sort candidates into categories, <b>variation in the scores themselves matters little so long as candidates are assigned to the same category<\/b>. The focus is on the <b>decisions<\/b> rather than on the scores.<br><br>The illustration given is that <b>80 per cent<\/b> of candidates might be classified alike by parallel forms administered with little or no instruction between.<br><br>Since parallel-form administration is rarely practical, <b>single-administration estimates of decision consistency<\/b> have been developed, analogous to the corrected split-half estimate.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 580,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The 'alignment' of the content of a criterion-referenced test to the domain that is to be assessed is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"predictive validity evidence\",\r\n      \"construct validity evidence\",\r\n      \"concurrent validity evidence\",\r\n      \"content validity evidence\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) content validity evidence<\/b><br><br>Validity investigation for such a test has <b>two limbs<\/b>: the match between the content of the items and the knowledge or skills they are intended to measure, and the match between the collection of items and the <b>domain of content<\/b> the test is expected to cover.<br><br><b>Construct validity evidence also becomes crucial<\/b>, because many criterion-referenced tests are built to assess higher-level thinking and writing \u2014 problem solving and critical reasoning \u2014 and showing that the tasks actually assess those skills requires <b>judgement and empirical evidence<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 581,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The most difficult and controversial part of criterion-referenced testing is stated to be:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the writing of plausible distractors for each item\",\r\n      \"the estimation of the reliability coefficient of the test\",\r\n      \"the setting of the performance standards on the score scale\",\r\n      \"the selection of a representative sample for the try-out\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the setting of the performance standards on the score scale<\/b><br><br>The task is to determine the points that separate candidates into performance categories such as 'passers' and 'failers'.<br><br>The difficulty is greater than the two-category case suggests. On state and national assessments it is common to separate candidates into <b>three, four or even five<\/b> categories; where there are four, they are often named <b>failing, basic, proficient and advanced<\/b>.<br><br>Each additional boundary is a fresh judgement to be defended, which is why the exercise is described as controversial rather than merely technical.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 582,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following advantages claimed for criterion-referenced tests:<br>1. They are more suitable than norm-referenced tests for tracking the progress of pupils within a curriculum.<br>2. They can be developed at the classroom level, and deficiencies can be specifically diagnosed if the standards are not met.<br>3. A pupil's score is independent of how the other pupils perform.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with the practical merit that <b>results can be quickly obtained, so that pupils receive effective feedback on their performance<\/b>.<br><br>Test items can be designed to match <b>specific programme objectives<\/b>, so that the score shows how well the pupil can answer questions on <b>the material being studied<\/b>, rather than how he stood relative to others.<br><br>A qualification is added: although norm-referenced tests suit the development of normative data across large groups, <b>criterion-referenced tests can produce some local norms<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 583,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following disadvantages attributed to criterion-referenced tests:<br>1. Making them both valid and reliable requires extensive and expensive time and effort.<br>2. Their results cannot be generalised beyond the specific course or programme.<br>3. They are the appropriate instrument for measuring the performance of large groups.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it states the opposite of a stated disadvantage.<\/b> Criterion-referenced tests are <b>specific to a programme and cannot be used to measure the performance of large groups<\/b>.<br><br>The remaining disadvantage is that such tests <b>may be compromised by pupils gaining access to the questions before the examination<\/b> \u2014 a risk that follows directly from their being locally made and repeatedly used.<br><br>The two limitations are connected: what makes the test locally apt is also what makes it locally confined.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 584,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Criterion-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In training programmes, criterion-referenced tests are typically employed in which design?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A single administration at the close of the programme\",\r\n      \"A pretest-posttest design using parallel forms\",\r\n      \"A norming study followed by percentile reporting\",\r\n      \"A split-half administration within one sitting\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) A pretest-posttest design using parallel forms<\/b><br><br>The design measures <b>what the programme added<\/b> rather than what the trainee already knew, and parallel forms prevent the gain from being an artefact of familiarity with the same paper.<br><br>The other applications named are that <b>classroom teachers<\/b> use such tests to monitor day-to-day performance; <b>States<\/b> use them to evaluate performance and generate accountability information at classroom, school, district and State levels, the tests being based on the curricula; and the <b>credentialing field<\/b> uses them to determine who is qualified to receive a licence or certificate.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 585,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norm-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the expression 'norm-referenced evaluation', the term 'norm' is used in the sense of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the established set of behaviour to be followed by the members of a society\",\r\n      \"the average performance of the group tested\",\r\n      \"the minimum standard of performance fixed in advance\",\r\n      \"the highest score obtained by any member of the group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the average performance of the group tested<\/b><br><br>The word has two meanings, and <b>option (A) states the other one<\/b> \u2014 the established customs which most people follow without question. It is the second sense that is meaningful in testing.<br><br>In the worked illustration, 150 pupils sit a 50-mark objective test; their marks are added and divided by 150, giving an average of <b>30<\/b>, which is the norm of that group. Those above 30 are above average, those below it below average.<br><br><b>There is no pass or fail in this type of evaluation<\/b>, since no marks are set for passing.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 586,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norm-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A norm-referenced test identifies whether a candidate performed better or worse than other candidates, but does not identify whether he:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"belongs to the population from which the norming sample was drawn\",\r\n      \"completed the test within the time allotted for it\",\r\n      \"attempted every question set in the paper\",\r\n      \"knows more or less material than is necessary for a given purpose\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) knows more or less material than is necessary for a given purpose<\/b><br><br>The test yields an estimate of the candidate's <b>position in a predefined population<\/b> with respect to the trait measured, derived from the analysis of test scores and other data from a sample drawn from that population.<br><br>This limitation is the exact complement of the criterion-referenced test's strength. A rank tells you where a pupil stands; only a criterion tells you whether where he stands is <b>good enough<\/b>. Reporting a school 'at the 49th percentile' says nothing about what its pupils can do.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 587,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norm-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The major reason stated for using a norm-referenced test is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"to certify that pupils have reached a stated level of competence\",\r\n      \"to determine whether pupils have mastered the material they were taught\",\r\n      \"to diagnose the specific weaknesses of individual pupils in a subject\",\r\n      \"to classify pupils by producing a dependable rank order of achievement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) to classify pupils by producing a dependable rank order of achievement<\/b><br><br>Such tests are designed to <b>highlight achievement differences between and among pupils<\/b>, from high achievers to low.<br><br>The uses that follow are all placement uses: sorting pupils so that they may be <b>properly placed in remedial or gifted programmes<\/b>, and helping teachers select pupils for <b>different ability-level reading or mathematics groups<\/b>.<br><br>Options (B), (C) and (A) are the objects of criterion-referenced, diagnostic and credentialing testing respectively.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 588,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norm-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are named as tests normed on a national sample of pupils?<br>1. The California Achievement Test<br>2. The Iowa Test of Basic Skills<br>3. The Metropolitan Achievement Test<br>4. The Thematic Apperception Test\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder<\/b> \u2014 the Thematic Apperception Test is a <b>projective technique<\/b> for measuring personality, not a normed achievement battery.<br><br>The practical consequence of norming is that <b>because the process is elaborate and expensive, publishers typically use the same norms for years<\/b> \u2014 a period of about seven being given \u2014 so that every pupil taking the test during that period has his score compared with the <b>original<\/b> norm group, however far the population may since have moved.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 589,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norm-referenced Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A standardized test, as defined by the United States Congress Office of Technology Assessment, is one that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"consists exclusively of multiple-choice questions and of nothing else\",\r\n      \"uses uniform administration and scoring, so that results are comparable\",\r\n      \"is normed upon a national sample drawn from the target population\",\r\n      \"reports its scores in percentile ranks rather than in raw score form\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) uses uniform administration and scoring, so that results are comparable<\/b><br><br>The definition carries an important consequence: <b>any kind of test \u2014 multiple choice, essay or oral \u2014 can be standardized<\/b> if uniform scoring and administration are used. <b>Option (A) is therefore expressly wrong.<\/b><br><br>It follows too that <b>both norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests can be standardized<\/b>, and that two pupils obtaining identical scores on the same standardized test demonstrate corresponding levels of performance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 590,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Features of Norm-referenced Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The content of the questions on most commercially published norm-referenced achievement tests reflects:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the curriculum prescribed by the local school or State education department\",\r\n      \"the content of nationally used textbooks\",\r\n      \"the objectives set by the individual classroom teacher\",\r\n      \"the syllabus of the examination for which the pupils are being prepared\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the content of nationally used textbooks<\/b><br><br>The consequence is stated bluntly: pupils <b>may be tested on things which their local school or State education department decided were not important, and which were therefore not taught<\/b>.<br><br>This is one of the standing objections to the form. The test is built to rank pupils across the country, and can do so only by asking what is common to textbooks everywhere \u2014 which need not be what any particular school set out to teach.<br><br>Most such tests are multiple-choice, though some include open-ended, short-answer questions.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 591,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Features of Norm-referenced Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In constructing a norm-referenced test, test-makers frame the paper so that most pupils will score near the middle. The purpose of this is to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"produce results resembling the normal curve, which eases comparison\",\r\n      \"ensure that the content of the syllabus is adequately covered by it\",\r\n      \"raise the reliability of the sub-test scores reported for each pupil\",\r\n      \"reduce the effect that guessing has upon the total score obtained\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) produce results resembling the normal curve, which eases comparison<\/b><br><br>Only a few pupils are meant to score at either end of the distribution.<br><br>The test is not normed on all who take it in a given year. Test-makers select a <b>sample from the target population<\/b> \u2014 say, ninth graders \u2014 which is supposed to represent that population fairly, and every later candidate's score is reported <b>in relation to the scores of that norming group<\/b>.<br><br>Scores may be reported as percentile ranks, <b>grade equivalents, stanines or normal curve equivalents<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 592,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Features of Norm-referenced Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil is reported to have scored at the 63rd percentile on a norm-referenced test. This means that he:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"answered 63 per cent of the questions correctly\",\r\n      \"scored higher than 63 per cent of the test-takers in the norming group\",\r\n      \"scored 63 marks above the mean of the norming group\",\r\n      \"belongs to the 63rd of the hundred bands into which the syllabus was divided\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) scored higher than 63 per cent of the test-takers in the norming group<\/b><br><br>Percentile scores range from the <b>1st to the 99th<\/b>, the average pupil's score being set at the <b>50th percentile<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the standing confusion<\/b> of percentile with percentage, and it is worth resisting: a percentile locates the pupil among others, while a percentage records how much of the paper he answered.<br><br>A caution attaches to the precision such a figure implies. <b>One more question right or wrong can raise a reported percentile by more than ten points<\/b>, so it is important to know how much difference a single item makes.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 593,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Features of Norm-referenced Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In making a norm-referenced test, it is said to be often more important to choose questions that sort people along the curve than to ensure that the content covered is adequate. A consequence of this is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"most of the things everyone knows are not tested at all\",\r\n      \"the test must be administered without any time limit\",\r\n      \"the test cannot be reported in percentile ranks\",\r\n      \"the items must all be of the constructed-response type\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) most of the things everyone knows are not tested at all<\/b><br><br>Since the tests are made to sort, an item that everyone answers correctly contributes nothing to the sorting and is therefore dropped \u2014 however important the knowledge it tests.<br><br>Two further consequences are stated: the tests <b>sometimes emphasise small and meaningless differences<\/b> among test-takers, and questions <b>may be obscure or tricky<\/b> in order to help rank-order them.<br><br><b>Option (B) is contradicted directly<\/b> \u2014 such tests usually have to be completed within a time limit, which some pupils do not finish.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 594,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Features of Norm-referenced Tests\",\r\n    \"question\": \"It is said that in the course of building the bell curve, test-makers usually eliminate questions which pupils with low overall scores get right but those with high overall scores get wrong. The stated effect of this practice is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"most questions favouring minority groups are eliminated\",\r\n      \"the reliability of the sub-test scores is reduced\",\r\n      \"the test becomes unsuitable for group administration\",\r\n      \"the time limit for the test has to be extended\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) most questions favouring minority groups are eliminated<\/b><br><br>The mechanism is statistical rather than deliberate: an item on which the usual ranking is reversed is discarded as negatively discriminating, and items resting on knowledge more common outside the majority group tend to behave that way.<br><br>The wider objection is that <b>tests can be biased<\/b>: non-school knowledge more commonly learned by middle or upper class children is often included<\/b> in such tests, so that some questions may favour one kind of pupil for reasons having nothing to do with the subject being tested.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 595,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Advantages and Disadvantages of NRT\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following advantages claimed for norm-referenced tests:<br>1. They were created to rank test-takers, and so are the easiest instrument for comparing pupils.<br>2. They give a quick snapshot of some of the things most people expect pupils to learn.<br>3. They are relatively cheap and easy to administer.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, but each is entered with a reservation.<br><br>On ranking, it is observed that where places are limited \u2014 as in a gifted and talented programme \u2014 <b>it is tempting to use a test built to rank, even if the ranking is not very meaningful and keeps out some qualified children<\/b>.<br><br>On the snapshot, the qualification is decisive: such tests <b>would not be much of a problem if they were used as one additional piece of information and no great importance were placed on them<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 596,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Advantages and Disadvantages of NRT\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is stated as the chief objection to norm-referenced tests?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"They cannot be standardised in the manner of criterion-referenced tests\",\r\n      \"They cannot be administered to more than one pupil at any one time\",\r\n      \"They rank and sort pupils rather than establish what has been learned\",\r\n      \"Their results become available far too late to be of any use at all\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) They rank and sort pupils rather than establish what has been learned<\/b><br><br>The criticism is pressed further: such tests <b>do not measure anywhere near enough of what pupils should learn<\/b>, have <b>very harmful effects on curriculum and instruction<\/b>, and end by providing <b>a distorted view of learning<\/b>.<br><br>The mechanism by which the damage reaches the curriculum is stated separately: because of the importance placed on high scores, <b>the content of a standardized test can be very influential in the development of a school's curriculum and standards of excellence<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 597,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Advantages and Disadvantages of NRT\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The Standards for Educational and Psychological Measurement lay down that in elementary or secondary education:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a decision of major impact should not rest automatically on one score\",\r\n      \"no norm-referenced test should be administered before the ninth grade\",\r\n      \"every test must be normed afresh in each and every academic year\",\r\n      \"all tests must be reported in percentile ranks rather than raw scores\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) a decision of major impact should not rest automatically on one score<\/b><br><br>The standard speaks of a decision or characterisation that will have a major impact on a test-taker, and forbids its being made automatically on <b>a single test score<\/b>.<br><br>The reasoning behind the standard is set out alongside it: <b>any one test can measure only a limited part of a subject area or a limited range of important human abilities<\/b>. A reading test may measure some reading skills, not the full ability to understand and use texts; a multiple-choice mathematics test may measure computation or routine problem solving, but is <b>not good for assessing whether pupils can reason mathematically and apply knowledge to new, real-world problems<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 598,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Accuracy of Test Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil's reported score of 63 on a norm-referenced test is described as an estimate, his true score probably lying between 56 and 70. This range is reported as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a score band\",\r\n      \"a stanine\",\r\n      \"a grade equivalent\",\r\n      \"a normal curve equivalent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) a score band<\/b><br><br>A score band shows the range within which the test-taker's <b>true score<\/b> probably lies, and it exists because <b>no test is perfectly reliable<\/b> and every test carries measurement error.<br><br>The other causes of error are named: <b>a pupil may be having a bad day<\/b>; testing conditions often are <b>not the same from place to place<\/b>, and so are not adequately standardized; and <b>different versions of the same test are not in fact exactly the same<\/b>.<br><br>The other three options are alternative ways of <b>reporting<\/b> a score, not of expressing its uncertainty.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 599,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Accuracy of Test Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Sub-scores on a test are said to be even less precise than the total score chiefly because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"there are often very few items in the sub-test\",\r\n      \"sub-tests are always administered without a time limit\",\r\n      \"sub-tests are scored by a different examiner\",\r\n      \"sub-tests are not included in the norming study\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) there are often very few items in the sub-test<\/b><br><br>The illustration is striking: a score band for a pupil's mathematics sub-test might show her score lying anywhere <b>between the 33rd and the 99th percentile<\/b>, because only a handful of questions were asked.<br><br>The same principle explains a related caution: <b>scores for young children are much less reliable than for older pupils<\/b>, because young children's moods and attention are more variable, and because they <b>develop quickly and unevenly<\/b>, so that even an accurate score today may be wrong next month.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 600,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Norm- & Criterion-referenced Measurement\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Accuracy of Test Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A history test asking about Bacon's Rebellion is replaced by another asking about Shay's Rebellion, and the pupils' scores fall. The explanation offered is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the norming group for the second test was drawn from another population\",\r\n      \"the second test was constructed to a higher difficulty level than the first\",\r\n      \"scores rise as teachers learn what is on a test, and drop when it changes\",\r\n      \"the second test contained considerably fewer items than the first one did\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) scores rise as teachers learn what is on a test, and drop when it changes<\/b><br><br>A district or State usually uses a norm-referenced test for <b>five to ten years<\/b>, and the pattern repeats with each change.<br><br>This is the effect known as <b>teaching to the test<\/b>, and the moral drawn is the important one: when scores go up, <b>it does not mean that pupils know more; it means they know more of what is on that test<\/b>. Schools cannot teach everything, and once teachers know what is covered they are more likely to teach it \u2014 <b>often stopping the teaching of much that is not tested<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 601,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nature of the Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, named among the factors relating to the nature of the test that influence the scores of all pupils more or less equally:<br>1. Miscalculation of the time limit by the paper setter<br>2. Sampling inadequacies in the coverage of the prescribed course<br>3. The pupil's own knowledge and understanding of the subject matter\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it names the factor expressly excluded from this group.<\/b> A pupil's knowledge, understanding or ability determines <b>his own<\/b> score; the factors here are those that influence the scores of <b>all<\/b> pupils.<br><br>The other factors of this kind are the <b>difficulty level of the examination<\/b>, the <b>nature of the group tested<\/b>, and <b>instructional effectiveness<\/b>.<br><br>The consequence drawn is a fairness one: if the paper setter misjudged the time, <b>the marks of all pupils should not be lowered merely because of his wrong guess<\/b> \u2014 some adjustment must be made in assigning final marks.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 602,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nature of the Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Sampling inadequacy is said to affect the raw scores of pupils especially in:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"essay-type questions, which are few in number and do not ensure good coverage\",\r\n      \"objective-type questions, which are too numerous to be checked against the blueprint\",\r\n      \"very short-answer questions, whose responses must be fixed and definite\",\r\n      \"practical examinations, which cannot be conducted for a large group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) essay-type questions, which are few in number and do not ensure good coverage<\/b><br><br>The question is how far the questions set adequately cover the prescribed course content, and a paper of six or eight essay questions cannot sample a syllabus.<br><br>The observation reaches beyond the paper: the chance of <b>inadequate coverage in testing, or even in teaching<\/b>, affects the raw score, <b>which ultimately affects many decisions<\/b> \u2014 about the pupil's performance, the teacher's effectiveness and the standard of performance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 603,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychological Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, named among the psychological factors influencing test scores:<br>1. Anxiety, some children freezing in a testing situation<br>2. Cultural differences, which may impede understanding of the content of questions<br>3. Economic differences, which may leave a child unfamiliar with places referred to in the questions<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with <b>physical health, emotional health, parental attitudes and the classroom situation<\/b>.<br><br>The illustrations given are concrete. Anxiety is <b>especially acute where parents are themselves stressed about the test and have pressed the child to do well<\/b>. Cultural difference is illustrated by a Jewish or Muslim child meeting questions centred on Christmas or Easter. Economic difference is illustrated by a child who has <b>never been to a farm, a zoo or a circus<\/b>, and is puzzled by any reference to them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 604,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychological Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Under the head of the classroom situation, which of the following are said to depress pupils' scores on a standardized test?<br>1. Overcrowding of the classroom<br>2. The presence of several children with learning or behavioural disabilities without any aid<br>3. A change of teacher one or more times during the year\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, and the remedies indicated follow from them: <b>learning must be incremental, discipline must be consistent, and those in difficulty should receive some one-to-one attention from the teacher<\/b>.<br><br>The head of <b>parental attitudes<\/b> works in the same way. Children read to since infancy, whose homes contain books and papers and whose parents themselves enjoy reading, hold <b>a huge advantage<\/b>; and children whose parents are <b>supportive and interested<\/b> in their education do better than those whose parents show little interest in their progress.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 605,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Environmental Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"According to neurobiological theory as stated in this context, the development of the various forms of human intelligence usually ends at the critical point reached at about the age of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"12 years\",\r\n      \"16 years\",\r\n      \"21 years\",\r\n      \"25 years\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 16 years<\/b><br><br>After this point of intellectual maturity, <b>the intelligence quotient is thought to be relatively stable<\/b>.<br><br>The environment has its greatest effect <b>up to that critical point<\/b>, and chiefly on <b>fluid intelligence<\/b> \u2014 a person's ability to think logically in verbal and spatial terms and to detect patterns.<br><br>It follows that appropriate <b>environmental stimuli must be provided during childhood<\/b>, before the critical period for adapting neuronal connections ends. Some researchers hold that the critical-period effect arises because changes in neuronal connections <b>inhibit or prevent possible future changes<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 606,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Environmental Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are named among the environmental factors affecting test performance?<br>1. Womb conditions and nutrition<br>2. Pollution and head injuries<br>3. Prejudices and self-belief<br>4. The difficulty index of the individual items\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder<\/b> \u2014 the difficulty index is a property of the test, and belongs under the nature of the test rather than the environment.<br><br>The environmental list further includes <b>modern media, education, breast feeding, nurture and parenting, national culture, sleep problems, drug and alcohol abuse, mental illnesses, stress and diseases<\/b>.<br><br>Two of these are said to work positively: increasing the <b>time in and quality of education<\/b> before the critical limit improves performance on an intelligence test, and modern media give a <b>cognitive workout<\/b> requiring analytical and logical thought.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 607,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Environmental Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a comprehensive study covering eleven studies and over seven thousand children, children who were breastfed were found to score better on intelligence tests than those who were not, by about:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1\u00b72 points\",\r\n      \"3\u00b75 points\",\r\n      \"5\u00b72 points\",\r\n      \"9\u00b78 points\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 5\u00b72 points<\/b><br><br>The finding sits among several bearing on early development. <b>High intake of alcohol and drugs by mothers<\/b> significantly lowers the intelligence quotient of their children, and prenatal exposure to marijuana affects the later development of intelligence. <b>Prolonged deprivation of oxygen during delivery<\/b> can lead to brain damage and mental retardation, and <b>low birth weight<\/b> has been linked to lower intelligence scores later in life.<br><br>Poor nutrition \u2014 marked by deficiencies of <b>zinc, iron, vitamin B and protein<\/b> \u2014 leads to a low intelligence quotient, which in turn leads to later antisocial behaviour.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 608,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Environmental Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The long-term study by Baghurst and associates in 1992, in which children growing up next to a lead-smelting plant had significantly lower intelligence test scores, is cited as evidence of the effect of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"nutrition\",\r\n      \"pollution\",\r\n      \"womb conditions\",\r\n      \"national culture\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Pollution<\/b><br><br>The scores were found to be <b>negatively correlated with the children's blood-lead level exposure<\/b>, and lead exposure is described as having a proven significant effect on the development of a child's intelligence.<br><br>The correlation being negative is what makes the finding evidential rather than merely suggestive: as exposure rose, measured intelligence fell.<br><br>The distinction from option (C) is one of timing \u2014 womb conditions concern <b>prenatal<\/b> exposure to alcohol, drugs, oxygen deprivation and low birth weight, whereas pollution operates on the child after birth.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 609,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nature of the Test\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A standardized test score is described as an indication of how much knowledge a child has accumulated and can put down on paper:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"over the whole of the academic session\",\r\n      \"on a certain day within a limited time frame\",\r\n      \"in comparison with the pupils of his own school alone\",\r\n      \"in the subjects he has himself chosen to be tested in\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) on a certain day within a limited time frame<\/b><br><br>The emphasis is that <b>that is all it is \u2014 an indication<\/b>.<br><br>Several further matters must be weighed before a mark is entered on a report card or a placement decided for the coming term: the quality of the pupil's <b>daily work<\/b> and his marks on unit and term tests; whether his <b>contribution to projects<\/b> matches that of his peers; whether he is <b>responsible about completing homework<\/b>; and whether he has a <b>positive attitude towards school and education<\/b>.<br><br>The standardized test is <b>only one tool in the teacher's stockpile of evaluation<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 610,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 11: NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTING AND FACTORS INFLUENCING TEST SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Factors Influencing Test Scores\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Psychological Factors\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, named among the circumstances of physical and emotional health that may depress a pupil's test performance:<br>1. Having slept in, missed breakfast and come to the test hungry<br>2. Being distracted by an upcoming holiday, birthday or sleepover<br>3. Being upset because his parents are in the midst of separation proceedings<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated. <b>Physical health<\/b> covers coming down with influenza, a headache, a sore throat, being overtired, or coming to the test hungry. <b>Emotional health<\/b> covers a seriously ill relative and witnessing an abusive relationship at home, as well as the two matters named here.<br><br>Note that item 2 shows the point cuts both ways: <b>pleasurable excitement distracts as effectively as distress does<\/b>.<br><br>The conclusion drawn is that competent teachers, knowing their pupils' strengths and weaknesses, <b>take all such factors into account before deciding a report card mark or a placement<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 611,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Processing of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The functions that can be performed in processing collected data are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"collecting, verifying, publishing and archiving\",\r\n      \"sampling, testing, scoring and reporting\",\r\n      \"grouping, graphing, ranking and averaging\",\r\n      \"editing, coding, tabulation and classification\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) editing, coding, tabulation and classification<\/b><br><br>Processing must follow <b>the outline laid down when the research plan was developed<\/b>, and is needed to ensure that all relevant data has been collected for comparison and analysis.<br><br>Processing and analysis are closely related but distinct. In technical terms, <b>processing represents data in a form open to analysis<\/b>, while <b>analysis is the computation of measures and the search for patterns of relationship<\/b> among data groups.<br><br>Research is not merely the collection of data; it is <b>incomplete without proper analysis<\/b> of what has been collected.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 612,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Editing of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The kind of editing carried out by the investigator immediately after an interview, on forms written in an abbreviated or illegible manner, is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"descriptive editing\",\r\n      \"central editing\",\r\n      \"manifold editing\",\r\n      \"field editing\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Field editing<\/b><br><br>It must be done <b>immediately after the interview<\/b>, since after some time it becomes difficult to decipher an individual's writing style. The investigator must be careful to <b>restrain himself from correcting errors or omissions by guesswork<\/b>.<br><br><b>Central editing<\/b> is a thorough editing of the whole data by a single editor or a team, undertaken once all the schedules have been completed and returned. Editors there correct such errors as data recorded in the wrong place, or in months where it should have been in weeks, and may <b>mark an irrecoverable answer 'no answer'<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 613,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Editing of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following features which editing is intended to assure in the collected data:<br>1. Accuracy and consistency<br>2. Unity and uniformity<br>3. Effective arrangement<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All five features are named together. Editing tests the data-collection instruments for <b>maximum accuracy<\/b>, checking legibility, consistency and completeness, and aims at <b>avoiding equivocation and ambiguity<\/b>.<br><br>Certain procedural rules accompany it: familiarity with the instructions given to interviewers and coders; knowledge of the editing instructions; deletion of an original entry by a <b>single line struck through it<\/b>; standardized and distinctive editing; and the <b>initialling of every answer that is changed<\/b> \u2014 so that no alteration is anonymous.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 614,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Coding of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In coding data, the requirement of mutual exclusivity among the classes means that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the classes must be defined in terms of a single concept\",\r\n      \"every data element must be provided with a class of its own\",\r\n      \"each class must be appropriate to the research problem under consideration\",\r\n      \"a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell of a given category set\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) a specific answer can be placed in one and only one cell of a given category set<\/b><br><br>The other options each state a different requirement of the same checklist: classes must be <b>appropriate to the research problem<\/b>, must <b>include a class for every data element<\/b>, and must be framed <b>in terms of only one concept<\/b>.<br><br>Coding is defined as representing the data <b>symbolically according to predefined rules<\/b>. Its significance lies in <b>reducing data from a variety to a small number of classes<\/b>, so that only what is critical for analysis is retained. Coding decisions are usually taken <b>at the stage of designing the questionnaire<\/b>, which allows pre-coding for computer tabulation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 615,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In manifold classification, where three attributes are considered simultaneously, the total number of classes of final order is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"3\",\r\n      \"6\",\r\n      \"8\",\r\n      \"9\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 8<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> the number of classes of final order is <b>2<sup>n<\/sup><\/b>, where n is the number of attributes considered.<br><br>2<sup>3<\/sup> = <b>8<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D), 9, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 obtained by squaring the number of attributes rather than raising two to their power. Each attribute splits every existing class in two, so the classes double with each attribute added, not multiply by the attribute count.<br><br>The two simpler forms are <b>descriptive classification<\/b>, by qualitative features such as literacy, sex or honesty that cannot be measured quantitatively, and <b>simple classification<\/b>, dividing elements into those that possess an attribute and those that do not.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 616,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Applying Sturges' formula to a distribution with a range of 76 and 100 items to be grouped, the size of the class interval works out to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"7\u00b76\",\r\n      \"10\",\r\n      \"12\u00b75\",\r\n      \"19\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 10<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> i = R \/ (1 + 3\u00b73 log N)<br><br>log 100 = <b>2<\/b><br>1 + 3\u00b73 \u00d7 2 = 1 + 6\u00b76 = <b>7\u00b76<\/b><br>i = 76 \/ 7\u00b76 = <b>10<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 7\u00b76, is the denominator<\/b> mistaken for the answer.<br><br>The formula is a guide rather than a rule: there are <b>no predefined rules<\/b> for classifying data, and it is generally held that class intervals should be of equal magnitude, though unequal magnitudes sometimes classify better. <b>Multiples of two, five and ten are preferred<\/b> in fixing class magnitude.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 617,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Classification of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The difference between the two class limits of a class interval is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the class frequency\",\r\n      \"the class midpoint\",\r\n      \"the class boundary\",\r\n      \"the class magnitude\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the class magnitude<\/b><br><br>Each class interval has an <b>upper limit and a lower limit<\/b>, together called the class limits, and the difference between them is the class magnitude. The number of elements falling within a class is its <b>frequency<\/b>, and all class intervals taken together with their frequencies form the <b>frequency distribution<\/b>.<br><br>Where a distribution contains one or two elements of very high or very low value, an <b>open-ended interval<\/b> \u2014 'below two years', 'twelve years and above' \u2014 may be used. Such intervals are described as <b>not desirable, yet unavoidable<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 618,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nature and Sources of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Sources of data which filter data drawn from secondary sources are described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"primary sources\",\r\n      \"categorical sources\",\r\n      \"internal sources\",\r\n      \"tertiary sources\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Tertiary sources<\/b><br><br><b>External sources<\/b> divide into three: <b>primary<\/b>, which are original, the data being collected from the very object under study; <b>secondary<\/b>, which use data collected through primary sources; and <b>tertiary<\/b>, which filter data from secondary sources.<br><br><b>Internal sources<\/b> are those the organisation creates for itself. The illustration is apt for a Principal: the Central Government generates data on population through the census, on the <b>enrolment of pupils at various levels of schooling<\/b>, and on literacy rates; and the reports of government committees and commissions constitute internal data.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 619,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Nature and Sources of Data\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Numerical data in which the absolute difference between two given numbers is meaningful is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"discrete data\",\r\n      \"ordinal data\",\r\n      \"categorical data\",\r\n      \"cardinal data\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Cardinal data<\/b><br><br>In cardinal data such as 10, 8, 6 and 2 miles, one may say that 10 miles is one and a quarter times 8 miles, and 6 miles twice 2 miles.<br><br><b>Ordinal data<\/b> gives only a comparative picture: the difference between two numbers <b>conveys order and not absolute magnitude<\/b>, so that P is larger than, equal to, or less than Q, and nothing more.<br><br><b>Categorical data<\/b> such as 'republican' or 'democrat' is not ordinal at all, since <b>there is no hierarchy among the categories<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 620,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following pairs:<br>Type of analysis : What it does<br>1. Univariate analysis : Describes a single variable in terms of its mean, median or mode and its variability<br>2. Bivariate analysis : Examines the extent of association between two variables<br>Which of the above pairs is\/are correctly matched?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br>Univariate analysis is <b>usually the first activity pursued<\/b> in analysing data. Bivariate analysis might, for instance, examine whether irregular meals and migraine headaches are associated.<br><br><b>Multivariate analysis<\/b> observes three or more variables at a time \u2014 age, educational qualification and annual income together \u2014 and is conveniently displayed in a <b>cross-classification or contingency table<\/b>, the independent variable traditionally in columns and the dependent in rows. A multivariate table is formed by combining bivariate tables, each of which is then called a <b>partial table<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 621,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Analysis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Analysis of data undertaken to make inferences and possible predictions, as distinct from describing the basic features of the data, is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"descriptive analysis\",\r\n      \"discriminant analysis\",\r\n      \"canonical analysis\",\r\n      \"inferential analysis\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Inferential analysis<\/b><br><br>It is also called <b>statistical analysis<\/b>. <b>Descriptive analysis<\/b> describes the basic features of the data in a study \u2014 of persons, work groups or organisations.<br><br>The named techniques belong to particular purposes. <b>Multiple regression<\/b> predicts a single dependent variable from a set of independent variables. <b>Multiple discriminant analysis<\/b> predicts the likelihood that an entity belongs to a particular group from several metric independent variables. <b>Canonical analysis<\/b> investigates the relationship between two <b>sets<\/b> of variables.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 622,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Frequency Distribution\",\r\n    \"question\": \"When a mass of raw data is arranged in order of magnitude, whether increasing or decreasing, the arrangement is called:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a frequency distribution\",\r\n      \"an ogive\",\r\n      \"a tally\",\r\n      \"an array\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) An array<\/b><br><br><b>Raw data<\/b> is the mass of data in its original form as collected from the field or through experiment, not arranged in any numerical form and <b>not treated at all<\/b>. Each item may be a score, value, number, grade or observation.<br><br>The array is only the first step. <b>The commonest way of organising raw data is to form a frequency distribution<\/b>, which may be built by <b>tally marks and frequencies<\/b> where the data is small, or as a <b>grouped frequency distribution<\/b> where it is large.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 623,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Frequency Distribution\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The number of classes in a grouped frequency distribution should ideally lie between:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"3 and 8\",\r\n      \"20 and 50\",\r\n      \"10 and 30\",\r\n      \"5 and 20\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 5 and 20<\/b><br><br>The reason is a balance between two opposite dangers, and both are stated. <b>Too many class intervals tend to destroy the pattern of the distribution<\/b>; <b>too few destroy much of the detail present in the raw data<\/b>.<br><br>The chief advantage of grouping is that it gives a <b>clear picture of the overall distribution<\/b> of scores.<br><br>The number of classes depends on <b>the number of items in the series<\/b> and on the <b>range<\/b> \u2014 the difference between the highest and lowest values \u2014 the higher the range, the more class intervals are needed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 624,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Frequency Distribution\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a grouped frequency distribution the stated class intervals are 10-11, 12-13 and 14-15. The lower class boundary of the second class is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"11\u00b70\",\r\n      \"11\u00b75\",\r\n      \"12\u00b70\",\r\n      \"12\u00b75\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 11\u00b75<\/b><br><br><b>Rule:<\/b> a class boundary is found by adding the upper limit of one class to the lower limit of the next and dividing by two.<br><br>Lower boundary of 12-13 = (11 + 12) \/ 2 = 23 \/ 2 = <b>11\u00b75<\/b><br>Upper boundary of 12-13 = (13 + 14) \/ 2 = 27 \/ 2 = <b>13\u00b75<\/b><br><br>The <b>width or class size<\/b> is the difference between the two boundaries, here 13\u00b75 \u2212 11\u00b75 = <b>2<\/b>.<br><br>The stated limits 10-11, 12-13, 14-15 therefore correspond to the <b>real limits<\/b> 9\u00b75-11\u00b75, 11\u00b75-13\u00b75 and 13\u00b75-15\u00b75.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 625,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Frequency Distribution\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The midpoint of a class interval whose real limits are 13\u00b75 and 15\u00b75 is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"14\u00b70\",\r\n      \"14\u00b75\",\r\n      \"15\u00b70\",\r\n      \"29\u00b70\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 14\u00b75<\/b><br><br>The midpoint lies <b>exactly halfway between the upper and lower real limits<\/b>, and is found by dividing their sum by two:<br>(13\u00b75 + 15\u00b75) \/ 2 = 29 \/ 2 = <b>14\u00b75<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D), 29, is the sum left undivided<\/b> \u2014 the commonest slip.<br><br>The midpoint matters beyond arithmetic: it is the value plotted on the horizontal axis in constructing a <b>frequency polygon<\/b>, and the value used to represent the whole class in computing statistics from grouped data.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 626,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Frequency Distribution\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a cumulative frequency distribution, the cumulative frequency of the last class interval is always equal to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the frequency of the modal class\",\r\n      \"the range of the distribution\",\r\n      \"half the total frequency\",\r\n      \"the total frequency N\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the total frequency N<\/b><br><br>A cumulative frequency distribution is prepared where the investigator needs to know <b>the number of observations below a certain point<\/b> in the distribution. It is built by adding a further column in which the frequencies of all preceding class intervals are added to that of the class in question.<br><br>Since every frequency has by then been added in, the final entry must equal the whole. <b>The check is a useful one<\/b>: if the last cumulative frequency does not equal N, an arithmetical error has been made somewhere in the column.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 627,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Graphical Representation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A frequency polygon is obtained by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"plotting the cumulative frequencies against the class intervals\",\r\n      \"joining the upper class boundaries of a cumulative frequency distribution\",\r\n      \"drawing a smooth freehand curve through the plotted frequencies\",\r\n      \"joining the midpoints of the tops of the rectangles of a histogram\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) joining the midpoints of the tops of the rectangles of a histogram<\/b><br><br>It is <b>essentially a line graph of the frequency distribution<\/b>.<br><br>The related forms differ in method. A <b>frequency curve<\/b> is a smooth freehand curve drawn in the same way <b>but without drawing the rectangles at all<\/b> \u2014 points are marked where the midpoint and its frequency meet and joined by a line. Its object is to <b>eliminate the accidental variations<\/b> in the data, and it is <b>not a closed curve<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) describes the ogive<\/b>, the cumulative frequency curve.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 628,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Graphical Representation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In constructing an ogive, the cumulative frequencies are plotted against:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the midpoints of the class intervals\",\r\n      \"the stated class limits\",\r\n      \"the lower boundaries of the classes\",\r\n      \"the upper boundaries of the classes\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the upper boundaries of the classes<\/b><br><br>The reason follows from what a cumulative frequency states: it counts all cases <b>up to and including<\/b> the class, so the count is complete only at the point where the class ends.<br><br>In an ogive, <b>cumulative frequency is shown on the Y axis and the class interval on the X axis<\/b>, and a line graph in the form of a curve is plotted connecting the points.<br><br><b>Option (A) describes the frequency polygon<\/b>, where the midpoint is the right plotting position because the frequency belongs to the class as a whole.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 629,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Graphical Representation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In constructing a histogram from a frequency distribution, the class intervals are plotted along the X axis using:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the stated class limits\",\r\n      \"the real class limits\",\r\n      \"the midpoints of the classes\",\r\n      \"the cumulative frequencies\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the real class limits<\/b><br><br>Using real limits is what allows the rectangles to <b>touch one another without gaps<\/b>, which is essential because a histogram is <b>appropriate for data given on a continuous interval scale<\/b>.<br><br>The steps run: plot the class intervals along X using real limits; plot <b>frequencies along the Y axis<\/b>; construct for each category a bar whose <b>height corresponds to the number of cases and whose width corresponds to the real limits<\/b>; label each axis; and give the graph a title.<br><br>Where all classes are of the same width, all the rectangles will also be of the same width.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 630,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Central Tendency\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The definition of a measure of central tendency as a sort of average or typical value of the items in a series, whose function is to summarise the series in terms of that value, was given in 1955 by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Gronlund\",\r\n      \"Garrett\",\r\n      \"Tate\",\r\n      \"Cronbach\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Tate<\/b><br><br>The concept rests on an observation about how scores behave: in a class, very few pupils score either very high or very low, and <b>the marks of most lie somewhere between the highest and the lowest<\/b>. That tendency of a group is called central tendency, and the typical score shared by most pupils is a measure of it.<br><br>The three common measures are the <b>arithmetic mean, the median and the mode<\/b>.<br><br>Garrett, Gronlund and Cronbach all belong to this field but to reliability and validity rather than to descriptive statistics.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 631,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Central Tendency\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is stated as a requirement of a good average?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It should be computed from the middle fifty per cent of the data\",\r\n      \"It should be capable of being located by inspection alone\",\r\n      \"It should not be affected much by extreme values\",\r\n      \"It should be expressible only in whole numbers\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) It should not be affected much by extreme values<\/b><br><br>The reasoning is stated: where a few very small or very large items are present, <b>they unduly influence the value of the average by shifting it to one side or the other<\/b>, so that the average ceases to be typical of the entire series.<br><br>This single requirement explains much of what follows in the subject \u2014 why the <b>median is preferred where extreme scores are present<\/b>, why the mean is described as sensitive to extremes, and why the quartile deviation is recommended where the distribution contains scattered or extreme scores.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 632,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Arithmetic Mean\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following properties of the arithmetic mean:<br>1. The sum of the deviations of individual values from the mean is always zero.<br>2. The sum of the squares of the deviations about the mean is a minimum.<br>3. It is unaffected by extreme values in the data.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> Some deviations are negative and some positive, and <b>the positive deviations must balance the negative<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2713<\/b> The sum of squared deviations about the mean is <b>less than the sum of squared deviations about any other number whatever<\/b>.<br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it states the opposite of the second property.<\/b> The mean is <b>very sensitive to extreme values<\/b>, because its computation includes every value in the data; an extreme value shifts it and makes it unrepresentative.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 633,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Arithmetic Mean\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a frequency distribution \u03a3f = 10 and \u03a3f(X) = 200. The arithmetic mean is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"10\",\r\n      \"20\",\r\n      \"100\",\r\n      \"200\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 20<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> X\u0304 = \u03a3f(X) \/ \u03a3f<br><br>X\u0304 = 200 \/ 10 = <b>20<\/b><br><br>The arithmetic mean is described as <b>the simplest but most useful measure of central tendency<\/b>, and it is what is ordinarily meant by the word 'average' in daily speech \u2014 an average pupil, average intelligence, average family income.<br><br>Among its advantages: <b>every data set has a mean, which is unique<\/b>; it is easily calculated; it <b>includes all values in its computation<\/b>; and <b>its value varies very little from sample to sample<\/b> drawn from the same population.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 634,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Arithmetic Mean\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following disadvantages of the arithmetic mean:<br>1. It cannot be computed for a data set having open-ended classes at either end of the scale.<br>2. It cannot be calculated for qualitative characteristics such as beauty, unless these are converted into quantitative figures.<br>3. It cannot be computed at all where the number of items is even.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> An even number of items presents no difficulty for the mean at all; it is the <b>median<\/b> whose computation requires the average of the two middle values where N is even.<br><br>The remaining disadvantages are that the mean is <b>affected by extreme values<\/b> \u2014 the average age of persons of 4, 6 and 80 years being 30 \u2014 and that it is <b>tedious to compute for a large data set<\/b>, since every point must enter the calculation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 635,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Median\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In computing the median of a grouped frequency distribution by the formula Md = L + [(N\/2 \u2212 F)\/f] \u00d7 i, the symbol F denotes:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the frequency of the median class\",\r\n      \"the total of all frequencies before the median class\",\r\n      \"the total of all frequencies in the distribution\",\r\n      \"the exact lower limit of the median class\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the total of all frequencies before the median class<\/b><br><br>The other symbols are: <b>L<\/b>, the exact lower limit of the median class; <b>f<\/b>, the frequency of the median class; <b>i<\/b>, the class interval; and <b>N<\/b>, the total of all frequencies.<br><br>The formula is one of <b>interpolation<\/b>. Having located the class in which the median falls, it distributes the remaining cases proportionately across that class \u2014 which is why the median of grouped data rests on the assumption that <b>the values are evenly spaced over the class interval<\/b>, an assumption that usually does not hold.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 636,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Median\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A distribution of 50 scores has its median class as 40-44, with an exact lower limit of 39\u00b75, a frequency of 11, and 15 cases lying below that class. Taking the class interval as 5, the median is approximately:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"41\u00b750\",\r\n      \"42\u00b775\",\r\n      \"44\u00b705\",\r\n      \"45\u00b750\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 44\u00b705<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> Md = L + [(N\/2 \u2212 F) \/ f] \u00d7 i<br><br>N\/2 = 50 \/ 2 = <b>25<\/b><br>25 \u2212 15 = <b>10<\/b><br>10 \/ 11 = 0\u00b7909<br>0\u00b7909 \u00d7 5 = <b>4\u00b755<\/b><br>Md = 39\u00b75 + 4\u00b755 = <b>44\u00b705<\/b><br><br><b>The step candidates omit is the multiplication by the class interval.<\/b> Stopping at 39\u00b75 + 0\u00b791 gives about 40\u00b74 \u2014 a value that would place the median almost at the very start of its own class, which the frequencies do not support.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 637,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Median\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following advantages of the median:<br>1. Extreme values do not affect it as much as they affect the mean.<br>2. It can be found even where the data set is qualitative, provided it can be arranged in order.<br>3. It can be calculated for grouped data having open-ended classes.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three follow from the median being a <b>positional average<\/b> \u2014 it depends on where a value stands, not on how large it is.<br><br>Two further advantages are stated: the median is <b>unique<\/b>, there being only one in a given set; and it <b>can be located visually<\/b> where the data is already ordered.<br><br>A sixth is more technical but worth holding: <b>the sum of the absolute differences of all values from the median is a minimum<\/b>, less than from any other measure of central tendency \u2014 which is what makes the median 'more central' in certain situations.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 638,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Median\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is stated as a disadvantage of the median?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"It is affected by extreme values far more than the mean is affected\",\r\n      \"It cannot be located where the number of items in the set is odd\",\r\n      \"It is unsuited to further mathematical treatment of any kind\",\r\n      \"It cannot be computed where the data are in descending order\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) It is unsuited to further mathematical treatment of any kind<\/b><br><br>The other stated disadvantages are that the data <b>must first be arranged in order<\/b>, which is time-consuming for large sets; that its value is <b>affected more by sampling variation<\/b>, different samples from the same population giving significantly different medians; that its computation for grouped data rests on an assumption of even spacing that usually does not hold; and that it is <b>comparatively less stable than the mean, particularly for small samples<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 639,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Mode\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The mode is described as the only measure of central tendency that can be used for:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"open-ended distributions\",\r\n      \"grouped data\",\r\n      \"qualitative data\",\r\n      \"data measured on a ratio scale\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) qualitative data<\/b><br><br>The illustration given is exact: when a researcher quotes the opinion of an average person, he is really referring to the <b>most frequently expressed opinion, which is the modal opinion<\/b>. If most people prefer a certain brand of tea, that becomes the modal point.<br><br><b>Option (A) is a real but shared advantage<\/b> \u2014 the mode can be obtained in open-ended distributions <b>without ascertaining the class limits<\/b>, but so can the median.<br><br>The mode is further <b>not affected by extreme values<\/b>, and can often be located simply by observation or inspection.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 640,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Mode\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a distribution the median is 25 and the mean is 24. Using the empirical relation, the mode is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"23\",\r\n      \"26\",\r\n      \"27\",\r\n      \"49\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 27<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> Mode = 3 Median \u2212 2 Mean<br><br>Mode = (3 \u00d7 25) \u2212 (2 \u00d7 24)<br>Mode = 75 \u2212 48 = <b>27<\/b><br><br><b>The order of the coefficients is what candidates reverse.<\/b> Taking 2 Median \u2212 3 Mean would give \u221222, and the arrangement 3 Mean \u2212 2 Median would give 22 \u2014 both plainly outside the range of the data.<br><br>The relation is used to compute the mode of grouped data once the mean and median have been found. The alternative is the direct formula M\u2080 = L + [f\u2081 \/ (f\u2081 + f\u208b\u2081)] \u00d7 i, which needs no prior computation of either.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 641,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Mode\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following disadvantages of the mode:<br>1. Quite often there is no modal value at all.<br>2. Where there is more than one modal value the data becomes difficult to interpret.<br>3. It does not include all the observations in the data set.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with two others: the mode is <b>not suitable for algebraic manipulation<\/b>, and it <b>cannot be rigidly defined where the maximum frequency occurs at the beginning or the end<\/b> of the distribution.<br><br>The second statement covers the <b>bi-modal and multi-modal<\/b> cases, where the significance of the measure becomes harder to establish.<br><br>The third is the reason the mode is described as <b>less reliable in most situations<\/b> \u2014 a measure resting on the most frequent value alone discards the information in every other observation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 642,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Position\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the measures of position:<br>1. There are three quartiles, nine deciles and ninety-nine percentiles.<br>2. The second quartile is the median.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br>Both follow from the same arithmetic. Quartiles divide the data into <b>four<\/b> equal parts, deciles into <b>ten<\/b> and percentiles into <b>one hundred<\/b> \u2014 and to cut a set into n parts requires <b>n \u2212 1<\/b> dividing points.<br><br>Hence the <b>25th percentile is the first quartile, the 50th percentile is the median or second quartile, and the 75th percentile is the third quartile<\/b>.<br><br>The general rule is that <b>the nth quartile is the value of the item lying at the n(N\/4)th position<\/b> in the ordered data.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 643,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Variability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The coefficient of variation is computed as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the standard deviation divided by the mean, multiplied by one hundred\",\r\n      \"the mean divided by the standard deviation, multiplied by one hundred\",\r\n      \"the square of the standard deviation, multiplied by one hundred\",\r\n      \"the range divided by the standard deviation, multiplied by one hundred\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the standard deviation divided by the mean, multiplied by one hundred<\/b><br><br><b>V = (\u03c3 \/ x\u0304) \u00d7 100<\/b>, expressed as a percentage.<br><br>The reason for the measure is that <b>the standard deviation, or its square the variance, cannot usefully compare two series whose units or whose means differ<\/b>. A standard deviation of 5 on an examination whose mean is 30 means something quite different from the same figure where the mean is 90 \u2014 <b>the variability in the second is much less<\/b>.<br><br>The lower the coefficient, <b>the more consistent the performance<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 644,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Variability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a distribution the mean is 25 and the standard deviation is 5. The coefficient of variation is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"5 per cent\",\r\n      \"20 per cent\",\r\n      \"25 per cent\",\r\n      \"125 per cent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 20 per cent<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> V = (\u03c3 \/ x\u0304) \u00d7 100<br><br>V = (5 \/ 25) \u00d7 100 = 0\u00b72 \u00d7 100 = <b>20 per cent<\/b><br><br><b>Option (C), 25 per cent, is the trap<\/b> for a candidate who inverts the ratio or reaches for the mean itself.<br><br>The measure is what allows two batsmen with different averages to be compared for <b>consistency<\/b> rather than for run-getting: the higher average marks the better run-getter, while the <b>lower coefficient of variation marks the more consistent player<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 645,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Variability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The quartile deviation should be used in preference to the standard deviation where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the median is the measure of central tendency and extreme scores are present\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of correlation is subsequently to be computed\",\r\n      \"the statistic having the greatest stability is required\",\r\n      \"the extreme deviations are to exercise a proportionately greater effect\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the median is the measure of central tendency and extreme scores are present<\/b><br><br>The quartile deviation is further indicated where the researcher's interest lies in <b>the concentration of scores around the median \u2014 the middle fifty per cent of cases<\/b>. Extreme scores would influence the standard deviation <b>disproportionately<\/b>.<br><br><b>Options (B), (C) and (D) each state a condition for using the standard deviation instead<\/b>: where the greatest stability is required, where extreme deviations should exercise a proportionately greater effect, and where the coefficient of correlation or other statistics are to be computed afterwards.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 646,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that no correlation should be spoken of between the height of pupils and the height of trees, though both may increase together, rests on the requirement that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the two variables must have a cause-and-effect relationship\",\r\n      \"the two variables must be measured in the same units\",\r\n      \"the two variables must be normally distributed\",\r\n      \"the two variables must be measured on the same group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the two variables must have a cause-and-effect relationship<\/b><br><br>Where no such relationship exists, one should not speak of correlation at all. The two phenomena named are <b>not even casually related<\/b>.<br><br>The same caution disposes of beliefs such as 'a black cat causes bad luck' or 'filled pitchers bring good fortune' \u2014 these are <b>imaginary and incapable of being justified mathematically<\/b>, and the theory of correlation cannot explain them.<br><br>Legitimate instances are the price of a commodity and its demand, or the rate of interest and savings, where <b>the change in one is explained by the change in the other<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 647,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where an increase in the independent variable is accompanied by a decrease in the dependent variable, the correlation is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"positive\",\r\n      \"negative\",\r\n      \"zero\",\r\n      \"spurious\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Negative<\/b><br><br>The rule is one of <b>direction, not of magnitude<\/b>. Where both variables change in the <b>same<\/b> direction \u2014 both rising, or both falling \u2014 the correlation is <b>positive<\/b>; where they change in <b>opposite<\/b> directions, it is <b>negative<\/b>.<br><br>It follows that a decrease in the independent variable accompanied by a decrease in the dependent variable is <b>positive<\/b> correlation, which is the case candidates most often misread.<br><br>The relationship is sometimes called <b>covariation<\/b>: two quantities are correlated where a movement in one tends to be accompanied by a movement in the other, and <b>the greater the change in one, the greater the change in the other<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 648,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In social sciences, the fact of correlation is taken to be established where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"an absolute mathematical relationship between the two phenomena can be demonstrated\",\r\n      \"in a large number of cases the two variables tend to move in the same or opposite direction\",\r\n      \"the two variables are found to move together on at least one occasion\",\r\n      \"the two variables can be reduced to the same unit of measurement\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) in a large number of cases the two variables tend to move in the same or opposite direction<\/b><br><br>The contrast drawn is with the natural sciences, where relationships <b>can be reduced to absolute mathematical terms<\/b> \u2014 heat always increasing with light. In social phenomena it is <b>often difficult to establish any absolute relationship<\/b> between two variables.<br><br><b>Option (C) states the danger the requirement of 'a large number of cases' is framed to exclude.<\/b> A single co-occurrence establishes nothing, which is precisely how the imaginary correlations of superstition arise.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 649,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The two measures developed by statisticians for describing the correlation between two variables are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the coefficient of determination and the coefficient of correlation\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of variation and the coefficient of stability\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of equivalence and the coefficient of alienation\",\r\n      \"the coefficient of skewness and the coefficient of kurtosis\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the coefficient of determination and the coefficient of correlation<\/b><br><br>Correlation analysis is described as <b>the statistical tool generally used to describe the degree to which one variable is related to another<\/b>, the relationship being usually assumed to be <b>linear<\/b>. It is frequently used alongside regression analysis, to measure how well the regression line explains the variation of the dependent variable.<br><br><b>Option (B) names two measures belonging elsewhere<\/b> \u2014 variability and reliability; <b>option (D)<\/b> names measures of the shape of a distribution.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 650,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The coefficient of determination is defined as the ratio of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"explained variation to total variation in the dependent variable\",\r\n      \"unexplained variation to total variation in the dependent variable\",\r\n      \"total variation to explained variation in the independent variable\",\r\n      \"the covariance of the two variables to the product of their standard deviations\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) explained variation to total variation in the dependent variable<\/b><br><br>The total variation is the variation of the Y values <b>around their own mean<\/b>; the unexplained variation is their variation <b>around the fitted regression line<\/b>; and the <b>explained variation is the total less the unexplained<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (D) defines the coefficient of correlation<\/b>, which is the covariance of the two variables divided by the product of their standard deviations.<br><br>The symbol is r\u00b2, sometimes written R\u00b2.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 651,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A regression analysis yields a coefficient of determination of 0\u00b7925. This means that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"92\u00b75 per cent of the data points fall exactly on the regression line\",\r\n      \"the two variables are correlated to the extent of 92\u00b75 per cent of a perfect relationship\",\r\n      \"92\u00b75 per cent of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variable\",\r\n      \"the probability that the relationship is due to chance is 92\u00b75 per cent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 92\u00b75 per cent of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by the independent variable<\/b><br><br>The coefficient ranges from <b>0 to 1<\/b>. A value of <b>1 occurs only where the unexplained variation is zero<\/b> \u2014 that is, where every data point falls exactly on the regression line, making the line a perfect estimator. A value of <b>0 means that X tells us nothing about Y<\/b>, there being no regression relationship at all.<br><br>Values between the two indicate the <b>'goodness of fit'<\/b> of the regression line to the sample data: <b>the higher the value, the better the fit<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 652,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Deviation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"For a set of 50 scores the sum of the squared deviations from the mean is 1,250. The standard deviation of the distribution is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"5\",\r\n      \"25\",\r\n      \"50\",\r\n      \"125\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 5<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> \u03c3 = \u221a(\u03a3x\u00b2 \/ N), where x is the deviation of each score from the mean.<br><br>\u03a3x\u00b2 \/ N = 1,250 \/ 50 = <b>25<\/b><br>\u03c3 = \u221a25 = <b>5<\/b><br><br><b>Option (B), 25, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 it is the <b>variance<\/b>, the square of the standard deviation, and the step candidates most often omit is the final square root.<br><br>The relation between the two is worth fixing: <b>variance is \u03c3\u00b2, and it has the same properties as the standard deviation<\/b>, but only the standard deviation is expressed in the units of the original scores.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 653,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Deviation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In computing the mean of a grouped distribution by the assumed mean method, the assumed mean is 25, \u03a3fx\u2032 is 50, N is 100 and the class interval is 4. The mean is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"25\u00b75\",\r\n      \"26\u00b70\",\r\n      \"27\u00b70\",\r\n      \"29\u00b70\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 27\u00b70<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> x\u0304 = A + (\u03a3fx\u2032 \/ N) \u00d7 i<br><br>\u03a3fx\u2032 \/ N = 50 \/ 100 = <b>0\u00b75<\/b><br>0\u00b75 \u00d7 4 = <b>2<\/b><br>x\u0304 = 25 + 2 = <b>27\u00b70<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 25\u00b75, is the standing error<\/b> \u2014 adding the correction 0\u00b75 without multiplying it by the class interval. The deviations x\u2032 are expressed in <b>units of the class interval<\/b>, so every correction derived from them must be converted back into score units before being added to the assumed mean.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 654,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Deviation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"For a grouped distribution N = 100, \u03a3fx\u2032 = 50, \u03a3fx\u2032\u00b2 = 125 and the class interval is 4. The standard deviation is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1\",\r\n      \"2\",\r\n      \"4\",\r\n      \"5\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 4<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> \u03c3 = i \u00d7 \u221a[\u03a3fx\u2032\u00b2\/N \u2212 (\u03a3fx\u2032\/N)\u00b2]<br><br>\u03a3fx\u2032\u00b2\/N = 125 \/ 100 = <b>1\u00b725<\/b><br>(\u03a3fx\u2032\/N)\u00b2 = (0\u00b75)\u00b2 = <b>0\u00b725<\/b><br>1\u00b725 \u2212 0\u00b725 = <b>1<\/b><br>\u221a1 = 1, and 1 \u00d7 4 = <b>4<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 1, is the answer left in class-interval units.<\/b> The second term is not a correction to be ignored: it removes the effect of the assumed mean differing from the true mean, and where the assumed mean happens to be the true mean it becomes zero.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 655,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Deviation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Two batsmen have batting averages of 50 and 33, with coefficients of variation of 83\u00b766 per cent and 70\u00b78 per cent respectively. It follows that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the first is both the better run-getter and the more consistent\",\r\n      \"the first is the better run-getter and the second the more consistent\",\r\n      \"the second is both the better run-getter and the more consistent\",\r\n      \"the second is the better run-getter and the first the more consistent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the first is the better run-getter and the second the more consistent<\/b><br><br>The two questions are settled by two different statistics. <b>Who scores more is decided by the average<\/b>; <b>who is steadier is decided by the coefficient of variation<\/b>, and <b>the smaller the coefficient the more consistent the performer<\/b>.<br><br>The case shows why the coefficient exists at all. A standard deviation cannot be read on its own, because the same scatter means one thing about a man averaging 50 and quite another about a man averaging 33. <b>Dividing by the mean makes the two comparable.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 656,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Variability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a distribution the first quartile is 25 and the third quartile is 45. The quartile deviation is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"10\",\r\n      \"20\",\r\n      \"35\",\r\n      \"70\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 10<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> Q.D. = (Q\u2083 \u2212 Q\u2081) \/ 2<br><br>Q\u2083 \u2212 Q\u2081 = 45 \u2212 25 = <b>20<\/b>, which is the <b>interquartile range<\/b><br>Q.D. = 20 \/ 2 = <b>10<\/b><br><br><b>Option (B), 20, is the interquartile range left undivided<\/b> \u2014 which is why the quartile deviation is also called the <b>semi-interquartile range<\/b>.<br><br>The measure describes the scatter of the <b>middle fifty per cent of cases<\/b>, and is therefore the appropriate companion to the median rather than to the mean.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 657,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Position\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In an ordered distribution of 200 scores, the third quartile is the value of the item lying at the position:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"50th\",\r\n      \"100th\",\r\n      \"150th\",\r\n      \"175th\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 150th<\/b><br><br><b>Rule:<\/b> the nth quartile is the value of the item lying at the n(N\/4)th position.<br><br>N\/4 = 200 \/ 4 = <b>50<\/b><br>Third quartile: 3 \u00d7 50 = <b>150th item<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D), 175th, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 it takes three quarters of the way between the median and the top, or confuses Q\u2083 with a point at 87\u00b75 per cent.<br><br>The same rule fixes the first quartile at the 50th item and the second at the 100th, and the second quartile is <b>the median<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 658,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The coefficient of correlation may be found by the method of least squares, by simple regression coefficients, or by the product moment method of Karl Pearson. As between these three methods:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"each yields a different value, and the choice depends on the data\",\r\n      \"whichever is adopted, the same value of r is obtained\",\r\n      \"the first two apply to grouped data and the third to ungrouped data\",\r\n      \"the first two yield r and the third yields r squared\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) whichever is adopted, the same value of r is obtained<\/b><br><br>The three are alternative routes to one quantity, differing in convenience rather than in result \u2014 which is why a paper may set any of them.<br><br>Under the method of <b>simple regression coefficients<\/b>, r is the square root of the product of the two regression coefficients: <b>r = \u221a(b<sub>XY<\/sub> \u00b7 b<sub>YX<\/sub>)<\/b>, where b<sub>XY<\/sub> equals r(\u03c3<sub>X<\/sub>\/\u03c3<sub>Y<\/sub>) and b<sub>YX<\/sub> equals r(\u03c3<sub>Y<\/sub>\/\u03c3<sub>X<\/sub>), so that their product is r\u00b2 and the root of that is r.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 659,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The regression coefficient of X on Y is 0\u00b74 and that of Y on X is 0\u00b79. The coefficient of correlation is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b736\",\r\n      \"0\u00b760\",\r\n      \"0\u00b765\",\r\n      \"1\u00b730\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 0\u00b760<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> r = \u221a(b<sub>XY<\/sub> \u00b7 b<sub>YX<\/sub>)<br><br>b<sub>XY<\/sub> \u00d7 b<sub>YX<\/sub> = 0\u00b74 \u00d7 0\u00b79 = <b>0\u00b736<\/b><br>r = \u221a0\u00b736 = <b>0\u00b760<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 0\u00b736, is the product left without its square root<\/b>; option (C) is the arithmetic mean of the two coefficients, which is not the rule.<br><br>The <b>sign of r follows the sign of the regression coefficients<\/b>: where they carry a minus sign, so does r; where they carry a plus sign, r is positive.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 660,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the method of least squares, the sign of the coefficient of correlation is determined by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the sign of b, the slope of the estimating equation\",\r\n      \"the sign of a, the Y-intercept of the estimating equation\",\r\n      \"whether the explained variation exceeds the unexplained variation\",\r\n      \"whether the number of pairs of observations is odd or even\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the sign of b, the slope of the estimating equation<\/b><br><br>In the estimating equation \u0176 = a + bX<sub>i<\/sub>, <b>if b carries a minus sign the sign of r will also be minus, and if b carries a plus sign so will r<\/b>.<br><br>This is a necessary supplement, because <b>the coefficient of determination r\u00b2 is always positive<\/b> \u2014 a square cannot be negative \u2014 so taking its square root leaves the direction of the relationship undetermined. The slope supplies it.<br><br>The value of r thus indicates <b>the degree together with the direction<\/b> of the relationship between X and Y.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 661,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The coefficient of non-determination is the ratio of unexplained variation to total variation. Where the coefficient of correlation is 0\u00b78, the coefficient of non-determination is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b720\",\r\n      \"0\u00b736\",\r\n      \"0\u00b764\",\r\n      \"0\u00b780\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 0\u00b736<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> k\u00b2 = 1 \u2212 r\u00b2<br><br>r\u00b2 = 0\u00b78 \u00d7 0\u00b78 = <b>0\u00b764<\/b><br>k\u00b2 = 1 \u2212 0\u00b764 = <b>0\u00b736<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 0\u00b720, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 subtracting r itself from one instead of r squared. The rule to hold is <b>r\u00b2 + k\u00b2 = 1<\/b>, and it is r <b>squared<\/b> that enters the identity.<br><br>The reading is that <b>36 per cent of the variation in the dependent variable is due to variables other than X<\/b>. From k\u00b2 is derived the <b>coefficient of alienation, k = \u221ak\u00b2<\/b>, which is rarely used in practice.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 662,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the coefficients of determination and alienation:<br>1. The sum of r\u00b2 and k\u00b2 is always equal to one.<br>2. The sum of r and k is likewise always equal to one.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 1 \u2713<\/b> The identity <b>r\u00b2 + k\u00b2 = 1<\/b> holds by definition, since the explained and unexplained variations together make up the total.<br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717<\/b> The sum of r and k equals one <b>only where one of the two is itself 1 and the other consequently zero<\/b>. In every other case <b>r + k is greater than one<\/b>.<br><br>The reason is that taking square roots of two fractions that sum to one yields two larger numbers: where r\u00b2 = 0\u00b764 and k\u00b2 = 0\u00b736, r = 0\u00b78 and k = 0\u00b76, and their sum is <b>1\u00b74<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 663,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following assumptions on which Karl Pearson's coefficient of correlation is based:<br>1. There is a linear relationship between the two variables.<br>2. The two variables are causally related, one being independent and the other dependent.<br>3. A large number of independent causes operate so as to produce a normal distribution.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated. Linearity means that <b>a straight line would be obtained if the observed data were plotted on a graph<\/b>.<br><br>Karl Pearson's method is described as <b>the most widely used method of measuring the relationship between two variables<\/b>.<br><br>The assumptions matter practically: where the relationship is genuinely curved, or where the distribution departs badly from normality, the coefficient <b>understates the association<\/b> rather than reporting it correctly \u2014 a low r then means the wrong measure was chosen, not that no relationship exists.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 664,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The product moment correlation coefficient was developed by Karl Pearson from a related idea introduced in the 1880s by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Francis Galton\",\r\n      \"Charles Spearman\",\r\n      \"Ronald Fisher\",\r\n      \"Robert Glaser\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Francis Galton<\/b><br><br>Pearson's coefficient is defined as <b>the covariance of the two variables divided by the product of their standard deviations<\/b>. The name records the arithmetic: it involves a <b>'product moment'<\/b> \u2014 the mean, being the first moment about the origin, of the product of the mean-adjusted variables.<br><br>Applied to a <b>population<\/b> it is written \u03c1 (rho); applied to a <b>sample<\/b> it is written r.<br><br><b>Spearman (B)<\/b> gave his name to the rank correlation, which is the natural competitor here.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 665,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In computing the product moment correlation coefficient, the first step prescribed is to remove incomplete pairs. The qualification attached to this rule is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"observations must not be excluded where either value is a negative number\",\r\n      \"observations must not be excluded where the two values are equal to each other\",\r\n      \"observations must not be excluded merely because one of the values equals zero\",\r\n      \"observations must not be excluded where the pair lies far from the regression line\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) observations must not be excluded merely because one of the values equals zero<\/b><br><br>A zero is a <b>value<\/b>, not a missing observation, and dropping such pairs would bias the result. Only those observations are used <b>where both X and Y are known<\/b>.<br><br>The data are then summarised into six quantities \u2014 <b>n, \u03a3X, \u03a3X\u00b2, \u03a3Y, \u03a3Y\u00b2 and \u03a3XY<\/b> \u2014 from which S<sub>XY<\/sub>, S<sub>XX<\/sub> and S<sub>YY<\/sub> are computed and entered in the formula.<br><br>The resulting value <b>should lie between +1 and \u22121<\/b>, which serves as a check on the arithmetic.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 666,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Rank Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the rank correlation formula \u03c1 = 1 \u2212 [6\u03a3D\u00b2\/n(n\u00b2 \u2212 1)], the symbol D denotes:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the deviation of each rank from the mean rank\",\r\n      \"the difference between the two ranks assigned to an individual\",\r\n      \"the total number of individuals ranked by both judges\",\r\n      \"the difference between the highest and lowest ranks awarded\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the difference between the two ranks assigned to an individual<\/b><br><br>It is the <b>positive difference<\/b> between the ranks associated with individual i, and n is the number of observations.<br><br>Rank correlation is available where <b>observations are given as ranks rather than as numerical values<\/b>, and is described as a <b>descriptive index of agreement between ranks over individuals<\/b>.<br><br>Like r, it <b>lies between \u22121 and +1<\/b>. Where the numerical values are given instead of ranks, ranks must first be attached to those values before \u03c1 can be computed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 667,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Rank Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Ten individuals are ranked by two judges, and the sum of the squares of the rank differences is 33. The rank correlation is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b720\",\r\n      \"0\u00b733\",\r\n      \"0\u00b767\",\r\n      \"0\u00b780\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 0\u00b780<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> \u03c1 = 1 \u2212 [6\u03a3D\u00b2 \/ n(n\u00b2 \u2212 1)]<br><br>n(n\u00b2 \u2212 1) = 10 \u00d7 (100 \u2212 1) = 10 \u00d7 99 = <b>990<\/b><br>6\u03a3D\u00b2 = 6 \u00d7 33 = <b>198<\/b><br>198 \/ 990 = <b>0\u00b72<\/b><br>\u03c1 = 1 \u2212 0\u00b72 = <b>0\u00b780<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 0\u00b720, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 the fraction reported without subtracting it from one. The formula begins at perfect agreement and <b>deducts a penalty proportional to the disagreement<\/b>, so a small fraction means a high correlation, not a low one.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 668,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Rank Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"When Spearman's rho and Pearson's r are both computed on the same two sets of ranks, the result is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the two values are identical, though rho is much easier to compute\",\r\n      \"rho is always higher than r for the same pair of rankings\",\r\n      \"r is always higher than rho for the same pair of rankings\",\r\n      \"the two cannot be compared, being measures of different things\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the two values are identical, though rho is much easier to compute<\/b><br><br>Rank correlation is described as <b>the same as the ordinary coefficient of correlation computed on ranks, but with a simpler formula<\/b>. The worked illustration bears this out: the same two sets of ranks give \u03c1 = 0\u00b7224 by the rank formula and r = 0\u00b7224 by the product moment formula.<br><br>The practical consequence is that the choice between them is one of <b>arithmetical convenience only<\/b> \u2014 and since \u03c1 needs nothing beyond the rank differences, it is the sensible choice whenever the data are already ranked.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 669,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Correlation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a scatter diagram showing an inverse linear relationship with the points widely dispersed about the line, the correlation is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"low and positive\",\r\n      \"low and negative\",\r\n      \"high and positive\",\r\n      \"high and negative\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) low and negative<\/b><br><br>Two separate things are being read off the diagram, and both must be attended to. The <b>slope<\/b> gives the <b>sign<\/b>: a negative slope marks an inverse relationship. The <b>degree of scatter<\/b> gives the <b>magnitude<\/b>: high scatter means a low value of r.<br><br>The limiting cases are instructive. Where the <b>slope is zero<\/b>, r = 0; where there is <b>no relationship at all<\/b>, r is approximately zero; and where every point falls on the line, r reaches unity.<br><br>A value <b>close to 0 implies little or no correlation<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 670,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 12: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS I \u2014 DATA, CENTRAL TENDENCY, VARIABILITY AND CORRELATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Measures of Variability\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Two groups of students admitted in different years have coefficients of variation of 10\u00b700 and 9\u00b768 respectively for their ages. The conclusion to be drawn is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the first group is more variable in age, but only barely so\",\r\n      \"the second group is more variable in age, but only barely so\",\r\n      \"the first group has the higher average age\",\r\n      \"the two groups cannot be compared, their sizes being unequal\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the first group is more variable in age, but only barely so<\/b><br><br>The larger coefficient marks the greater relative variability, and a difference of 0\u00b732 is slight.<br><br><b>Option (C) does not follow.<\/b> The coefficient of variation says nothing about the level of the averages, only about scatter relative to them. In the source's own illustration the group with the higher coefficient in fact has the <b>higher<\/b> mean age, so a candidate reasoning from the coefficient to the average would go wrong.<br><br><b>Option (D) states the very difficulty the measure overcomes<\/b> \u2014 being a ratio, it permits comparison across groups of different size and different means.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 671,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Percentiles\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The symbol P\u2088\u2085 denotes the point in a distribution:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"which is 85 units above the median of the distribution\",\r\n      \"above which 85 per cent of the scores lie\",\r\n      \"at which 85 per cent of the maximum marks have been obtained\",\r\n      \"below which 85 per cent of the scores lie\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) below which 85 per cent of the scores lie<\/b><br><br>A percentile is <b>the point below which the given percentage of cases lies<\/b>, the subscript referring to that percentage.<br><br>The concept is already familiar under other names. <b>The median is the point below which 50 per cent of the cases lie<\/b>, and Q\u2081 and Q\u2083 mark the points below which 25 per cent and 75 per cent lie \u2014 so the median is P\u2085\u2080, the first quartile P\u2082\u2085 and the third quartile P\u2087\u2085.<br><br>A pupil at <b>P\u2088\u2084<\/b> stands above 84 per cent of the examinees, and is among the top 16 per cent of his class.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 672,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Percentiles\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the formula Pp = l + [(pN \u2212 F)\/f p] \u00d7 i for computing a percentile, the symbol F denotes:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the size of the class interval\",\r\n      \"the number of scores within the interval upon which Pp falls\",\r\n      \"the part of N to be counted off in order to reach Pp\",\r\n      \"the sum of all scores upon the intervals below l\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the sum of all scores upon the intervals below l<\/b><br><br>The other symbols are: <b>l<\/b>, the exact lower limit of the class interval upon which Pp lies; <b>pN<\/b>, the part of N to be counted off in order to reach Pp; <b>fp<\/b>, the number of scores within that interval; and <b>i<\/b>, the size of the class interval.<br><br>The method is <b>essentially the same as that used in computing the median and the quartile deviation<\/b> \u2014 which is the point worth carrying, since a candidate who knows the median formula already knows this one, with pN in place of N\/2.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 673,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Percentiles\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The distinction between a percentile and a percentage score is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"percentage scores are derived from the norming group whereas percentiles are not\",\r\n      \"percentage scores are transformed scores whereas percentiles are raw scores\",\r\n      \"percentage scores run from 1 to 99 whereas percentiles run from 0 to 100\",\r\n      \"percentage scores are raw scores whereas percentiles are transformed scores\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) percentage scores are raw scores whereas percentiles are transformed scores<\/b><br><br>The confusion between the two is listed among the standing <b>limitations of percentile norms<\/b>, because it distorts interpretation.<br><br>The reason the distinction matters is set out plainly. To say a pupil scored <b>80 per cent in mathematics<\/b> tells us only that; it may be the highest mark in the class, the lowest, or the average. To say he stands at <b>P\u2088\u2080<\/b> tells us that 80 per cent of his classmates scored below him \u2014 <b>it fixes his exact position with reference to the class<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 674,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Percentiles\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A recognised advantage of the percentile method is that it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"conveys the amount of the actual difference between two scores\",\r\n      \"makes no assumption regarding the characteristics of the distribution used\",\r\n      \"permits the percentile rank of one group to be compared with that of another\",\r\n      \"expresses differences in equal units throughout the scale\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) makes no assumption regarding the characteristics of the distribution used<\/b><br><br>The distribution may be <b>normal, skewed or rectangular<\/b>, and the method still applies. It is further <b>easily calculated and easily understood<\/b>.<br><br><b>Options (D), (C) and (A) each state one of its limitations.<\/b> Percentile units are <b>not equal on all parts of the scale<\/b>; the percentile rank of one group <b>cannot be compared<\/b> with that of another; and a percentile <b>conveys nothing regarding the amount of the actual difference<\/b> between scores, only relative position.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 675,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Percentiles\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that a percentile difference of five near the middle of the scale represents a much smaller difference in test performance than the same difference at the extremes is explained by the fact that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the standardization sample is drawn disproportionately from the middle of the range\",\r\n      \"the percentile scale is calibrated in unequal steps by the test constructor\",\r\n      \"scores near the middle are measured on an ordinal scale and those at the ends on an interval scale\",\r\n      \"a large number of pupils receive scores near the middle, while relatively few score extremely high or low\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) a large number of pupils receive scores near the middle, while relatively few score extremely high or low<\/b><br><br>Since equal percentages of cases must occupy <b>unequal distances on the base line<\/b> of a normal curve, the difference in raw scores between two percentile points <b>grows as one moves from the median towards the extremes<\/b>.<br><br>The illustration given is that the spread between P\u2085\u2080 and P\u2086\u2080 is smaller than that between P\u2088\u2080 and P\u2089\u2080, though each covers ten percentile points.<br><br><b>The exception proves the rule: the distances would be equal only in a rectangular distribution.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 676,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Percentiles\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The caution that no experienced statistician would use percentiles on the results of a typical fifty-item aptitude test arises because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"aptitude tests yield distributions that are rectangular and not normal\",\r\n      \"aptitude tests are not standardised on a representative candidate sample\",\r\n      \"percentiles cannot be computed where the items number fewer than a hundred\",\r\n      \"scores cluster near the mean, so a few marks shift the percentile greatly\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) scores cluster near the mean, so a few marks shift the percentile greatly<\/b><br><br>Where candidates are similar in educational background, most will score around 40 out of 50, and few below 35 or above 45. Percentiles then <b>magnify trivial differences<\/b>.<br><br>The practical inference drawn is worth noting for anyone preparing for such a test: because the effect works in both directions, <b>even small improvements in the raw score make a candidate appear far superior<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 677,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Decile Rank\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A candidate whose decile rank is D\u2089 is located in:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the highest ten per cent of the group\",\r\n      \"the second highest ten per cent of the group\",\r\n      \"the ninth tenth counting from the bottom of the group\",\r\n      \"the lowest ten per cent of the group\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the second highest ten per cent of the group<\/b><br><br>The scale runs downwards from the top: <b>D\u2081\u2080 is the highest ten per cent, D\u2089 the second highest, and D\u2081 the lowest ten per cent<\/b> of the group.<br><br>The decile is the same in principle as the percentile, save that it designates <b>one tenth of the group (N\/10)<\/b> rather than one hundredth. A distinction of usage is observed: <b>'decile' means a dividing point, while 'decile rank' signifies a range of scores between two such points<\/b>.<br><br>Deciles are used <b>where the number of scores is small<\/b> and fine distinctions in rank would have little significance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 678,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Skewness\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a positively skewed distribution:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the mean, median and mode coincide at the highest ordinate\",\r\n      \"the longer tail is on the left and the mean lies to the left of the median\",\r\n      \"the longer tail is on the right and the mean lies to the left of the median\",\r\n      \"the longer tail is on the right and the mean lies to the right of the median\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the longer tail is on the right and the mean lies to the right of the median<\/b><br><br>Skewness is <b>the lack of symmetry in a distribution<\/b>. In a <b>negatively skewed<\/b> distribution the position is exactly reversed \u2014 the longer tail lies on the left and the mean falls to the left of the median.<br><br>The mean is pulled towards the tail because it is <b>sensitive to extreme values<\/b>, while the median, being positional, is not. That single fact fixes the direction in every case.<br><br><b>Option (A) describes a symmetrical distribution<\/b>, in which mean, median and mode coincide.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 679,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Skewness\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a skewed distribution, the distance between the mean and the median is stated to be nearly:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"three times the distance between the mean and the mode\",\r\n      \"one-half of the distance between the mean and the mode\",\r\n      \"twice the distance between the mean and the mode\",\r\n      \"one-third of the distance between the mean and the mode\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) one-third of the distance between the mean and the mode<\/b><br><br>The relation is the foundation of the empirical formula met earlier \u2014 <b>Mode = 3 Median \u2212 2 Mean<\/b> \u2014 which is simply this proposition rearranged.<br><br>It also underlies the two equivalent forms of <b>Pearson's coefficient of skewness<\/b>:<br><br>PSk = (x\u0304 \u2212 M\u2080) \/ s = 3(x\u0304 \u2212 Md) \/ s<br><br>The factor of three in the second form is exactly the factor by which the mean-to-median distance falls short of the mean-to-mode distance. The coefficient <b>may take any value but usually lies between \u22121 and +1<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 680,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Skewness\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, given as indications that skewness is present in a distribution:<br>1. The quartiles are not equidistant from the median.<br>2. The sum of the positive and negative deviations from the median is not zero.<br>3. Frequencies are not similarly distributed on either side of the mode.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with two further tests: <b>the graph is not symmetrical<\/b>, and <b>the mean, median and mode do not coincide<\/b>.<br><br>The five checks approach the same question from five directions \u2014 the shape of the curve, the three averages, the quartiles, the deviations and the frequencies \u2014 and any one of them failing establishes asymmetry.<br><br>A measure of skewness gives <b>a numerical expression and the direction of asymmetry<\/b>, and tells us about the shape of the distribution and the degree of variation on either side of the central value.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 681,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Kurtosis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A frequency curve that is flat-topped and broader than the normal curve is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"mesokurtic\",\r\n      \"leptokurtic\",\r\n      \"platykurtic\",\r\n      \"asymptotic\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Platykurtic<\/b><br><br>Kurtosis is <b>a measure of the peakedness of a distribution<\/b>, showing the degree of convexity of a frequency curve, and it is measured as a <b>departure from the normal convexity<\/b>.<br><br>The three terms are: <b>mesokurtic<\/b>, the normal curve itself, of intermediate peakedness; <b>platykurtic<\/b>, flat-topped and broad; and <b>leptokurtic<\/b>, slender and highly peaked.<br><br><b>Option (D) is not a kurtosis term at all<\/b> \u2014 'asymptotic' describes the way the normal curve approaches the base line without ever touching it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 682,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Kurtosis\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where the moment coefficient of kurtosis is expressed as \u03b3\u2082 = \u03b2\u2082 \u2212 3, a negative value of \u03b3\u2082 indicates that the distribution is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"leptokurtic\",\r\n      \"platykurtic\",\r\n      \"mesokurtic\",\r\n      \"positively skewed\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Platykurtic<\/b><br><br>The measure \u03b3\u2082 is <b>positive for a leptokurtic distribution, negative for a platykurtic distribution, and zero for the normal distribution<\/b>.<br><br>The subtraction of 3 is what makes the normal curve the zero point, because <b>the moment coefficient of kurtosis \u03b2\u2082 for a normal distribution is exactly 3<\/b>. The transformed measure therefore reports departure from normality directly, without the reader having to remember the benchmark.<br><br>An alternative is the <b>percentile coefficient of kurtosis, k = Q \/ (P\u2089\u2080 \u2212 P\u2081\u2080)<\/b>, where Q is the semi-interquartile range.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 683,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Interpretation of Test Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that a raw score obtained on a test does not in itself have much significance is supported by the observation that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"raw scores cannot be obtained where the test has open-ended questions\",\r\n      \"raw scores cannot be arranged in an array or made into a distribution\",\r\n      \"raw scores are always recorded in whole numbers and never in fractions\",\r\n      \"the maxima differ, so 43 on one test is not comparable with 43 on another\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) the maxima differ, so 43 on one test is not comparable with 43 on another<\/b><br><br>The averages of the three will in all probability differ, as will <b>the degree of variation of scores above and below the average<\/b>. Both the origin and the unit are unknown.<br><br>The general principle drawn is fundamental to this subject: <b>psychological measurement, unlike physical measurement, derives its significance principally from relative ranks ascribed to individuals rather than from quantitative units of measurement<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 684,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Interpretation of Test Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation that on the Stanford-Binet scale some adult mental defectives can repeat eight digits forward although none can solve a difficult reasoning problem of equal statistical difficulty is offered to show that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the standardization sample for the scale was wholly unrepresentative\",\r\n      \"the digit-span test should be removed from intelligence scales entirely\",\r\n      \"reasoning problems are always more valid than items testing memory\",\r\n      \"statistical validation must be supplemented by a pragmatic criterion\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) statistical validation must be supplemented by a pragmatic criterion<\/b><br><br>The two items are passed by approximately the same percentage of adults, and so appear statistically equivalent; yet in clinical examination they behave quite differently.<br><br>The supplement required is <b>use with a wide variety of individuals in a variety of situations, in order to show whether the item has discriminative value among individuals at the several levels of ability<\/b>.<br><br>The wider point is that <b>scores, whether raw or converted, do not suffice for the complete interpretation of an individual's performance<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 685,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Age and Quotient\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil whose educational age is 12 has a chronological age of 10. His educational quotient is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"83\",\r\n      \"102\",\r\n      \"120\",\r\n      \"122\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 120<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> EQ = (EA \/ CA) \u00d7 100<br><br>EQ = (12 \/ 10) \u00d7 100 = <b>120<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 83, inverts the ratio<\/b> \u2014 a mistake that turns an advanced pupil into a backward one.<br><br>The <b>educational age<\/b> represents a pupil's average level of achievement in a group of school subjects, expressed in terms of the average for various chronological ages in school. Two cautions attach to it: <b>there is no fixed list of subjects<\/b> for which educational ages are obtained, and even for the same subjects <b>different tests may not be comparable<\/b> because of differences in standardization.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 686,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Age and Quotient\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The achievement quotient, whose use was suggested in 1920 and which is now rarely used, is found by dividing:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"educational age by chronological age\",\r\n      \"educational age by mental age\",\r\n      \"mental age by chronological age\",\r\n      \"chronological age by educational age\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) educational age by mental age<\/b><br><br>Mental age is used as the divisor rather than chronological age because it is <b>regarded as the more valid index of a pupil's learning capacity<\/b>, so that the quotient was believed to show whether an individual is <b>working up to his mental capacity<\/b>.<br><br>Three defects account for its abandonment. It is <b>erroneous to expect all mentally superior pupils to reach an educational level equal to their mental age<\/b>; the standardization samples of achievement and intelligence tests are often <b>not comparable<\/b>; and many achievement tests <b>do not differentiate among pupils as well as a sound intelligence test does<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 687,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Age and Quotient\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The illustration of a superior child who completes the first grade at seven with a mental age of ten is offered to show that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"his chronological age is not a valid basis for any educational index\",\r\n      \"his intelligence quotient has been wrongly computed from his mental age\",\r\n      \"his educational age must be raised by promoting him to a higher grade\",\r\n      \"he must acquire in one year what an ordinary child acquires in four\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) he must acquire in one year what an ordinary child acquires in four<\/b><br><br>To obtain an achievement quotient of 100 he would need an educational age of 10; and that is not probable.<br><br>Generalised, the point is that <b>the superior child, especially in the lower grades, has not had the time and length of schooling necessary to learn the subject matter required to equate educational age with mental age<\/b>. The measure penalises him for the calendar rather than for his effort.<br><br>His intelligence quotient in the illustration is <b>143<\/b>, which is correctly computed.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 688,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Interpretation of Test Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The current recommendation for indicating a pupil's school achievement is that the educational age and educational quotient should be:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"reported only where the pupil is below the average of his own grade\",\r\n      \"replaced altogether by his achievement quotient, which is more valid\",\r\n      \"converted into a mental age equivalent before it is reported at all\",\r\n      \"supplemented by his percentile rank within the scores for his grade\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) supplemented by his percentile rank within the scores for his grade<\/b><br><br>Since all sound tests cover a range of several grades, an individual's score can where necessary be compared with the norms <b>in grades above or below his own<\/b>, so as to find his percentile rank within those levels too.<br><br>A related caution is entered against using educational age to estimate the grade level at which a pupil's performance places him. Although the average age for each grade is known, <b>the practice is of doubtful merit: if a grade estimate is wanted, grade norms should be used<\/b>, and all sound achievement tests provide them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 689,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Interpretation of Test Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The emphasis in recent years on 'patterns' of performance as clinical aids rests on the finding that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"percentile ranks cannot be computed for individual subtests at all\",\r\n      \"numerical indices of relative status have all been shown to be invalid\",\r\n      \"two persons may have similar ratings and yet dissimilar organisations\",\r\n      \"mental age and intelligence quotient are no longer used in testing\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) two persons may have similar ratings and yet dissimilar organisations<\/b><br><br>Persons of equivalent general mental status may have <b>different patterns of ability which nevertheless sum to much the same overall rating<\/b>, the components of each total differing from those of the other.<br><br>The emphasis does not deny the value of the older indices \u2014 <b>option (B) overstates it<\/b>. Responses are analysed for <b>special abilities or disabilities<\/b>, for marked discrepancies between one kind of material and another, and for processes that seem impaired or markedly superior \u2014 verbal against nonverbal, associative processes, memory, spatial perception.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 690,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Interpretation of Test Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The cautions entered against drawing inferences from a numerical intelligence quotient alone include which of the following?<br>1. A high rating may be attributable to inconsistently high performance on one or a few subtests.<br>2. A low rating may reflect a language handicap rather than low capacity.<br>3. A 'scatter' of performance may indicate emotional disturbance rather than intellectual impoverishment.\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, and a fourth is added \u2014 a boy of very high measured intelligence <b>might be an unstable personality failing in many or all of his school subjects<\/b>.<br><br>'Inconsistent' here means that performance on a few subtests <b>differs markedly, in one direction or the other, from the general and more consistent level<\/b> of the remaining scores.<br><br>A balancing observation is entered: these are the contingencies to which <b>the experienced and qualified examiner will be alert<\/b>, and the cautions do not signify that most intelligence ratings are affected by them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 691,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The normal probability distribution is often known as the Gaussian distribution in honour of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a seventeenth century philosopher and logician\",\r\n      \"a nineteenth century biologist and eugenicist\",\r\n      \"a twentieth century psychologist and test constructor\",\r\n      \"an eighteenth century mathematician and astronomer\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) an eighteenth century mathematician and astronomer<\/b><br><br>The name is that of <b>Karl Gauss<\/b>.<br><br>Among all probability distributions the normal is described as <b>by far the most important and most frequently used continuous probability distribution<\/b>, because it fits well in many types of problem.<br><br>Its special significance lies in <b>inferential statistics<\/b>, since it describes probabilistically <b>the link between a statistic and a parameter<\/b> \u2014 that is, between the sample result and the population from which the sample was drawn.<br><br>Such curves are also known as <b>normal curves of error<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 692,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The normal distribution can be theoretically derived as the limiting form of the binomial expansion of (p + q)\u207f where:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"n is unity and p exceeds q\",\r\n      \"n is infinity and p equals q\",\r\n      \"n is finite and q exceeds p\",\r\n      \"n is zero and p and q are undefined\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) n is infinity and p equals q<\/b><br><br>Where the exponent is infinite and p = q = \u00bd, <b>a perfectly smooth symmetrical curve is obtained<\/b>.<br><br>A qualification broadens the result considerably: <b>even where p and q are not equal, a smooth and symmetrical curve of normal probability is obtained if the exponent n is very large<\/b>. Equality of p and q is therefore sufficient but not necessary; sheer size of n will do.<br><br>This is why the normal curve appears so widely in nature \u2014 height, blood pressure, the lengths of objects made by machines \u2014 wherever many independent influences combine.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 693,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The graph of the normal distribution depends on two parameters. Their respective effects are that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the mean fixes the location and the standard deviation the skewness of the curve\",\r\n      \"the mean fixes the height and width and the standard deviation the location of the centre\",\r\n      \"the mean fixes the location of the centre and the standard deviation the height and width\",\r\n      \"the mean fixes the total area and the standard deviation the position of the mode\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the mean fixes the location of the centre and the standard deviation the height and width<\/b><br><br>The relation is inverse and worth fixing: <b>where the standard deviation is large the curve is short and wide; where it is small the curve is tall and narrow<\/b>. The total area being always unity, a curve that spreads must also flatten.<br><br>There is therefore <b>not a single normal curve but a family of them<\/b> \u2014 curves with identical means but different standard deviations, curves with identical standard deviations but different means, and curves differing in both.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 694,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The statement that the normal curve is asymptotic to the base line means that it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"rises above the horizontal axis only between the quartiles\",\r\n      \"meets the horizontal axis at three standard deviations from the mean\",\r\n      \"is divided by the horizontal axis into two equal areas\",\r\n      \"continues to approach the horizontal axis but never touches it\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) continues to approach the horizontal axis but never touches it<\/b><br><br>It follows that <b>no score, however extreme, has a probability of exactly zero<\/b> under a normal model \u2014 which is why tables of area stop at conventional points rather than at a true end of the curve.<br><br><b>Option (B) states the standing misconception<\/b>, encouraged by the familiar diagram running from \u22123\u03c3 to +3\u03c3. That range covers 99\u00b773 per cent of the area, not the whole of it; the remaining 0\u00b727 per cent lies beyond, and the curve continues indefinitely in both directions.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 695,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The area enclosed between the mean ordinate and an ordinate at one standard deviation from the mean is always:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"34\u00b7134 per cent of the total area of the curve\",\r\n      \"50\u00b7000 per cent of the total area of the curve\",\r\n      \"60\u00b7653 per cent of the total area of the curve\",\r\n      \"68\u00b7268 per cent of the total area of the curve\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 34\u00b7134 per cent of the total area of the curve<\/b><br><br>It follows that the area between two ordinates at one sigma on <b>either side<\/b> of the mean is 34\u00b7134 + 34\u00b7134 = <b>68\u00b7268 per cent<\/b>, which is option (D) and the commonest confusion here.<br><br><b>Option (C), 60\u00b7653 per cent, is the more subtle trap<\/b>: that figure is not an area at all but <b>the height of the ordinate at one standard deviation, expressed as a percentage of the height of the mean ordinate<\/b>. Height and area are different quantities, and the paper may test whichever it pleases.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 696,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Interval)<br>A. \u03bc \u00b1 1 SD<br>B. \u03bc \u00b1 2 SD<br>C. \u03bc \u00b1 3 SD<br>D. \u03bc \u00b1 0\u00b76745 SD<br><br>List II (Area covered)<br>1. 99\u00b773 per cent<br>2. 50 per cent<br>3. 68\u00b727 per cent<br>4. 95\u00b745 per cent\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2<\/b><br><br>The remaining two relationships in the same table are the ones a paper is most likely to set alongside these: <b>\u03bc \u00b1 1\u00b796 SD covers 95 per cent<\/b> and <b>\u03bc \u00b1 2\u00b7578 SD covers 99 per cent<\/b>.<br><br><b>The pairs are easily confused.<\/b> 2 SD gives 95\u00b745 per cent while 1\u00b796 SD gives exactly 95 per cent; 3 SD gives 99\u00b773 per cent while 2\u00b7578 SD gives exactly 99 per cent. The whole-number multiples give the untidy percentages, and the tidy percentages require the awkward multipliers.<br><br><b>0\u00b76745 SD is the probable error<\/b>, cutting off the middle half of the distribution.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 697,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following characteristics of the normal curve:<br>1. It is always unimodal, having a single peak.<br>2. The maximum ordinate divides the graph into two equal parts.<br>3. The ordinate at the mean is the highest ordinate.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, and the three are connected rather than independent: because the distribution is <b>symmetric<\/b>, its single peak must stand at the centre, and the ordinate through that peak must divide the area equally.<br><br>The further stated properties are that <b>the curve is asymptotic to the base line<\/b> and that <b>the variance \u03c3\u00b2 defines the spread of the curve<\/b>.<br><br>Algebraically the curve satisfies <b>\u03bc = x\u0304, \u03bc\u2082 = \u03c3\u00b2, \u03bc\u2084 = 3\u03c3\u2074<\/b>, and its <b>moment coefficient of kurtosis is 3<\/b> \u2014 the benchmark from which \u03b3\u2082 is measured.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 698,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The standard normal probability distribution table showing areas under the normal curve is organised in terms of Z values, and gives the values:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"for only half the area under the curve\",\r\n      \"for the whole of the area under the curve\",\r\n      \"for the area lying beyond three standard deviations only\",\r\n      \"for the area lying between the quartiles only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) for only half the area under the curve<\/b><br><br>Half suffices because <b>the curve is symmetrical<\/b>: the area between the mean and +1\u00b75\u03c3 is identical with that between the mean and \u22121\u00b75\u03c3, so tabulating one side would merely duplicate the other.<br><br>The table answers the question what area \u2014 or, taking the total area as unity, <b>what probability<\/b> \u2014 attaches to the random variable lying within a stated distance from the mean, <b>those distances being defined in terms of standard deviations<\/b>.<br><br>The standard variate is <b>Z = (X \u2212 \u03bc) \/ \u03c3<\/b>, the number of standard deviations from X to the mean.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 699,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a normally distributed set of test scores the mean is 60 and the standard deviation is 8. Approximately 95 per cent of the scores lie between:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"52 and 68\",\r\n      \"44 and 76\",\r\n      \"36 and 84\",\r\n      \"60 and 76\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 44 and 76<\/b><br><br>Approximately 95 per cent of cases lie within <b>two standard deviations<\/b> on either side of the mean.<br><br>2 \u00d7 8 = <b>16<\/b><br>60 \u2212 16 = <b>44<\/b>; 60 + 16 = <b>76<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 52 and 68, is one standard deviation each way<\/b>, covering about 68 per cent; option (C) is three standard deviations, covering about 99\u00b77 per cent.<br><br>Strictly, \u03bc \u00b1 2 SD covers <b>95\u00b745<\/b> per cent and exactly 95 per cent requires \u03bc \u00b1 1\u00b796 SD \u2014 but at this level of approximation the two-sigma limits are what a paper expects.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 700,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A distribution of scores is graphed as a histogram, and the resulting figure is bell-shaped. The two quantities that must be specified to describe such a distribution completely are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the range and the median\",\r\n      \"the mean and the standard deviation\",\r\n      \"the mode and the interquartile range\",\r\n      \"the skewness and the kurtosis\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the mean and the standard deviation<\/b><br><br>In any normal distribution, two quantities must be specified: <b>the mean \u03bc, where the peak of the density occurs, and the standard deviation \u03c3, which indicates the spread or girth of the bell<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (D) is the instructive distractor.<\/b> Skewness and kurtosis need not be specified <b>because for a normal curve they are already fixed<\/b> \u2014 the distribution is symmetrical, so skewness is zero, and its moment coefficient of kurtosis is 3. Only in a non-normal distribution do those two become quantities requiring separate statement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 701,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms and Derived Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The definition of norms as the average performance on a particular test made by a standardization sample is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Thorndike and Hagen\",\r\n      \"Ross and Stanley\",\r\n      \"Baron and Bernard\",\r\n      \"Anastasi and Urbina\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Thorndike and Hagen<\/b><br><br><b>Frank S. Freeman<\/b> defined a norm in measurement as <b>the average or standard score on a particular test made by a specified population<\/b> \u2014 a closely allied statement worth holding alongside it.<br><br><b>Ross and Stanley (B)<\/b> made a different point altogether, distinguishing <b>norm from standard<\/b>: the term 'standard' has an objective inherent in it and tells us of our goal, while 'norm' indicates <b>present achievement<\/b>. We move towards a standard, which remains stable; norms are comparatively unstable.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 702,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms and Derived Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil scores 60 in English and 75 in Mathematics. It is found that 60 was the highest mark in the class in English and 75 the lowest in Mathematics. The lesson drawn from this illustration is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"raw scores cannot be compared across subjects and must be converted into derived scores\",\r\n      \"the English paper must have been more difficult than the Mathematics paper\",\r\n      \"the pupil should be advised to concentrate on Mathematics rather than English\",\r\n      \"the two tests should have carried the same maximum marks\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) raw scores cannot be compared across subjects and must be converted into derived scores<\/b><br><br>A layman comparing 60 with 75 would say the pupil is better at Mathematics, and would be <b>wrong, because the two are raw scores<\/b>.<br><br>The reasoning behind the whole apparatus of norms follows from this: <b>educational measurement is not physical but mental measurement, and is therefore relative<\/b> \u2014 an individual must be evaluated in relation to others in his class or group. Norms tell us <b>where a pupil or a class stands in relation to a reference group<\/b>, and are a statistical procedure for <b>minimising the interpretive error of a test score<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 703,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The concept of the age norm, dealing essentially with mental age, was developed in 1908 by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Alfred Binet\",\r\n      \"Lewis Terman\",\r\n      \"David Wechsler\",\r\n      \"William Stern\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Alfred Binet<\/b><br><br>He introduced it in conjunction with <b>the first revision of his scale<\/b>, in which items are grouped according to age levels \u2014 items passed by a specified percentage of five-year-olds in the standardization sample being placed at the five-year level, and so on.<br><br>Age norms are also called <b>mental age norms or age equivalent norms<\/b>, and are defined as <b>the average performance of a representative sample of a certain age group on a measure of intelligence or ability<\/b>.<br><br>Thus where the average score of pupils aged 15 years 2 months is 80, a boy of 12 scoring 80 has a <b>mental age of 15 years 2 months<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 704,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following limitations of age norms:<br>1. Mental age units are not fixed but vary from test to test.<br>2. They lack a standard and uniform unit throughout the period of growth.<br>3. Very high and very low scores are difficult to interpret against them.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with the difficulty of obtaining a <b>true representative sample<\/b> of a selected age group, the <b>limited scope<\/b> of age norms in some tests, the <b>time-consuming<\/b> nature of developing them, and the fact that <b>the mental age of a particular age group may differ from locality to locality<\/b>.<br><br>The second limitation is the structural one, and it is the reason age norms lose value at the higher stages: growth in physical and psychological traits is <b>not uniform across the years<\/b>, so a year of mental age at eight is not the same quantity as a year at sixteen.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 705,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Types of Norms\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Grade norms are stated to be most useful and least useful respectively for:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"growth in basic skills at the elementary stage; comparison across tests\",\r\n      \"comparison across tests; growth in basic skills at the elementary stage\",\r\n      \"selection of pupils for gifted programmes; diagnosis of weaknesses\",\r\n      \"diagnosis of individual weaknesses; selection for gifted programmes\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) growth in basic skills at the elementary stage; comparison across tests<\/b><br><br>A grade norm corresponding to a raw score is <b>the grade level of those pupils whose average raw score is the score in question<\/b> \u2014 so if the average of a Class VIII test is 60, then 60 is the grade norm for Class VIII.<br><br>Among the stated limitations: <b>the rate of growth from grade to grade is not uniform<\/b>; <b>fractional grades have no meaning<\/b>; grade norms are <b>affected by the quality of schools, teachers and pupils<\/b>; and a Class VII pupil credited with a Class IX equivalent <b>does not thereby have the ability to be a Class IX pupil<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 706,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Standard scores are so called because they possess:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a definite reference point in the mean and a definite standard deviation\",\r\n      \"a fixed maximum of one hundred marks and a fixed minimum of zero marks\",\r\n      \"a uniform passing mark laid down in advance by the examining agency\",\r\n      \"an established basis in the syllabus prescribed for that class\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) a definite reference point in the mean and a definite standard deviation<\/b><br><br>Every standard score is built from those two quantities, which is why the chief among them \u2014 <b>Z-scores, T-scores, C-scores and stanine scores<\/b> \u2014 are described as <b>modified forms of the same scale<\/b> and differ only in the mean and standard deviation assigned to them.<br><br>The approach of the standard score is to <b>express performance in terms of standard deviation units from the mean<\/b>, showing how far an achieved score stands above or below average. Its unit is <b>the standard deviation of the reference group<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 707,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Z-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a test the mean is 65 and the standard deviation 10. A pupil scores 90. His Z-score is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1\u00b75\",\r\n      \"2\u00b70\",\r\n      \"2\u00b75\",\r\n      \"3\u00b70\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 2\u00b75<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> Z = (X \u2212 M) \/ \u03c3<br><br>X \u2212 M = 90 \u2212 65 = <b>25<\/b><br>Z = 25 \/ 10 = <b>2\u00b75<\/b><br><br>Z-scores have a <b>mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1<\/b>, and their value generally runs from <b>\u22123\u03c3 to +3\u03c3<\/b>. Being obtained by <b>linear transformation<\/b> of the raw scores, they belong to the class of <b>linear standard scores<\/b>.<br><br>The sign carries the meaning: <b>a positive Z indicates a score above the mean and a negative Z one below it<\/b>. A pupil scoring 35 on the same test would have Z = (35 \u2212 65)\/10 = <b>\u22123<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 708,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Z-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil scores 80 in Mathematics, where the class mean is 60 and the standard deviation 8, and 70 in Language, where the class mean is 40 and the standard deviation 10. It follows that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"he stands relatively better in Mathematics, his raw score there being higher\",\r\n      \"he stands relatively better in Language, though his raw score there is lower\",\r\n      \"he stands equally well in both, the two Z-scores being identical\",\r\n      \"no comparison is possible, the two standard deviations being unequal\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) he stands relatively better in Language, though his raw score there is lower<\/b><br><br>Mathematics: Z = (80 \u2212 60) \/ 8 = 20 \/ 8 = <b>2\u00b75<\/b><br>Language: Z = (70 \u2212 40) \/ 10 = 30 \/ 10 = <b>3\u00b70<\/b><br><br><b>This is the classic case, and option (A) is the classic error.<\/b> The higher raw mark is in Mathematics, yet relative to his class the pupil stands higher in Language.<br><br>On the interpretive scale both scores fall in the <b>'very good'<\/b> band, above +2\u00b700; but the Z-scores show that <b>within that band he is better placed in Language<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 709,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"T-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil's Z-score on a test is 2\u00b75. His T-score is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"52\u00b75\",\r\n      \"62\u00b75\",\r\n      \"75\u00b70\",\r\n      \"80\u00b70\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 75\u00b70<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> T = 50 + 10 Z<br><br>10 \u00d7 2\u00b75 = <b>25<\/b><br>T = 50 + 25 = <b>75<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 52\u00b75, is the standing error<\/b> \u2014 adding the Z-score to 50 without first multiplying it by 10.<br><br>T-scores have a <b>mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10<\/b>, and their values usually run from <b>20 to 80<\/b>. The reason they are often preferred to Z-scores for reporting results is that they yield <b>only positive integers<\/b>, whereas Z-scores are both positive and negative and are carried to two decimal places.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 710,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"T-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The T-score was first used by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"McCall\",\r\n      \"R. B. Cattell\",\r\n      \"Thorndike\",\r\n      \"Kelley\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) McCall<\/b><br><br><b>R. B. Cattell (B)<\/b> first used the <b>sten score<\/b>, which is the natural competitor in any question of this kind.<br><br>A fine distinction is drawn in the literature between the lower-case and upper-case forms. In <b>T-scores the raw scores are normalized<\/b>, whereas t-scores are obtained by simple linear transformation; in every other respect their characteristics are the same.<br><br>The point rests on a general proposition: <b>the basis of all standard scores is the normalized distribution curve<\/b>, so where a distribution is not normal it must first be made so before raw scores are converted.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 711,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"T-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On the table of the meaning of T-scores, a T-score of 60 corresponds to a position of +1\u00b70 \u03c3, and the percentage of pupils securing a lower score is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"69\u00b715\",\r\n      \"84\u00b713\",\r\n      \"93\u00b732\",\r\n      \"97\u00b772\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 84\u00b713<\/b><br><br>The figure follows directly from the areas of the normal curve. Half the distribution lies below the mean, and a further <b>34\u00b713 per cent<\/b> lies between the mean and +1\u03c3:<br><br>50 + 34\u00b713 = <b>84\u00b713 per cent<\/b>, leaving <b>15\u00b787 per cent<\/b> above.<br><br>The same reasoning generates the whole table. A T-score of <b>70<\/b> stands at +2\u00b70\u03c3 with <b>97\u00b772<\/b> per cent below; a T-score of <b>50<\/b> is the mean itself, with <b>50 per cent<\/b> on either side; and a T-score of <b>40<\/b> stands at \u22121\u00b70\u03c3 with only <b>15\u00b787<\/b> per cent below.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 712,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"C-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"C-scores have a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2, the range of raw scores being distributed into:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"nine equal unit-groups shown on a scale from 1 to 9\",\r\n      \"ten equal unit-groups shown on a scale from 1 to 10\",\r\n      \"eleven equal unit-groups shown on a scale from 0 to 10\",\r\n      \"twelve equal unit-groups shown on a scale from 0 to 11\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) eleven equal unit-groups shown on a scale from 0 to 10<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> C = 5 + 2Z. A C-score may also be obtained from the <b>percentile rank<\/b>, by reading the raw score's percentile against the eleven-point table.<br><br><b>Option (A) describes the stanine scale<\/b>, and the relation between the two is exact: <b>the stanine scale is formed by joining the two end classes on either side of the C-scale<\/b>, reducing eleven points to nine.<br><br>Two demerits are stated: <b>the award of a zero score<\/b>, and the fact that <b>a change of one C-score point produces a large change in percentage<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 713,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Stanine Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The stanine scale was developed during the Second World War by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the United States Air Force\",\r\n      \"the British Ministry of Education\",\r\n      \"the American Psychological Association\",\r\n      \"the United States Congress\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the United States Air Force<\/b><br><br>The name is a contraction of <b>'standard nine'<\/b>, the distribution of raw scores being divided into nine parts and shown on a nine-point scale from 1 to 9, where <b>9 is high, 1 is low and 5 is average<\/b>.<br><br>Stanines are <b>normalized standard scores<\/b>, developed by the technique of normalized standard scoring, so that when raw scores are transformed into stanines <b>the distribution takes the shape of the normal curve<\/b>.<br><br>Their practical merit is that they <b>make it possible to compare a pupil's performance on different tests<\/b> \u2014 and that only nine numbers must be handled, against eleven for C-scores.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 714,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Stanine Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the distribution of cases across the nine stanines, the percentages assigned to the first, fifth and ninth stanines are respectively:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"4, 20 and 4\",\r\n      \"7, 17 and 7\",\r\n      \"12, 20 and 12\",\r\n      \"4, 17 and 4\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 4, 20 and 4<\/b><br><br>The full distribution is symmetrical about the fifth stanine: <b>4, 7, 12, 17, 20, 17, 12, 7, 4<\/b> per cent.<br><br>The pairing is what a paper is likely to test. Stanines <b>1 and 9<\/b> take 4 per cent each, being the bottom and top; <b>2 and 8<\/b> take 7; <b>3 and 7<\/b> take 12; <b>4 and 6<\/b> take 17, lying just below and above the mean; and <b>5 alone takes 20<\/b>, being the middle.<br><br>A useful check: the nine percentages must sum to <b>100<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 715,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Stanine Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The mean and standard deviation of the stanine scale are respectively:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"5 and 1\",\r\n      \"5 and 2\",\r\n      \"5\u00b75 and 2\",\r\n      \"50 and 10\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 5 and 2<\/b><br><br>The standard deviation is stated as <b>1\u00b796, conventionally rounded to 2<\/b>, and the conversion formula is <b>Stanine = 5 + 2Z<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (C) gives the sten score<\/b>, which has a mean of <b>5\u00b75<\/b> and a standard deviation of <b>2<\/b>, on the formula Sten = 5\u00b75 + 2Z. It was first used by <b>R. B. Cattell<\/b>.<br><br><b>A caution on the sources:<\/b> one textbook states the standard deviation of the sten score as 4 while giving the formula Sten = 5\u00b75 + 2Z in the same passage. <b>The formula is correct and the sentence is a misprint<\/b> \u2014 the multiplier of Z is the standard deviation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 716,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Type of score)<br>A. Z-score<br>B. T-score<br>C. C-score<br>D. Sten score<br><br>List II (Mean and standard deviation)<br>1. Mean 5, SD 2<br>2. Mean 0, SD 1<br>3. Mean 5\u00b75, SD 2<br>4. Mean 50, SD 10\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3\",\r\n      \"A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3<\/b><br><br>The four conversion formulae follow directly from the pairs, each taking the form <b>new mean + (new SD \u00d7 Z)<\/b>:<br><br>Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3<br>T = 50 + 10Z<br>C = 5 + 2Z<br>Sten = 5\u00b75 + 2Z<br><br><b>The pair most often confused is C-score with stanine<\/b>, since both have a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2; they differ in the number of points on the scale \u2014 <b>eleven for the C-score and nine for the stanine<\/b>.<br><br>The ranges likewise differ: Z runs about \u00b13, T from 20 to 80, and both sten and stanine within 0 to 9.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 717,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil's Z-score on a test is +1\u00b75. His C-score and stanine score are respectively:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"6\u00b75 and 6\",\r\n      \"7 and 8\",\r\n      \"8 and 8\",\r\n      \"8 and 6\u00b75\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 8 and 8<\/b><br><br><b>C-score:<\/b> C = 5 + 2Z = 5 + (2 \u00d7 1\u00b75) = 5 + 3 = <b>8<\/b><br><b>Stanine:<\/b> Stanine = 5 + 2Z = 5 + 3 = <b>8<\/b><br><br>The two coincide here because both scales share a mean of 5 and a standard deviation of 2. They part company only in the number of points available, and hence in what happens at the extremes.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the trap<\/b> for a candidate who adds Z to the mean without multiplying by the standard deviation \u2014 the same slip that turns a T-score of 75 into 52\u00b75.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 718,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the interpretation of standard scores:<br>1. A Z-score of +2 means the pupil scored two standard deviations above the mean of the group.<br>2. A T-score of 75 means the pupil stands 25 T-score points above the average of the group.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) Both 1 and 2<\/b><br><br>Both readings work the same way, by reference to the mean of the scale in question. A Z of 2 is read as <b>0Z + 2Z<\/b>; a T of 75 is read as <b>50T + 25T<\/b>.<br><br>The procedure for arriving at either is the same: the test is administered to a large group, <b>the mean and standard deviation of the scores are found<\/b>, and the score to be interpreted is converted. A test-maker ordinarily supplies <b>a ready table for converting raw scores into standard scores<\/b>.<br><br>What the value tells us in every case is <b>how much less or more a pupil is than the mean<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 719,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms and Derived Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, given as tests for judging the adequacy of test norms:<br>1. Norms should be relevant to the reference group and should represent the whole group.<br>2. Norms should be comparable with other norms, and every norm needs a clear description.<br>3. Norms once established should be kept unchanged, so that comparison over time remains possible.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717 \u2014 it states the opposite of the stated requirement.<\/b> <b>Test norms should be changed from time to time<\/b>, because the population on which they were built moves away from them.<br><br>The claim in statement 3 is superficially attractive, which is what makes it a good distractor: stability does aid comparison. But a norm is a description of <b>present<\/b> achievement, and a description that is not refreshed simply becomes inaccurate \u2014 which is the practical objection to publishers using the same norms for several years together.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 720,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is stated as a limitation of standard score norms?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Their interpretation becomes problematic where the distribution is not normal\",\r\n      \"They cannot be computed where the standard deviation of the group is known\",\r\n      \"They express differences in units that are unequal across the scale\",\r\n      \"They cannot be used to compare a pupil's performance on two different tests\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Their interpretation becomes problematic where the distribution is not normal<\/b><br><br>The further limitations stated are that <b>expert knowledge is needed to deal with standard scores<\/b>, and that <b>the minus values are confusing<\/b> in educational and mental measurement \u2014 the difficulty T-scores were devised to remove.<br><br><b>Options (C) and (D) name the limitations of percentile norms<\/b>, and standard score norms exist precisely to cure them. Because standard scores <b>express uniform units throughout the scale<\/b>, they differ from percentile norms, whose units are unequal, and they permit comparison across tests.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 721,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Norms and Derived Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, stated as the importance of norms in measurement and evaluation:<br>1. They place an individual in the exact position within a group.<br>2. They are helpful in the selection and classification of pupils.<br>3. They speak about the attainment of instructional objectives by pupils.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with two others: norms are <b>the basis of interpreting raw scores into derived scores<\/b>, they are helpful in <b>guidance and counselling<\/b>, and they <b>minimise the interpretive error<\/b> of a measuring instrument.<br><br>The third statement deserves notice because it is the least obvious. Norms are usually thought of as ranking pupils against one another; but where the norm records what pupils of a given group in fact achieve, <b>it also records how far the objectives set for that group are being attained<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 722,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Percentiles\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In a distribution of 80 scores, the class interval on which P\u2087\u2085 falls has an exact lower limit of 49\u00b75 and a frequency of 12, and 48 cases lie below that interval. The class interval is 5. The value of P\u2087\u2085 is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"50\u00b75\",\r\n      \"52\u00b70\",\r\n      \"54\u00b75\",\r\n      \"60\u00b70\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 54\u00b75<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> Pp = l + [(pN \u2212 F) \/ fp] \u00d7 i<br><br>pN = 0\u00b775 \u00d7 80 = <b>60<\/b><br>60 \u2212 48 = <b>12<\/b><br>12 \/ 12 = <b>1<\/b><br>1 \u00d7 5 = <b>5<\/b><br>P\u2087\u2085 = 49\u00b75 + 5 = <b>54\u00b75<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D), 60, is the trap<\/b> \u2014 it is pN, the number of cases counted off, mistaken for the score itself. The two are different quantities: <b>pN counts cases, while Pp is measured on the score scale.<\/b> P\u2087\u2085 is also the third quartile of this distribution.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 723,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Z-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On a test whose mean is 50, a pupil stands one and a half standard deviations below the mean. Taking the standard deviation as 8, what raw score did he obtain?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"36\",\r\n      \"38\",\r\n      \"42\",\r\n      \"62\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 38<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> X = M + (Z \u00d7 \u03c3), obtained by transposing Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3.<br><br>Z \u00d7 \u03c3 = \u22121\u00b75 \u00d7 8 = <b>\u221212<\/b><br>X = 50 \u2212 12 = <b>38<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D), 62, ignores the sign<\/b> and adds where it should subtract \u2014 the single commonest error in reverse conversion. A negative Z always yields a raw score <b>below<\/b> the mean, since the sign of the Z-score records on which side of the mean the pupil stands.<br><br><b>Option (A), 36, divides by rather than multiplies by the standard deviation somewhere in the working.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 724,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Skewness\",\r\n    \"question\": \"For a distribution the mean is 10, the mode is 8 and the standard deviation is 4. Pearson's coefficient of skewness is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b720\",\r\n      \"0\u00b750\",\r\n      \"1\u00b750\",\r\n      \"2\u00b700\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 0\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> PSk = (x\u0304 \u2212 M\u2080) \/ s<br><br>x\u0304 \u2212 M\u2080 = 10 \u2212 8 = <b>2<\/b><br>PSk = 2 \/ 4 = <b>0\u00b750<\/b><br><br>The value being <b>positive<\/b> tells us the distribution is <b>positively skewed<\/b> \u2014 the mean lies above the mode, and the longer tail is on the right.<br><br><b>Option (D), 2\u00b700, is the numerator left undivided.<\/b> Dividing by the standard deviation is what makes the coefficient a <b>relative<\/b> measure, comparable across distributions measured in different units; it also keeps the value usually within \u22121 to +1.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 725,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Skewness\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A distribution has a mean of 24 against a median of 25, the standard deviation being 6. Computed from the median rather than the mode, the coefficient of skewness works out to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"\u22120\u00b750\",\r\n      \"\u22120\u00b717\",\r\n      \"+0\u00b717\",\r\n      \"+0\u00b750\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) \u22120\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> PSk = 3(x\u0304 \u2212 Md) \/ s<br><br>x\u0304 \u2212 Md = 24 \u2212 25 = <b>\u22121<\/b><br>3 \u00d7 (\u22121) = <b>\u22123<\/b><br>PSk = \u22123 \/ 6 = <b>\u22120\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>Option (B), \u22120\u00b717, omits the multiplier of 3<\/b>, which is the whole difference between the two forms of the coefficient. The factor exists because in a skewed distribution <b>the mean-to-median distance is only about one-third of the mean-to-mode distance<\/b>.<br><br>The negative sign shows the distribution is <b>negatively skewed<\/b>: the mean falls below the median, and the longer tail is on the left.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 726,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"T-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A candidate is placed at 65 on a scale reported in T-scores. Expressed in standard deviation units from the mean, his position is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"0\u00b765\",\r\n      \"1\u00b750\",\r\n      \"6\u00b750\",\r\n      \"15\u00b700\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> Z = (T \u2212 50) \/ 10, obtained by transposing T = 50 + 10Z.<br><br>T \u2212 50 = 65 \u2212 50 = <b>15<\/b><br>Z = 15 \/ 10 = <b>1\u00b750<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D), 15, is the numerator left undivided<\/b>, and is impossible on its face \u2014 a Z-score of 15 would place the pupil fifteen standard deviations above the mean, where the scale in practice runs only to about \u00b13.<br><br>Checking the plausibility of a converted score against the known range of the scale is a useful last step in every such conversion.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 727,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Sten Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil's Z-score is +0\u00b775. His sten score is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"6\u00b725\",\r\n      \"6\u00b750\",\r\n      \"7\u00b700\",\r\n      \"7\u00b750\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 7\u00b700<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> Sten = 5\u00b75 + 2Z<br><br>2 \u00d7 0\u00b775 = <b>1\u00b75<\/b><br>Sten = 5\u00b75 + 1\u00b75 = <b>7\u00b700<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 6\u00b725, adds Z to the mean without multiplying by the standard deviation.<\/b><br><br>The sten scale takes its mean of <b>5\u00b75<\/b> rather than 5 because it divides the distribution into <b>ten<\/b> units rather than nine, so its centre falls between the fifth and sixth. The name is a contraction of <b>'standard ten'<\/b>, exactly as 'stanine' contracts 'standard nine'.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 728,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Normal Probability Curve\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The interval \u03bc \u00b1 0\u00b76745 \u03c3 is of particular interest because it encloses:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"one quarter of the cases in the distribution\",\r\n      \"one half of the cases in the distribution\",\r\n      \"two thirds of the cases in the distribution\",\r\n      \"three quarters of the cases in the distribution\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) one half of the cases in the distribution<\/b><br><br>The interval covers <b>50 per cent<\/b> of the total area of the normal curve, so its limits are the <b>first and third quartiles<\/b> of a normal distribution, and the quantity 0\u00b76745\u03c3 is the <b>probable error<\/b>.<br><br>It follows that in a normal distribution the <b>quartile deviation equals 0\u00b76745 times the standard deviation<\/b> \u2014 the arithmetical bridge between the two measures of variability met in the previous chapter.<br><br><b>Option (C) is the near miss<\/b>: two thirds is approximately the area for \u03bc \u00b1 1\u03c3, which is 68\u00b727 per cent.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 729,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"T-Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil obtains a T-score of 70. The percentage of pupils securing a higher score is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2\u00b728\",\r\n      \"6\u00b768\",\r\n      \"15\u00b787\",\r\n      \"30\u00b785\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 2\u00b728<\/b><br><br>A T-score of 70 stands at <b>+2\u00b70 \u03c3<\/b>. The area below is 97\u00b772 per cent, leaving <b>2\u00b728 per cent<\/b> above.<br><br>The figure is derived from the areas of the normal curve rather than memorised in isolation: <b>\u03bc \u00b1 2\u03c3 encloses 95\u00b745 per cent<\/b>, so 4\u00b755 per cent lies outside, and being symmetrically split, <b>half of it \u2014 2\u00b7275 per cent \u2014 lies in each tail<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (C), 15\u00b787, is the corresponding figure for +1\u00b70 \u03c3<\/b>, that is, for a T-score of 60.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 730,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Mental Age\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A child of chronological age 7 has a mental age of 10. His intelligence quotient is approximately:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"70\",\r\n      \"97\",\r\n      \"143\",\r\n      \"170\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 143<\/b><br><br><b>Formula:<\/b> IQ = (MA \/ CA) \u00d7 100<br><br>IQ = (10 \/ 7) \u00d7 100 = 1\u00b7428 \u00d7 100 \u2248 <b>143<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A), 70, inverts the ratio<\/b> and would describe a backward child rather than a superior one. The mental age is always the numerator, because the question asked is how far the child's mental development runs <b>ahead of or behind<\/b> his years.<br><br>This is the very child used to expose the defect of the achievement quotient: to obtain an AQ of 100 he would need an educational age of 10, which would require him to learn in one year what an ordinary child learns in four.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 731,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Standard Scores\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Two pupils obtain Z-scores of +1\u00b70 and \u22121\u00b70 respectively on the same test. The difference between their raw scores is equal to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"one standard deviation of the distribution\",\r\n      \"two standard deviations of the distribution\",\r\n      \"the range of the distribution\",\r\n      \"the quartile deviation of the distribution\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) two standard deviations of the distribution<\/b><br><br>The first pupil stands one standard deviation <b>above<\/b> the mean and the second one standard deviation <b>below<\/b> it, so the gap between them spans <b>two<\/b> such units.<br><br>Between them lie <b>68\u00b727 per cent of the cases<\/b>, since \u03bc \u00b1 1\u03c3 encloses that proportion.<br><br>The example illustrates why standard scores are said to express <b>uniform units throughout the scale<\/b>, unlike percentiles: a difference of two Z units means the same quantity of performance wherever on the scale it occurs.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 732,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 13: EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS II \u2014 NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE, SKEWNESS, PERCENTILES AND STANDARD SCORES\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Educational Statistics\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Percentiles\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the percentile rank of a pupil:<br>1. It refers to his rank in the specified group of scores from which it was derived.<br>2. The same pupil rated at the 60th percentile in one group would necessarily be rated at the 60th percentile in any comparable group.<br>Which of the statements given above is\/are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 only\",\r\n      \"2 only\",\r\n      \"Both 1 and 2\",\r\n      \"Neither 1 nor 2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 2 \u2717<\/b> Whether the rating would be the same in another group <b>depends on the comparability of the two groups<\/b>, and <b>his rating might be the same, or higher, or lower<\/b>.<br><br>The word 'necessarily' is what makes statement 2 false: comparability makes the same rating <b>likely<\/b>, not certain.<br><br>The percentile method answers two questions and no more \u2014 <b>where does a pupil's score rank him in his own group, and where would it rank him in another group whose members have taken the same test<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 733,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Integrated Approach to Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Evaluation theorists emphasise three key components of evaluation. These are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"observing behaviour, recording it, and preserving the record\",\r\n      \"framing objectives, constructing tests, and reporting to parents\",\r\n      \"measuring attainment, ranking pupils, and certifying competence\",\r\n      \"gathering information, judging its worth, and deciding upon it\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) gathering information, judging its worth, and deciding upon it<\/b><br><br>The same three steps apply whether one is evaluating <b>a curriculum, a programme or the learners<\/b>.<br><br>The demand now placed on evaluators is to <b>integrate pupils' evaluation with curriculum evaluation, programme evaluation and institutional self-evaluation<\/b>, because each conditions the others: pupils' learning is shaped by the curriculum, by the programmes that transact it, and by the <b>learning milieu of the school<\/b> \u2014 its plant, services, personnel, money, material and social environment.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 734,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Curriculum Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The four major components of a curriculum, each of which has to be evaluated, are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"input, process, output and impact\",\r\n      \"aims, syllabus, textbooks and examinations\",\r\n      \"knowledge, understanding, application and skill\",\r\n      \"objectives, content, process and outcomes of learning\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) objectives, content, process and outcomes of learning<\/b><br><br><b>Option (A) names the components of programme evaluation<\/b>, which is a different exercise.<br><br>Each curriculum component raises its own question. <b>Objectives<\/b>: how far are they relevant to learners' needs and specified as competencies? <b>Content<\/b>: how far is it relevant, accurate, adequate, up to date, and reflective of the substantive structure of the subject at the pupils' maturity level? <b>Process<\/b>: does it reflect the mode of inquiry of the discipline and involve pupils maximally? <b>Outcomes<\/b>: pupils' performance, instructional impact, and <b>collateral effects and concomitant learning<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 735,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In evaluating a programme, the head under which the qualifications and expertise of the personnel involved, the finances provided and the time spent on various tasks are examined is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"context evaluation\",\r\n      \"input evaluation\",\r\n      \"process evaluation\",\r\n      \"impact evaluation\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Input evaluation<\/b><br><br>The five heads run in sequence. <b>Context<\/b> covers the social setting and scope of the programme, its <b>antecedents<\/b> \u2014 the previous experience that necessitated it \u2014 and the existing resources. <b>Input<\/b> covers finance, personnel, material and time. <b>Process<\/b> covers the effort put in, the efficiency with which tasks were undertaken, and the effectiveness of those processes. <b>Product<\/b> covers attainment of objectives, quality of materials produced, and growth of staff. <b>Impact<\/b> covers <b>community support, parents' concern, improved practices and better learning environments<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 736,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Programme Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation offered about programme evaluation in India is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"programme evaluation has been made compulsory for every seminar and training course\",\r\n      \"most programmes are evaluated against elaborate statistical criteria before being continued\",\r\n      \"programme evaluation is undertaken only by external agencies and never by the institution\",\r\n      \"most programmes are judged on a logical basis or on the reflective opinion of subject experts\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) most programmes are judged on a logical basis or on the reflective opinion of subject experts<\/b><br><br>Literature and research on the subject in India are described as <b>quite scanty<\/b>, and there are <b>hardly any instances of programmes evaluated for programme effectiveness<\/b>.<br><br>The practice criticised is that a seminar on evaluation, the development of a curriculum, the writing of a textbook or the training of paper-setters is <b>taken for granted to be good and successful once conducted<\/b>. At most, <b>a few open-ended questions<\/b> are put to participants at the close.<br><br>What is required instead is evaluation of <b>context, inputs, processes, outputs and impact<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 737,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Institutional Self-Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Institutional self-evaluation is distinguished from continuous comprehensive evaluation in that its focus is on:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the external inspection of the school rather than on any internal inquiry\",\r\n      \"the assessment of pupils rather than on the effectiveness of the institution\",\r\n      \"the effectiveness of the institution as a whole rather than on pupils' assessment alone\",\r\n      \"the certification of pupils at the close of the course rather than during it\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the effectiveness of the institution as a whole rather than on pupils' assessment alone<\/b><br><br>Both are forms of school-based evaluation, but <b>the focus of C.C.E. is on pupils' assessment and their improvement<\/b>, and it refers to the concept, model, assessment procedure, tools, marking, grading and reporting of subject-wise results.<br><br>Institutional self-evaluation is <b>a planned and organised inquiry carried out by the staff, pupils and principal<\/b> into the total effectiveness of institutional operations, aimed at determining <b>the efforts, efficiency and effectiveness<\/b> of the institution.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 738,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Institutional Self-Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Institutional self-evaluation is said to fit within the framework of the formative-summative model of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Tyler\",\r\n      \"Stufflebeam\",\r\n      \"Cronbach\",\r\n      \"Scriven\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Scriven<\/b><br><br>The reference is to his formulation of <b>1972<\/b>, the distinction between formative and summative evaluation having been introduced by him in 1967.<br><br>Its aims are twofold: <b>to achieve an understanding of the institution in terms of its strengths and weaknesses relative to its aims and social responsibility<\/b>, and <b>to serve for the vitalising and updating of goals and operations<\/b> so as to improve both performance and the quality of institutional outputs.<br><br>Such a self-study may be undertaken <b>annually, or at an interval of every two or three years<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 739,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Institutional Self-Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding institutional self-evaluation:<br>1. It is an in-house evaluation, formative in nature, which should not pose any threat to the staff.<br>2. Its suggestions and recommendations are more likely to be accepted and implemented.<br>3. Curriculum and evaluation experts are associated with it in order to pass judgment on the institution.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Such experts are associated <b>for providing technical knowhow, expressly not for judging<\/b>. The judgments are the institution's own, which is what makes the exercise self-evaluation.<br><br>The two propositions in statements 1 and 2 are connected: recommendations are more likely to be implemented <b>because<\/b> the exercise is in-house and non-threatening.<br><br>Under the <b>humanistic illuminative<\/b> approach, views are taken from the principal, staff, pupils and auxiliary staff; from <b>alumni, employers and the colleges to which pupils go<\/b>; and from the managing committee, community representatives and the P.T.A.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 740,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Institutional Self-Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the documentary evidences used in institutional self-evaluation, which of the following are named?<br>1. Inspectors' or supervisors' reports of visits during the year<br>2. Inter-institutional cooperative testing results and board results<br>3. Student-intake data showing the background of pupils in the school\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are named, along with the reports of the <b>governing body or managing committee<\/b>.<br><br>The inclusion of <b>student-intake data<\/b> is the significant one. A school's results cannot be read as a measure of its effectiveness without knowing the background of the pupils it admits \u2014 the same caution that appears in the treatment of norms, where a norm group of superior intake produces a norm that flatters the teaching.<br><br>The <b>pluralistic approach<\/b> requires the institutional clientele to be identified first, and then to <b>identify specific problems and suggest solutions<\/b> themselves.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 741,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A marking system in an institution is described as basically:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a system of selection\",\r\n      \"a system of classification\",\r\n      \"a system of certification\",\r\n      \"a system of communication\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) a system of communication<\/b><br><br>It follows that <b>the degree to which marks have the same meaning for all who use them is what serves the purpose of communication<\/b>, and that where teachers do not assign marks in conformity with the declared policy, <b>the marks lose their significance and the system fails<\/b>.<br><br>The audience extends beyond the school: a marking system is <b>of concern to teachers of other schools, departments and institutions<\/b>, and hence <b>the meaning of each mark must be clearly defined<\/b> \u2014 defined, developed, adopted and enforced.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 742,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The system of numerical marking in terms of a percentage varying from zero to 100 is described as 'absolute marking' because:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the scale possesses a true zero point and permits ratios to be formed\",\r\n      \"a pupil's mark is independent of the marks obtained by other pupils\",\r\n      \"the marks are awarded against an absolute standard fixed by the board\",\r\n      \"the marks cannot be altered once they have been entered in the record\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) a pupil's mark is independent of the marks obtained by other pupils<\/b><br><br>That independence is the whole content of the word 'absolute' here, and it is what distinguishes the system from grading on the curve.<br><br><b>Option (A) states a claim the source expressly denies elsewhere<\/b>: the zero of a marking scale is <b>artificially created<\/b> and does not mean the pupil knows nothing.<br><br>The second major type of system uses <b>a small number of letter marks \u2014 often the five letters A, B, C, D and F<\/b> \u2014 to express various levels of performance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 743,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Who needs marks)<br>A. Pupils<br>B. Parents<br>C. Administrators<br>D. Curriculum specialists<br><br>List II (Purpose served)<br>1. To maintain inter-subject and intra-school parity of performance standards<br>2. To know whether the content of certain subjects needs revision<br>3. To know their adequacies and inadequacies in learning<br>4. To be alerted if some problem is developing\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1\",\r\n      \"A-4, B-3, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2<\/b><br><br>Five constituencies are named, the fifth being <b>teachers<\/b>, who need marks to judge the effectiveness of their instruction, to identify areas for <b>remedial teaching<\/b>, and to find whether certain topics are <b>beyond the pupils' level<\/b>.<br><br>Administrators further need them to <b>compare inter-school performance<\/b> and to ensure that intended learning outcomes are properly tested. Parents need them to <b>plan for the future of the child<\/b>.<br><br>Marks thus provide the basis for inferences about pupils' abilities, parents' decisions, teachers' impact, administrators' standards and specialists' curricular concerns alike.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 744,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In weighting the different components that go into a mark, the reliability criterion produces which order, from the most reliable evidence to the least?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Orals, essay type tests, objective tests\",\r\n      \"Orals, objective tests, essay type tests\",\r\n      \"Essay type tests, orals, objective tests\",\r\n      \"Objective tests, essay type tests, orals\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Objective tests, essay type tests, orals<\/b><br><br>The rule applied is that <b>the more the errors of measurement, the less the weight<\/b> a component should carry \u2014 the highest reliability being in objective tests, less in essay type tests, and lowest in orals.<br><br>Two other criteria operate alongside it. <b>Validity<\/b> asks what the indicator actually provides and the faithfulness with which it reflects it. And the <b>effective weight of each component is determined by its standard deviation<\/b>, not by the marks nominally allotted to it.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 745,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A written test has a mean of 60 with a standard deviation of 10, and a term paper a mean of 3\u00b70 with a standard deviation of 0\u00b75 on a five-point scale. If the two sets of marks are simply added together, the test will influence the combined score, as compared with the term paper, by a factor of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 times\",\r\n      \"5 times\",\r\n      \"10 times\",\r\n      \"20 times\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 20 times<\/b><br><br>The effective weight of a component is fixed by <b>its standard deviation, not by its maximum marks<\/b>.<br><br>10 \u00f7 0\u00b75 = <b>20<\/b><br><br>The illustration exists to make a practical point. A teacher who wished the test to count for <b>twice<\/b> the term paper, and who simply added the two, would in fact have given it <b>twenty times<\/b> the influence. The scores must be adjusted before combination.<br><br>A qualification is nevertheless entered: <b>precise numerical weighting of components is not crucial to the quality of the scores assigned<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 746,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scaling and Equating\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Two raw scores are treated as equivalent, and translated into the same scaled score, where they:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"have been awarded by the same examiner upon the same day of marking\",\r\n      \"lie at the same distance from their means in standard deviation units\",\r\n      \"carry the same maximum marks in their respective papers of the test\",\r\n      \"were obtained by the same pupil in two different subjects of study\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) lie at the same distance from their means in standard deviation units<\/b><br><br>An alternative definition is offered alongside it: two raw scores are equivalent where they are <b>exceeded by the same proportion of examinees<\/b>. Thus if 10 per cent score 55 or more on examination P and 63 or more on examination Q, <b>55 and 63 should receive the same scaled mark<\/b>.<br><br>The two definitions <b>produce identical results where the raw scores are normally distributed<\/b>, but diverge where they are not \u2014 a point attributed to Harper.<br><br>Calibration makes scaled marks <b>much more valid than raw marks<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 747,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scaling and Equating\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where a distribution of raw marks is found to be skewed because the examiner has skewed them, or because of a peculiarity of the test, the method to be used is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"linear scale transformation\",\r\n      \"normalised scale transformation\",\r\n      \"statistical equating against a previous year's items\",\r\n      \"the link test method of equating grades\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Normalised scale transformation<\/b><br><br>The rule of choice is stated by cause. Where the non-normality arises <b>from sampling<\/b>, the <b>linear<\/b> method is used; where it arises <b>from the examiner or the test<\/b>, the <b>normalised<\/b> method is used \u2014 and the second situation is described as <b>more common<\/b> than the first.<br><br>The difference is that <b>a linear transformation produces a distribution identical in shape with the raw scores, while a normalised transformation forces a non-normal distribution into a normal one<\/b>.<br><br>The advantage of normalising is that it makes scaled scores <b>strictly comparable at all levels<\/b>; linearly scaled marks cannot legitimately be added or compared directly.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 748,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scaling and Equating\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In statistical equating of objective examinations, the practice recommended is to include from a previously used test:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the whole of the previous year's paper as a second section\",\r\n      \"a mini-test of 10 items or 10 per cent, whichever is smaller\",\r\n      \"a mini-test of 20 items or 20 per cent, whichever is greater\",\r\n      \"one item from each unit of the prescribed syllabus\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) a mini-test of 20 items or 20 per cent, whichever is greater<\/b><br><br>The prescription is attributed to the <b>Educational Testing Service<\/b>. The items may be <b>put together or scattered through the paper<\/b>, and performance on them is compared with the previous year's to discover whether the present group is better or worse.<br><br>The illustration is the <b>GRE<\/b>, whose scaled scores are <b>statistically equated with the standard of the 1952 test<\/b>, so that a batch of 2003 can be compared with any group of the previous fifty years. The 1952 items may now be out of date, but each year's items are chained back to that scale.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 749,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Scaling and Equating\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the method recommended for equating grades across subjects of unequal difficulty, the table prepared from the entrance or scaling test serves to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"establish the reliability coefficient of the scaling test that was used\",\r\n      \"fix the maximum marks that may be allotted to each subject in the paper\",\r\n      \"determine the number of pupils to be admitted to each section of a class\",\r\n      \"guide the teacher as to how many As, Bs and Cs to award at the close\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) guide the teacher as to how many As, Bs and Cs to award at the close<\/b><br><br>The method, adapted from <b>Ebel (1972)<\/b> and recommended by <b>Harper (1990)<\/b>, uses a common test \u2014 an entrance examination, aggregate marks at the previous level, or a special <b>link test<\/b> such as an aptitude test.<br><br>The teacher's judgment is not displaced: he may award higher or lower grades where the group is brighter or lazier than its entrance profile, <b>but he must justify wide deviations when questioned by the academic committee<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 750,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The objection that the zero and the hundred of a percentage marking scale are both fallacious rests on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"no pupil in practice ever obtains either of the two extreme values\",\r\n      \"zero does not mean he knows nothing, nor a hundred that he knows all\",\r\n      \"the scale is ordinal and therefore admits of no fixed end points at all\",\r\n      \"the two values are fixed differently by different examining boards\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) zero does not mean he knows nothing, nor a hundred that he knows all<\/b><br><br>The zero is <b>artificially created<\/b> and represents 'nothingness', the hundred 'perfection' \u2014 and neither claim is true of any pupil's knowledge of a subject.<br><br>The consequence is practical: it <b>makes comparison of scores difficult from test to test and from subject to subject<\/b>.<br><br>The difficulty is compounded because pupils are assessed for three different purposes \u2014 <b>self-referenced, norm-referenced and criterion-referenced<\/b> \u2014 yet are always awarded numerical marks on the same 0 to 100 interval scale.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 751,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements about systems of marking:<br>1. The more the marks available in a system to indicate different levels of achievement, the more reliable the marks will be.<br>2. A system of pass-fail marks does not serve the functions that marks are supposed to serve.<br>3. Multiple marks on various aspects of achievement improve marking at no additional cost.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Multiple marks do improve marking, but they <b>cost more in extra effort and may not be worth the improvement expected<\/b>.<br><br>Statement 1 carries its own qualification: greater reliability comes at the price of <b>limited usability<\/b> of the system. Finer scales are more accurate and less usable \u2014 a trade-off, not a free gain.<br><br>Two further propositions are stated: <b>numerical marks emphasise measurement and simplify the calculation of grade-point averages<\/b>, and for quality control it is necessary to <b>publicise the distribution of marks subject by subject<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 752,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The numerical basis for assigning marks under a marking system should include which of the following aspects?<br>1. Home task and project work<br>2. Test scores<br>3. Classroom contribution\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are named, and the weightage to each may be worked out from the <b>mean and standard deviation of the component scores<\/b> in arriving at the combined score.<br><br>An important qualification follows immediately, and it saves the practising teacher a great deal of arithmetic: <b>precise weighting of components on a numerical basis is not crucial to the quality of the scores assigned<\/b>. The requirement is that the components be the right ones and that their relative influence be broadly intended, not that the weights be computed to a decimal.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 753,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Curriculum Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In evaluating the curriculum process or the methodology of teaching and learning, the focus of evaluation includes:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"judging the collateral effects and concomitant learning of the pupils\",\r\n      \"measuring the attainment of pupils against the norms of a national sample\",\r\n      \"assessing whether the content selected is accurate, adequate and up to date\",\r\n      \"using readiness and diagnostic unit testing at various instructional phases to obtain regular feedback\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) using readiness and diagnostic unit testing at various instructional phases to obtain regular feedback<\/b><br><br>The other two matters under this head are whether the methodology <b>reflects the mode of inquiry \u2014 the syntactical structure \u2014 of the discipline<\/b>, and whether it <b>involves pupils maximally in the instructional process<\/b>, as by questioning.<br><br><b>Option (C) belongs to the evaluation of content<\/b> and <b>option (A) to the evaluation of outcomes<\/b>, where pupils' performance against objectives, the instructional impact, and <b>collateral effects and concomitant learning<\/b> are examined.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 754,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Marking System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The alternative to strict marking on the curve, which divides the score scale into equal intervals, is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"absolute marking\",\r\n      \"relative marking\",\r\n      \"multiple marking\",\r\n      \"differential marking\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Relative marking<\/b><br><br>It may require the calculation of an average measure such as the <b>median<\/b> and a measure of variability such as the <b>standard deviation<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) is the standing confusion here.<\/b> Absolute marking is the ordinary percentage system, in which a pupil's mark is <b>independent of other pupils' marks<\/b>; relative marking, like grading on the curve, fixes his position <b>by reference to the group<\/b>, but divides the scale into equal intervals rather than assigning fixed percentages to each category.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 755,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Concept of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Grading is defined as a method of communicating pupils' achievement using:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a comparison of each pupil with the average of his own class\",\r\n      \"a numerical scale running from zero to one hundred marks\",\r\n      \"a set of symbols properly defined and clearly understood by all concerned\",\r\n      \"a description of the pupil's work written by the class teacher\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) a set of symbols properly defined and clearly understood by all concerned<\/b><br><br>Those concerned include <b>pupils, teachers, parents and all other interested persons<\/b>, and <b>the meaning of each symbol must be clearly defined<\/b>. The examiner must adhere to the system specified.<br><br>A proper system provides for <b>better comparison of pupils' performance and of the quality of that performance<\/b> in terms of effort and knowledge acquired at the close of the syllabus.<br><br>A candid limitation is entered: the basis of awarding grades <b>differs from examiner to examiner and school to school<\/b>, so grades awarded in different institutions are difficult to compare.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 756,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Where the reference point is the approach adopted, grading is classified as direct or indirect; where the reference point is the standard of judgment, it is classified as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"absolute or relative\",\r\n      \"formative or summative\",\r\n      \"internal or external\",\r\n      \"analytical or global\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) absolute or relative<\/b><br><br>The two classifications are independent, and cut across each other. The first asks <b>how the grade is arrived at<\/b> \u2014 whether the examiner's impression is recorded directly as a letter, or whether marks are awarded first and then converted. The second asks <b>against what the performance is judged<\/b> \u2014 a predetermined standard, or the performance of the group.<br><br>The fifth possibility named is the <b>alternative grading system<\/b>, a dichotomous two-point scale referable to the development or non-acquisition of a competency.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 757,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Direct grading, in which the examiner's impression is expressed at once in letter grades, is preferred for the assessment of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"non-cognitive outcomes of learning\",\r\n      \"cognitive outcomes of learning\",\r\n      \"psychomotor skills requiring demonstration\",\r\n      \"achievement in the language subjects\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) non-cognitive outcomes of learning<\/b><br><br>It <b>can be used for both cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes<\/b>, but is preferred for the latter, which may be listed stage-wise, assessed and reported separately in letter grades. A <b>three-point or five-point scale<\/b> is used according to the nature of the attribute.<br><br>Its merits are that it <b>minimises inter-examiner variability<\/b> and is easy to use. Its defects are three and are worth holding together: it <b>lacks a diagnostic role, discourages competition, and is devoid of transparency<\/b>.<br><br>In <b>indirect<\/b> grading, performance is assessed in marks which are then transformed into letter grades.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 758,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Under absolute grading as illustrated, a pupil securing 62 per cent would be placed in:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"distinction\",\r\n      \"the first division\",\r\n      \"the second division\",\r\n      \"the third division\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the first division<\/b><br><br>The bands given are: <b>distinction, 75 per cent and above; first division, 60 to 74; second division, 45 to 59; third division, 33 to 44; and unsatisfactory or fail, below 33<\/b>.<br><br>Absolute grading rests on a <b>predetermined standard<\/b>, which becomes the reference point, and involves the <b>direct conversion of marks into grades<\/b>.<br><br>The essential feature \u2014 and the source of both its strength and its weakness \u2014 is that <b>a pupil's grade depends on his own marks alone<\/b>, so that a whole class may in principle obtain a distinction, or none at all.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 759,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Relative grading is also known by which two other names?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Grading on the curve, and norm-referenced grading\",\r\n      \"Direct grading, and criterion-referenced grading\",\r\n      \"Absolute grading, and domain-referenced grading\",\r\n      \"Alternative grading, and competency-based grading\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Grading on the curve, and norm-referenced grading<\/b><br><br>The curve referred to is the <b>normal distribution curve<\/b>, and the method fixes <b>in advance what percentage of pupils are to receive each grade<\/b> with reference to a particular group.<br><br>The reasoning that justifies converting the obtained curve into a normal one is worth noting: <b>there is a difference between the true level of achievement and the perceived level yielded by tests<\/b>, and <b>true achievement is expected to be normally distributed in a large population irrespective of the curricular area<\/b>. The obtained curve, which may be skewed either way, is transformed accordingly.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 760,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In converting a transformed distribution into a nine-point grading scale, the mean and standard deviation used are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"5 and 2\",\r\n      \"5 and 1\",\r\n      \"3 and 1\",\r\n      \"50 and 10\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 5 and 2<\/b><br><br>Grade values then range from <b>1 to 9<\/b>, the scale being the <b>stanine<\/b>. It is formed by <b>combining the two tail categories at either end of an eleven-category distribution<\/b> to make nine \u2014 the same relation between the C-scale and the stanine met in the treatment of derived scores.<br><br><b>Option (C) gives the five-point scale<\/b>, where the measurement scale is divided into five equal parts, grade values run from 1 to 5, and the mean is <b>3<\/b> with a standard deviation of approximately <b>1<\/b> unit. A seven-point scale divides the scale into seven equal parts.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 761,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On the five-point grading scale, the percentages of cases assigned to grades A, C and E respectively are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"4, 20 and 4\",\r\n      \"7, 38 and 7\",\r\n      \"12, 30 and 12\",\r\n      \"24, 38 and 24\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 7, 38 and 7<\/b><br><br>The full five-point distribution is <b>7, 24, 38, 24 and 7<\/b> per cent, symmetrical about the middle grade and summing to 100.<br><br>The intervals producing it are stated in standard deviation units: <b>A above +1\u00b75\u03c3; B from +0\u00b75\u03c3 to +1\u00b75\u03c3; C from \u22120\u00b75\u03c3 to +0\u00b75\u03c3; D from \u22121\u00b75\u03c3 to \u22120\u00b75\u03c3; and E below \u22121\u00b75\u03c3<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (A) belongs to the nine-point scale<\/b>, whose distribution runs 4, 7, 12, 17, 20, 17, 12, 7, 4 \u2014 the stanine percentages. Confusing the two scales is the standing error here.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 762,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A pupil obtains grades A, B, A, B and A in five subjects on a five-point scale where A carries a grade value of 5. His grade point average is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"4\u00b70\",\r\n      \"4\u00b72\",\r\n      \"4\u00b76\",\r\n      \"4\u00b78\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 4\u00b76<\/b><br><br>Grade values: 5 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 5 = <b>23<\/b><br>G.P.A. = 23 \u00f7 5 = <b>4\u00b76<\/b><br><br>The grade point average is what allows <b>overall performance across all subjects to be compared<\/b>, which relative grading alone does not permit \u2014 it compares performance within and across subjects, but not in aggregate.<br><br>The same computation applies <b>whether the grading is on 5, 7 or 9 points<\/b>. A pupil graded B, B, C, A, A would obtain 4 + 4 + 3 + 5 + 5 = 21, giving a G.P.A. of <b>4\u00b72<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 763,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following advantages claimed for grading on the curve:<br>1. The pass-fail concept is eliminated, no grade indicating failure.<br>2. The difficulty of the test will not affect the distribution of grades.<br>3. Grades provide comparability across curricular areas, normal distribution ensuring uniformity in the spread of scores.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with three others: a pupil's grade <b>indicates his position relative to his group<\/b>; grades are <b>usable for recording the growth of individual pupils<\/b>; and they <b>provide for meaningful additivity to arrive at the G.P.A.<\/b><br><br>The second statement is the least obvious and the most useful. Because the percentages are fixed in advance, <b>a paper that turns out unexpectedly hard or easy produces the same grade distribution<\/b> \u2014 which removes at a stroke the injustice that a difficult paper otherwise works on a cohort.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 764,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The objection that grading on the curve fails to reward improved teaching and learning is illustrated by the case of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"an extraordinary group taught by a good teacher, which still receives the same percentage of As, Bs and Cs\",\r\n      \"a weak group taught by an indifferent teacher, in which every pupil is recorded as having failed\",\r\n      \"a class in which the marks happen to be distributed normally without any transformation\",\r\n      \"a subject in which the syllabus has been revised in the course of the year\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) an extraordinary group taught by a good teacher, which still receives the same percentage of As, Bs and Cs<\/b><br><br>However high the achievement of all or most of the pupils, <b>the preconceived number of cases must be placed in each grade<\/b>, so not all can obtain As, or As and Bs.<br><br>The companion objection is the same defect stated generally: <b>the percentages receiving each grade are pre-decided, and an individual's grade is settled by the performance of the group rather than by his own performance alone<\/b>.<br><br><b>Option (B) is impossible on this system<\/b>, since no grade indicates failure.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 765,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Methods of Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The stated limitation of the alternative grading system, a two-point scale recording the acquisition or non-acquisition of a competency, is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the level of the learner's competence is not known to other teachers\",\r\n      \"pupils must work towards the criteria under considerable pressure\",\r\n      \"the criteria cannot be settled in advance of the course being taught\",\r\n      \"pupils cannot be associated with the framing of the criteria at all\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) the level of the learner's competence is not known to other teachers<\/b><br><br>The reason is that <b>the learner might have met the criteria at the lowest acceptable level<\/b>, and a pass records nothing beyond the fact of passing.<br><br><b>Options (B) and (D) invert the stated advantages.<\/b> The merit of the system is precisely that a pupil <b>may work towards the criteria without pressure<\/b>, and that <b>pupils and teachers can work together to develop the criteria for the pass grade<\/b>.<br><br>The criteria for developing the competency are <b>predetermined<\/b>: if they are fulfilled the pupil passes, and otherwise fails.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 766,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Adoption of Grading in India\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements regarding the adoption of grading in Indian school education:<br>1. The grading system was introduced from Classes I to VIII in 2008-09 and later extended to Classes IX and X.<br>2. The Indian Certificate of Secondary Education examination had been using grades for a long time before this.<br>3. The Central Board of Secondary Education had earlier tried to introduce grades but reverted to marking.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated. The Board's earlier retreat came <b>in the wake of public opinion and resistance from the university system<\/b> \u2014 a reminder that a reform in school assessment cannot succeed while the institutions that receive the pupils continue to demand marks.<br><br>The stated purpose of extending grading to Classes IX and X was to <b>reduce examination pressure and give pupils an opportunity to explore other avenues<\/b>.<br><br>The need identified is for <b>creating awareness about the usefulness of grading among pupils, teachers, parents and the public at large<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 767,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Need for Grading\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following purposes served by grading:<br>1. It provides a permanent record of a pupil's growth, useful to institutions of higher learning and to prospective employers.<br>2. It is helpful in reviewing and adapting instructional strategies and the appropriateness of the curriculum.<br>3. It can be used to determine the grade point average for awarding scholarships.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with two others: grading <b>gives an account of the level of instructional objectives achieved<\/b>, useful to teachers and parents alike, and it <b>serves the school's own decisions on promotion and placement<\/b>.<br><br>The five purposes are worth noting for their range of audience \u2014 <b>the pupil's future institutions and employers, the teacher's own practice, the curriculum framers, and the school's internal administration<\/b>. A grading system that fails any one of these audiences fails as a system of communication.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 768,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Feedback\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Feedback given to a learner after an assessment is described as instructive because it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"tells the pupil how to improve, so that he can see his own progress\",\r\n      \"records the marks awarded against each part of the answer\",\r\n      \"informs the parents of the pupil's standing in the class\",\r\n      \"certifies that the pupil has completed the prescribed course\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) tells the pupil how to improve, so that he can see his own progress<\/b><br><br>Feedback is <b>the information teachers give learners about their performance on an assessment<\/b>, and where the teacher's role is seen as facilitating learning, <b>the feedback itself becomes an opportunity to learn<\/b>.<br><br>It should contain <b>constructive comments, suggestions for improvement, and acknowledgement of the learning and thinking shown<\/b> \u2014 and feedback about the pupil's <b>effort<\/b> as well as his product.<br><br>Among its stated effects: pupils <b>start thinking about the quality of their work<\/b>, all pupils <b>stay engaged<\/b>, and pupils <b>develop a positive feeling about themselves<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 769,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Feedback\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which one of the following is given as an example of the negative feedback that a teacher should avoid?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"'Pull up your socks.'\",\r\n      \"'I can see that you have tried very hard on this task.'\",\r\n      \"'Try writing this sentence so that it is clear you are disagreeing with the author.'\",\r\n      \"'You have not included any labels for the diagram; check your exercise book if you are having trouble.'\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 'Pull up your socks.'<\/b><br><br>The other three are given as examples of <b>positive feedback<\/b>, and the difference between them and the fourth is instructive: each names <b>either an effort to acknowledge or an action to take<\/b>, while the rejected form names only a deficiency.<br><br>Other examples of what to avoid are <b>'You can do better'<\/b> and <b>'You have been lazy'<\/b>.<br><br>The objection is that negative feedback <b>makes learners feel unsuccessful, ashamed and unable to do the work<\/b>, and instead of motivating them <b>pushes them away from the desired task<\/b>. It <b>may hurt some children deeply<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 770,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Feedback\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The requirement that feedback be timely is justified on the ground that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"learners should receive it while the memory of working on the task is still fresh\",\r\n      \"the marks must be entered in the school records before the term closes\",\r\n      \"delayed feedback cannot be related to the pupil's profile data\",\r\n      \"the assignment must be returned before the next one is set\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) learners should receive it while the memory of working on the task is still fresh<\/b><br><br>Where a teacher waits too long, learners <b>may not show much interest in the feedback, or may forget aspects of the work they did<\/b>, and so benefit less from it.<br><br>Two related directions are given for pupils at the extremes: those <b>falling behind need extra support<\/b>, and those <b>moving ahead of others need help to continue being challenged<\/b> \u2014 so that feedback is not merely a report on the middle of the class.<br><br>Feedback data is said to be <b>more useful where it can be related to pupil profile data<\/b> such as age, gender and background.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 771,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Feedback\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following purposes for which institutions collect student feedback:<br>1. Enhancing the pupils' experience of learning and teaching<br>2. Contributing to the monitoring and review of quality and standards<br>3. Enabling a dialogue with pupils and helping them reflect on their experiences<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>The first two are described as <b>the main purposes<\/b>; the third is among the further purposes cited, which also include <b>ensuring the effectiveness of course design and delivery, identifying good practice, measuring satisfaction, and contributing to staff development<\/b>.<br><br>A distinction of conception underlies the differences of emphasis. Some equate feedback with <b>satisfaction<\/b>; but feedback may equally be an account by pupils of <b>their own learning styles and study methods<\/b>, which calls for no evaluation or opinion from them at all, or their view of <b>whether their objectives were met<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 772,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Feedback\",\r\n    \"question\": \"As between the different users of student feedback, the class teacher is described as being more interested to know:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"how far the pupils understood the teaching, not whether they liked it\",\r\n      \"whether the programme as a whole cohered across its several modules\",\r\n      \"how the feedback compares with the institution's quality indicators\",\r\n      \"whether the learning objectives of the whole course had been met\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) how far the pupils understood the teaching, not whether they liked it<\/b><br><br>He looks to feedback for <b>endorsement of his teaching approach, but also for guidance on what worked and what did not, and how it might be improved next time<\/b>.<br><br><b>Options (B) and (D) belong to the course or programme team<\/b>, which looks for evidence that <b>learning objectives were met and that the programme cohered<\/b>. <b>Option (C) belongs to departmental and other committees<\/b>, which consider feedback <b>alongside a range of quality indicators<\/b> as part of institutional quality assurance.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 773,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 14: INTEGRATED EVALUATION, MARKING, GRADING AND FEEDBACK\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Marking, Grading and Reporting\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Grading and the Learning Context\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The argument advanced against traditional grading in terms of the learning context is that it:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"it imposes an outermost context of distrust framing all that follows\",\r\n      \"it prevents the teacher from computing a grade point average at all\",\r\n      \"it makes the comparison of pupils across different schools impossible\",\r\n      \"it requires the marks of every pupil to be published subject by subject\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) it imposes an outermost context of distrust framing all that follows<\/b><br><br>Even where an individual teacher builds a trusting environment, <b>the knowledge that grades will be recorded on a permanent, quasi-public transcript permeates pupils' consciousness at nearly every moment<\/b>.<br><br>The mechanism claimed is that in a context of distrust, <b>defensively protecting the ego becomes a survival strategy<\/b>, and challenge or criticism is met defensively rather than as a call to growth.<br><br>Fear-based learning <b>may look effective at first, because fear evokes keen attentiveness, but remains at the surface until the pressure is off<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 774,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Issues of Educational Testing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the limitations attributed to the traditional essay-type question paper, the objection that 'options are very often provided' refers to the practice of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"allowing pupils to select the subject in which they will be examined\",\r\n      \"supplying four alternatives from which the answer is to be chosen\",\r\n      \"asking pupils to attempt any five or six questions out of ten\",\r\n      \"permitting the examiner to choose between two marking schemes\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) asking pupils to attempt any five or six questions out of ten<\/b><br><br>The objection is one of nine. The traditional paper consists of a <b>very limited number of questions, from six to ten<\/b>; the questions <b>do not cover the major portion of the syllabus<\/b>; <b>the chance element predominates<\/b>; and the questions <b>mostly encourage memorisation and cramming<\/b>.<br><br>Directional words such as <b>'state', 'describe', 'explain', 'what do you know' and 'interpret'<\/b> make the paper vague, so that answers vary considerably; pupils depend on <b>guess work<\/b>; marking becomes <b>very subjective<\/b>; and its standardization becomes very difficult.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 775,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Issues of Educational Testing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The observation that the same script might receive a different mark if read after dinner instead of before it is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Scriven\",\r\n      \"Ebel\",\r\n      \"Harper\",\r\n      \"Vernon\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) Vernon<\/b><br><br>The remark is cited under the head of <b>subjectivity<\/b>, the subjective attitude of examiners influencing marks and producing great variability in marking.<br><br>The other criticisms grouped with it are the <b>lowering of moral standards<\/b>, examinations teaching pupils ways of becoming dishonest; the <b>ignoring of qualities of character<\/b>, since originality, truthfulness and sociability go untested; <b>heavy mental strain<\/b>, leading to strenuous work only near the examination; and the development of <b>frustration<\/b>, failure leading in some cases even to suicide.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 776,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Issues of Educational Testing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following, listed among the limitations of the present examination system:<br>1. Heavy weightage to verbal ability in many tests<br>2. Relative narrowness of the traits measured by tests<br>3. Undue influence of socio-cultural conditions on the testees<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are listed, along with <b>difficulty in obtaining level norms<\/b>, the <b>indifference and low motivation of pupils<\/b> which tends to invalidate results, the <b>difficulty of the testee in following the tester's directions<\/b>, and <b>low validity and reliability in the case of some pupils<\/b>.<br><br>The criticism is described as coming from every quarter for different reasons: <b>candidates because of its harmful influence on school work, parents because of the mental strain, teachers because of its injurious effect on children's health, psychologists because of its unreliability and invalidity, and educational theorists because of its lack of definiteness of aim<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 777,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Current Trends in Testing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the current trends in testing, the recommendation regarding the frequency of examination is that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"examinations should be conducted at the close of every unit of teaching\",\r\n      \"terminal examinations should be replaced by a single annual examination\",\r\n      \"no internal examination at all should be held in the course of the year\",\r\n      \"monthly tests should replace terminal ones, with a test at year's end\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) monthly tests should replace terminal ones, with a test at year's end<\/b><br><br>The full recommendation is that monthly tests replace terminal examinations, with a single <b>recapitulatory test<\/b> at the close of the year. The other trends run in the same direction of reform. <b>New types of test<\/b> should minimise the subjective element, essay questions being reduced and supplemented by objective ones; questions should be <b>thought-provoking and evenly distributed over the entire course<\/b>, so as to discourage cramming; and under the head of <b>balanced questions<\/b>, both difficult and easy questions should find a place, the paper being neither too difficult nor too easy.<br><br>A <b>standard of marking should be prescribed<\/b> so as to minimise variability.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 778,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Current Trends in Testing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The trend described as 'faith in the teacher' requires that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the teacher be relieved of all responsibility for evaluating his pupils\",\r\n      \"the teacher be permitted to set the question paper for the board exam\",\r\n      \"the teacher be trusted and given a fair chance to study his own pupils\",\r\n      \"the teacher's marks be accepted without any moderation whatever\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) the teacher be trusted and given a fair chance to study his own pupils<\/b><br><br>The same theme recurs, more sharply, among the issues of school-based assessment: unless the protagonists of reform develop <b>a deep conviction and full faith \u2014 not 20 or 25 per cent \u2014 in teachers' assessments<\/b>, a pedagogically sound system will be difficult to establish.<br><br>The companion trends are that <b>cumulative records be maintained for all pupils<\/b>, that <b>symbolic marking replace numerical marking<\/b> on a five-point scale, and that <b>oral examinations be held in addition to written ones<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 779,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Current Trends in Testing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"On the five-point symbolic marking scale proposed among the current trends, the letters A, C and E respectively stand for:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"outstanding, satisfactory, and unsatisfactory\",\r\n      \"excellent, good, and poor\",\r\n      \"very good, average, and fail\",\r\n      \"excellent, fair and average, and very poor\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) excellent, fair and average, and very poor<\/b><br><br>The full scale is <b>A for excellent, B for good, C for fair and average, D for poor and E for very poor<\/b>, and this five-point scale is described as <b>the best type of symbolic marking scale<\/b>.<br><br>The proposition governing all these trends is stated separately and is the one worth carrying into an interview: <b>examinations should be regarded as means and not as ends<\/b>. They should serve as a stimulus to learn new facts, gain new experience, discover weak points and estimate progress.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 780,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Current Trends in Testing\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The qualities said to be better tested by viva voce than by written examination include:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the capacity to organise ideas at length and to sustain an argument\",\r\n      \"speed of writing, legibility of handwriting and neatness of work\",\r\n      \"alertness, special interests, mental outlook and personal qualities\",\r\n      \"the ability to recall factual detail accurately under time pressure\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) alertness, special interests, mental outlook and personal qualities<\/b><br><br>His <b>mastery of acquired knowledge<\/b> is added to the list. The recommendation is that oral examinations be held <b>in addition to<\/b> the written ones, and that <b>external examinations be supplemented by viva voce tests where possible<\/b>.<br><br>The reason is the one already met in the treatment of oral tests: the examiner and the examinee being <b>face to face<\/b>, the examiner has an opportunity to observe personal qualities that a script cannot disclose.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 781,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Commissions on Examination Reform\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The Commission which stated that if only one suggestion were to be given for the improvement of higher education it would be the improvement of the examination was:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the Central Examination Unit\",\r\n      \"the Mudaliar Commission\",\r\n      \"the Kothari Commission\",\r\n      \"the Radhakrishnan Commission\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) The Radhakrishnan Commission<\/b><br><br>The University Education Commission of <b>1948-49<\/b> gave the highest priority to the improvement of examinations, being of the opinion that <b>all other improvements would follow of their own accord<\/b> once the examination system was improved.<br><br>The <b>Mudaliar Commission (1952-53)<\/b> made the corresponding recommendation for public examinations at the <b>secondary<\/b> level; the <b>Kothari Commission (1964-66)<\/b> considered the problem in depth; and the <b>National Policy on Education of 1968 and of 1986<\/b> both emphasised examination improvement.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 782,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Commissions on Examination Reform\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The body which in 1958 considered the merits and demerits of public examinations at the secondary level and gave several suggestions for their improvement was:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the University Grants Commission\",\r\n      \"the Central Examination Unit of the Union Ministry of Education\",\r\n      \"the National Council of Educational Research and Training\",\r\n      \"the Central Advisory Board of Education\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the Central Examination Unit of the Union Ministry of Education<\/b><br><br>Suggestions have since come from many quarters \u2014 <b>the Provincial Secondary Education Boards, the NCERT, the University Grants Commission<\/b> and various university committees \u2014 and some of the recommendations have been brought into force.<br><br>The date is worth fixing because it precedes the Kothari Commission by six years: examination reform in India has been under continuous official consideration since well before the major education commissions.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 783,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Commissions on Examination Reform\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are named among the experiments in examination reform that are said to have failed?<br>1. The semester system<br>2. The question bank<br>3. The book-examination system<br>4. Centralised evaluation of answer books\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder.<\/b> <b>Centralised evaluation of answer books<\/b> is listed among the reforms that have <b>proved very effective<\/b>, along with the administration of <b>oral, written and practical<\/b> examinations, the use of all three written forms, <b>care in constructing papers<\/b>, honesty in administration, and <b>declaring the use of unfair means a legal offence<\/b>.<br><br>The failed experiments named are the <b>semester system, internal and continuous evaluation, the question bank, the book-examination system and the grade system<\/b> \u2014 though the author records that some scholars still support them.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 784,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Commissions on Examination Reform\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the scheme of weightage recommended for public examinations, the proportion suggested for internal evaluation is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"to be fixed by each institution for itself\",\r\n      \"not less than 50 per cent\",\r\n      \"exactly one-third of the total\",\r\n      \"not more than 25 per cent\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) not more than 25 per cent<\/b><br><br>The recommendation is that <b>25 per cent weightage be given to each of four components \u2014 oral or practical, essay type, short answer type and objective type<\/b> \u2014 and that it <b>would not be justified to give more than 25 per cent weightage to internal evaluation<\/b>.<br><br>A further distinction is drawn by stage: oral or practical examinations should be <b>fully internal at the secondary level<\/b>, but at the graduate and postgraduate levels should be conducted <b>with the help of both internal and external examiners<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 785,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following objectives of educational assessment:<br>1. To make evaluation an integral part of the teaching-learning process<br>2. To make evaluation a cooperative and democratic process involving various stakeholders<br>3. To collect more valid and reliable evidence about the total development of the learner<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with preparing pupils for <b>the new pattern of competency-based teaching and competency-based assessment<\/b>, and forming sound judgments so as to <b>take timely decisions about learners' instruction and learning environments<\/b>.<br><br>The governing idea is <b>comprehensiveness<\/b> \u2014 the assessment of the whole child in relation to his total development \u2014 which is what determines the areas included in continuous and comprehensive evaluation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 786,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In assessing scholastic aspects, a pretest based on the learning competencies of Standard IV, administered before teaching a unit in Standard V, is described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"a diagnostic test\",\r\n      \"a criterion-referenced unit test\",\r\n      \"a readiness test\",\r\n      \"a summative test\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) a readiness test<\/b><br><br>Its object is to analyse <b>inadequacies in pupils' entry behaviour<\/b>, on the basis of which learning gaps are identified and <b>remedial teaching undertaken<\/b>.<br><br>The companion instrument is the <b>criterion-referenced unit test<\/b>, used at the end of each learning unit, written or oral, for <b>review and reinforcement<\/b>. It is built on the specific content elements of the unit and tests predetermined learning outcomes stated as competencies.<br><br>Its focus is on <b>diagnosis of inadequacies and improvement of achievement through remedial action<\/b>, so that most pupils acquire mastery.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 787,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are named among the non-scholastic aspects to be assessed under continuous and comprehensive evaluation?<br>1. Health habits, study habits and work habits<br>2. Character-building values such as cleanliness, truthfulness and cooperation<br>3. Participation in games, sports, cultural and community service activities<br>4. Achievement in the prescribed language and mathematics syllabus\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 belongs to the scholastic aspects.<\/b><br><br>The non-scholastic list further includes <b>physical health<\/b>, covering nutrition, physical fitness and the development of positive attitudes; <b>interests<\/b> in artistic, scientific, musical, literary and social service activities; and <b>attitudes<\/b> towards teachers, classmates, programmes and school property.<br><br>Co-curricular activities such as games, gardening, dancing, music and album-making are noted as involving the development of <b>psychomotor outcomes of learning<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 788,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Educational Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the code given below:<br><br>List I (Mode of assessment)<br>A. Rational mode<br>B. Formative mode<br>C. Summative mode<br><br>List II (Stage and nature)<br>1. Implementation stage; diagnostic in nature<br>2. Review stage; judgmental in nature<br>3. Planning stage; logical in nature\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"A-2, B-1, C-3\",\r\n      \"A-1, B-3, C-2\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-2, C-1\",\r\n      \"A-3, B-1, C-2\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) A-3, B-1, C-2<\/b><br><br>The <b>rational<\/b> mode is used at the planning stage, employing a participative methodology to obtain experts' opinion and arrive at <b>consensus<\/b>. The <b>formative<\/b> mode identifies inadequacies and weaknesses in programmes, strategies and materials. The <b>summative<\/b> mode judges the <b>efficacy and effectiveness of materials, strategies, programmes, outputs and collateral effects<\/b>.<br><br>The three are expressly <b>not exclusive but interrelated and interdependent<\/b>.<br><br>The four basic techniques employed throughout are <b>testing, observation, inquiry and analysis<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 789,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"School-Based Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The stumbling block identified in implementing school-based assessment is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the absence of any prescribed curriculum for the stage\",\r\n      \"the extreme subjectivity that reigns in internal assessment\",\r\n      \"the unwillingness of parents to accept internal marks\",\r\n      \"the shortage of printed answer books in the schools\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the extreme subjectivity that reigns in internal assessment<\/b><br><br>The remedies proposed are specific. For <b>scholastic<\/b> achievement, <b>multiple scoring, cooperative testing and quality question banks<\/b> must be developed and used. For <b>non-cognitive outcomes and personal-social qualities<\/b>, an <b>illuminative approach reflecting the multiple views of participant observers<\/b> must be used.<br><br>The other conditions of success named are a <b>theoretically sound, indigenous, growth-oriented model<\/b> of school-based assessment; a <b>common blueprint of CCE<\/b> across all schools of a board, without which comparability of attainment is impossible; and <b>continued motivation and recurrent training<\/b> for teachers.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 790,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Semester System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Under the semester system as described, a pupil failing in one subject in a semester is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"declared to have failed for the entire academic year\",\r\n      \"required to repeat the whole of that semester\",\r\n      \"admitted to the next semester and given a further opportunity\",\r\n      \"permitted to appear only at the end of the final semester\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) admitted to the next semester and given a further opportunity<\/b><br><br>Under this system a session is divided into two of <b>six months<\/b> each, so that a <b>three-year degree course becomes six semesters<\/b> and a two-year postgraduate course becomes four.<br><br>The chief merit claimed follows directly: <b>no examinee is declared failed, a whole year is not lost, and the difference is only of six months<\/b> even where the failure occurs in the final semester. The system is said thereby to <b>eradicate stagnation<\/b> in education.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 791,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Semester System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following merits claimed for the semester system:<br>1. Study work continues in the summer vacations for those who failed in earlier semesters.<br>2. Pupils have a limited course in each semester and can assimilate it better.<br>3. Teachers must work hard throughout the year, being bound to finish within a limited time.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with a fourth: pupils <b>attend classes regularly and involve themselves continuously, so that indiscipline is diminished<\/b>.<br><br>Against these stand four demerits. The system <b>can be used only in higher education where numbers are limited<\/b>, and not at the primary or secondary stage; it is <b>difficult to fix the curriculum of each semester<\/b> and hold examinations at the end of each; the number of pupils <b>reappearing to clear or improve papers is comparatively large<\/b>, making results a complex task; and pupils are <b>always under the hammer of examinations<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 792,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Semester System\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the comparison of the annual system with the semester system, the advantages claimed for the annual system include that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"pupils are required to retain a smaller quantity of material at any one time\",\r\n      \"the university gets time to set and value papers, and needs fewer examiners\",\r\n      \"specialisation within a single paper is much more easily accommodated\",\r\n      \"results are declared more frequently through the course of the academic year\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) the university gets time to set and value papers, and needs fewer examiners<\/b><br><br>The consequence is that the annual system is <b>more economical for universities<\/b>, and that <b>results can be announced in time and the schedule kept<\/b>.<br><br>Its corresponding burden falls on the pupil: the annual system <b>covers more syllabus at a stretch and compels the pupil to remember all of it till the end of the year<\/b>. And where specialisations exist, two or more topics may be combined in one paper \u2014 <b>which then has to be set by two examiners<\/b> \u2014 or else certain topics are omitted and <b>the syllabus diluted<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 793,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Continuous assessment is described as a classroom strategy in which the assessments used are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"tasks drawn from material the pupils have not yet been taught\",\r\n      \"standardized tests supplied by the examining board\",\r\n      \"curriculum-based tasks previously taught in class\",\r\n      \"questions selected at random from a published question bank\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) curriculum-based tasks previously taught in class<\/b><br><br>Assessments are administered <b>in a variety of ways over time<\/b>, so that the teacher may observe multiple tasks and collect information about what pupils know, understand and can do. It occurs <b>frequently during the school year and forms part of regular teacher-pupil interaction<\/b>.<br><br>The feedback allows pupils <b>to focus on topics they have not yet mastered<\/b>, and tells teachers <b>which pupils need review and remediation and which are ready for more complex work<\/b>.<br><br>The teacher may accordingly build <b>remediation activities for pupils below the expected grade level and enrichment activities for those at or above it<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 794,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The two major purposes which the addition of continuous assessment is intended to achieve are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"to relieve the teacher of marking, and to transfer it to an outside agency\",\r\n      \"to reduce the cost of examinations, and to shorten the time to results\",\r\n      \"to rank pupils more finely, and to select them for the higher courses\",\r\n      \"to improve validity and reliability, and to build sound work habits\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) to improve validity and reliability, and to build sound work habits<\/b><br><br>The criticism entered is that <b>the present system is essentially based on frequent test-taking and does not really serve either purpose<\/b>. Classroom tests assess <b>lower-level abilities and memorisation<\/b>, resting on <b>knowledge and comprehension<\/b> alone.<br><br>The consequence is stated sharply: education is then <b>unable to transform the pupil from the stage of 'knowledge recipient' to the status of 'knowledge producer and problem solver'<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 795,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The proposition that the average of scores from several assessments is a more reliable indicator of a pupil's performance than the score obtained in a single examination supports which feature of continuous assessment?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The use of different test forms and different test situations\",\r\n      \"A longer time for collecting assessment information\",\r\n      \"The inclusion of more complex thinking skills in the testing programme\",\r\n      \"The one-to-one communication between teacher and pupil\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) A longer time for collecting assessment information<\/b><br><br>Spreading assessments over a longer period allows the pupil to take tests and assignments at different times through the course, and <b>the average of those scores is more reliable than the score from a one-shot examination<\/b>.<br><br>The second feature follows from the first: extending the time span permits <b>different forms of testing and different assessment situations<\/b>, including the demonstration of practical skills \u2014 conducting interviews, writing and presenting reports, presenting data in graphical form, and producing three-dimensional objects \u2014 which yields <b>a more comprehensive and more valid assessment of ability<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 796,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following aims towards which the Continuous Assessment Process is geared:<br>1. Ensuring that all children learn by using a range of teaching and assessment<br>2. Informing on pupils' readiness for the next level of learning<br>3. Identifying challenges to learning and providing support for intervention and remediation<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated. The process is described as <b>a system for supporting and evaluating all teaching and learning activities in the school<\/b>.<br><br>The competencies it is meant to build are those on which <b>educators and business agree<\/b>: the ability to <b>think critically, solve problems, work both in groups and independently, combine knowledge and skills from different subjects, and communicate verbally and in writing<\/b>.<br><br>The justification offered is forward-looking: <b>all children must learn the basics and the higher-level skills, since fewer opportunities will be available for the unskilled<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 797,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The advantage of continuous assessment described as its being 'guidance oriented' rests on the fact that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"the assessment is conducted by an agency outside of the school\",\r\n      \"pupils are counselled individually by a trained guidance officer\",\r\n      \"the results are used to advise pupils upon the choice of a career\",\r\n      \"data gathered over a long period reaches teachers early enough to act\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) data gathered over a long period reaches teachers early enough to act<\/b><br><br>This is said to play a vital role in <b>diagnosing and remediating areas of learners' weaknesses, if properly anchored in what occurs in classrooms<\/b> \u2014 the qualification being important, since data unconnected to classroom practice guides nothing.<br><br>Continuous assessment is further described as an approach that <b>captures the full range of learners' performance<\/b>, so that teachers and administrators can assess progress and <b>have time to correct the problems<\/b>. It <b>places teachers at the centre<\/b> of the process.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 798,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Continuous Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the directions given to parents on homework under the continuous assessment process, which one is stated?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Complete the more difficult parts of the assignment for the child where he is unable to do so\",\r\n      \"Talk to the child daily about the assignments and ask questions, but do not do the homework for him\",\r\n      \"Set additional homework at home where the school has not set enough\",\r\n      \"Use homework as a penalty where the child has behaved badly at school\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) Talk to the child daily about the assignments and ask questions, but do not do the homework for him<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D) is expressly forbidden<\/b> \u2014 parents are told to <b>avoid making homework a punishment<\/b>.<br><br>The other directions are to help the child <b>develop a homework schedule he can keep to<\/b> and <b>manage his workload<\/b>; to provide <b>a suitable place for study, quiet and away from television, telephone or loud music<\/b>; to <b>emphasise effort and achievement, reward progress and display good work<\/b>; and, above all else, <b>to read to a young child or have him read to you every day<\/b>.<br><br>Homework is set because <b>practice is needed before children fully understand new skills<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 799,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Portfolio Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A portfolio is distinguished from the pile of pupil work that accumulates over a year in that it contains:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"only the work marked by an external examiner\",\r\n      \"only the work produced during the final term\",\r\n      \"a purposefully selected subset of the pupil's work\",\r\n      \"the work of several pupils arranged for comparison\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) a purposefully selected subset of the pupil's work<\/b><br><br>Selecting 'purposefully' means <b>deciding what type of story the portfolio is to tell<\/b>, and <b>all decisions about a portfolio assignment begin with that purpose<\/b>.<br><br>The definition given is that a portfolio is <b>a systematic collection of pupil work and related material depicting his activities, accomplishments and achievements in one or more school subjects<\/b>. It must include <b>evidence of reflection and self-evaluation, guidelines for selecting the contents, and criteria for judging the quality of the work<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 800,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Portfolio Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A portfolio that documents the stages of learning and provides a progressive record of a pupil's growth is termed:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"an evaluation portfolio\",\r\n      \"a product portfolio\",\r\n      \"a showcase portfolio\",\r\n      \"a process portfolio\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) a process portfolio<\/b><br><br>The two major types are <b>process and product<\/b>. A <b>product portfolio demonstrates mastery of a learning task or set of objectives and contains only the best work<\/b>.<br><br>Teachers use process portfolios to help pupils <b>identify learning goals, document progress over time and demonstrate mastery<\/b>, and are said <b>generally to prefer them<\/b>, being ideal for documenting the stages a pupil goes through.<br><br>By purpose rather than type, portfolios are created <b>to show growth, to showcase current abilities, or to evaluate cumulative achievement<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 801,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Portfolio Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"In the three-step process of building a portfolio, the element that many educators consider the most critical is:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"reflection on the samples of work and on the processes\",\r\n      \"selection of the contents of the portfolio\",\r\n      \"conferencing about the contents and processes\",\r\n      \"evaluation of the portfolio by an external audience\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) reflection on the samples of work and on the processes<\/b><br><br>The three steps are <b>selection, reflection and conferencing<\/b>, and the greatest attribute of the portfolio is said to be <b>its potential for focusing on the processes of learning<\/b>.<br><br>Selection is driven throughout by the identified purpose, and different purposes call for different samples. <b>External audiences are most likely to play a role for evaluation portfolios<\/b>.<br><br>Merely selecting samples can produce a meaningful story, but it is the pupil's own reflection that turns a collection into an assessment.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 802,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Portfolio Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following statements about portfolio assessment:<br>1. It promotes pupils' self-evaluation, reflection and critical thinking.<br>2. It enables teachers and pupils to share responsibility for setting learning goals.<br>3. It requires no more planning time than conventional assessment.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 1 and 2 only<\/b><br><br><b>Statement 3 \u2717<\/b> Portfolios <b>require extra time to plan an assessment system and conduct the assessment<\/b>.<br><br>Two further difficulties are stated: gathering all the necessary data and work samples <b>can make portfolios bulky and difficult to manage<\/b>, and <b>developing a systematic and deliberate management system is difficult<\/b> \u2014 yet that step is <b>necessary if portfolios are to be more than a random collection of pupil work<\/b>.<br><br>The remaining advantages are that portfolios <b>measure performance on genuine samples of work<\/b> and <b>provide flexibility in measuring how pupils accomplish their goals<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 803,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Portfolio Assessment\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The purpose of preparing a sample of best work for employment or college admission belongs to which category of portfolio?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"The growth portfolio\",\r\n      \"The showcase portfolio\",\r\n      \"The evaluation portfolio\",\r\n      \"The process portfolio\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) The showcase portfolio<\/b><br><br>It also serves <b>to showcase end-of-year accomplishments<\/b> and <b>the pupil's own perceptions of his favourite, best or most important work<\/b>.<br><br>A <b>growth portfolio<\/b> exists <b>to show growth or change over time<\/b>, to help develop process skills such as <b>self-evaluation and goal-setting<\/b>, to <b>identify strengths and weaknesses<\/b>, and to <b>track the development of one or more products<\/b>.<br><br>The distinction between growth and showcase is one of direction: the first looks back across the whole span, the second presents only the summit.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 804,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Question Bank\",\r\n    \"question\": \"A question bank is defined as a large database of suitable questions coded by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"subject area, level, objectives, difficulty and discriminating power\",\r\n      \"the name of the item writer, the date of writing and the school of origin\",\r\n      \"the marks carried, the printing cost and the paper it last appeared in\",\r\n      \"the number of candidates who attempted the item in the previous year\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) subject area, level, objectives, difficulty and discriminating power<\/b><br><br>Questions in a bank are commonly called <b>items<\/b>.<br><br>The need arises because tests must be revised frequently <b>to avoid setting a similar paper year after year<\/b>, and creating new papers manually is tedious: the setter must compose the questions, <b>determine their difficulty level and course coverage<\/b>, and ensure the test is neither too hard nor too easy. <b>Computerised question banking bypasses those steps.<\/b>\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 805,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Question Bank\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The course-wise blueprint for a term-end examination drawn from a question bank is defined primarily on three dimensions. These are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"question types, content blocks or units, and learner abilities\",\r\n      \"difficulty, discrimination, and distractor effectiveness\",\r\n      \"marks, time, and the number of candidates\",\r\n      \"objectives, content elements, and forms of question\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) question types, content blocks or units, and learner abilities<\/b><br><br>Before the blueprint is settled, <b>the evaluation pattern of the programme must be specified<\/b> \u2014 the courses and their contents, the objectives of assessment, the <b>weightage of internal and external assessment<\/b>, and the conflation and reporting procedure.<br><br><b>Option (D) is the near miss<\/b>: objectives, content elements and forms of question are the three dimensions of the <b>genotype of a single question<\/b>. The blueprint dimensions are the corresponding ones for a whole paper.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 806,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Question Bank\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The optimum target for the number of items to be held in a question bank for a course is generally taken as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"five times the number of items to be used in the question paper\",\r\n      \"ten times the number of items to be used in the question paper\",\r\n      \"twenty times the number of items to be used in the question paper\",\r\n      \"the same number as is to be used in the question paper\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) ten times the number of items to be used in the question paper<\/b><br><br>There is <b>no upper limit to the size of a question bank<\/b>.<br><br>Review, editing and revalidation of items are to be carried out <b>in the presence of the item writers themselves, under the guidance of content and evaluation specialists<\/b>.<br><br>The task groups are constituted deliberately: each is <b>headed by one faculty member from the school and consists of four to six persons<\/b> drawn from course writers, teacher-counsellors and experienced item writers from other institutions.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 807,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Question Bank\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following aspects in terms of which every item deposited in a question bank must be characterised:<br>1. The estimated level of difficulty from the point of view of the average learner<br>2. The time in minutes required for the answer<br>3. The level of educational objective it is intended to test<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with the <b>block, section, chapter and unit number of the book<\/b>; the <b>type of item and its sub-type<\/b>; the <b>maximum marks it should carry<\/b>; and the <b>synoptic points of answer and marking scheme for supply-type questions, with key answers for selection-type questions<\/b>.<br><br>The item writer indicates all these on an <b>item sheet<\/b>, which is finalised in the editing process. Items must further <b>pass through revalidation, particularly content and evaluation editing, at the time of being used for paper setting<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 808,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Question Bank\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Post-validation of the questions used in an examination involves determining descriptive statistics together with:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"item analysis, comparing performance on each item with the whole paper\",\r\n      \"the percentage of candidates who passed the examination in each subject\",\r\n      \"the cost incurred in printing and distributing the question paper\",\r\n      \"the opinion of the candidates on the fairness of the questions set\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) item analysis, comparing performance on each item with the whole paper<\/b><br><br>The descriptive statistics named are the <b>mean, standard deviation, marks distribution and standard error of measurement<\/b> of the marks secured.<br><br>The purpose is expressly forward-looking: this is <b>necessary feedback for the future improvement of the question bank<\/b>. An item bank that is never post-validated accumulates items whose properties are merely estimated, and the estimates are never corrected against how candidates actually behaved.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 809,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Information and Communication Technology\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The definition of information technology as the scientific, technological and engineering disciplines and management techniques used in information handling and processing, and their interaction with men and machines, is attributed to:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"UNESCO\",\r\n      \"the OECD\",\r\n      \"Smith and Cambell\",\r\n      \"Darnton and Giacoletto\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) UNESCO<\/b><br><br>The definition extends to <b>the associated social, economic and cultural matters<\/b>.<br><br><b>Smith and Cambell (1982)<\/b> described a <b>mosaic of technologies, products and techniques<\/b> combining to give new electronic dimensions to information management. The <b>OECD (1987)<\/b> treated it as covering technologies used in the <b>collection, processing and transmission of information<\/b>. <b>Darnton and Giacoletto (1992)<\/b> defined it as the systematic study of artifacts that <b>give form to facts so as to support decision making<\/b>.<br><br>Information technology was born of the <b>networking of computers<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 810,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Information and Communication Technology\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The relation between information technology and information and communication technology is expressed by the proposition that:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"ICT is IT together with other media, IT having been limited to the textual mode\",\r\n      \"IT is ICT together with other media, ICT having been limited to the textual mode\",\r\n      \"the two terms are interchangeable and describe the same set of technologies\",\r\n      \"ICT preceded IT and was superseded by it once computers were networked\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) ICT is IT together with other media, IT having been limited to the textual mode<\/b><br><br>Information technology transmitted information <b>in textual form with ease and speed<\/b>; but information in <b>audio, video or any other medium<\/b> also has to reach the user.<br><br>The addition opened new avenues \u2014 <b>online learning, e-learning, the virtual university, e-coaching, e-education and the e-journal<\/b> \u2014 and third-generation mobiles are counted part of it.<br><br>Its educational value is that it <b>provides opportunity for the learner to use the maximum number of senses<\/b>, and breaks the monotony of the teaching-learning situation.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 811,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Information and Communication Technology\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Which of the following are named among the areas in which information and communication technology may be used at school and higher education levels?<br>1. Diagnostic testing and evaluation<br>2. Development of a virtual laboratory and online tutoring<br>3. Development of reasoning and thinking<br>4. Fixing the pass percentage for the board examination\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 3 and 4 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 4 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 1, 2 and 3 only<\/b><br><br><b>Item 4 is the intruder<\/b> \u2014 a policy decision, not an application of technology.<br><br>The full list further includes <b>teaching, psychological testing and instructional material development<\/b>.<br><br>The argument for using technology in teaching is candid about the limits of the present arrangement: with existing infrastructure, class size and teacher training it is <b>difficult to achieve all the objectives of teaching<\/b>, and <b>most teachers use the lecture method, which has little potential for achieving most of them<\/b>. Nor can any single teacher give complete and up-to-date information in his own subject.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 812,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Computers in Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The Computer Based Test in Research Methodology and Statistics, titled 'Test Your Understanding', was developed in 2006 by:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Sansanwal and Dahiya\",\r\n      \"Smith and Cambell\",\r\n      \"Darnton and Giacoletto\",\r\n      \"Blood and Budd\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Sansanwal and Dahiya<\/b><br><br>Its significance lies in what it does for the learner: the pupil <b>can instantaneously get feedback about the status of his understanding, and where the answer is wrong he can even obtain the correct answer<\/b>. The <b>teacher has no role to play in it<\/b>.<br><br>The defect it addresses is that ordinary paper-pencil tests are conducted in a group setting, <b>their content coverage is poor, pupils cannot use them on their own<\/b>, and teachers <b>may not give feedback immediately to every pupil<\/b> \u2014 so that pupils never learn their weaknesses.<br><br>Such tests may be <b>uploaded on a website<\/b> for wider use, and may equally be used by <b>teachers to assess their own understanding before teaching a topic<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 813,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"Computers in Evaluation\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following limitations stated in respect of computer-based diagnostic testing:<br>1. Technical problems may crop up which distract the learner while taking the test.<br>2. All teachers may not be competent to develop such a test.<br>3. Teachers may not know the computer languages used in developing it.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 1,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: B) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, and they fall into two classes worth distinguishing \u2014 one is a defect of <b>the medium<\/b>, and two are defects of <b>teacher capacity<\/b>.<br><br>Similar reasons are given for the earlier disappointment with computer-assisted instruction: those developing it <b>lacked a sound base in instructional design<\/b>, courses were changing, <b>schools lacked sufficient computer facilities<\/b>, and <b>teachers were not trained<\/b> in its use.<br><br>Once diagnosis has been made, ICT may be used to deliver <b>individual remedial programmes, online or offline<\/b>, where a group remedial programme is not feasible.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 814,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"CBSE Grading and CCE\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Under the grading system for scholastic assessment, marks of 91 to 100 correspond to grade A1 with a grade point of:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"8\",\r\n      \"9\",\r\n      \"10\",\r\n      \"12\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 2,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: C) 10<\/b><br><br>The scale descends in bands of ten marks: <b>81-90 is A2 with grade point 9; 71-80 is B1 with 8; 61-70 is B2 with 7; 51-60 is C1 with 6; 41-50 is C2 with 5; and 33-40 is D with 4<\/b>. The bands <b>21-32 (E1) and 20 and below (E2) carry no grade point<\/b>.<br><br>The effect of the nine-point scale is that it <b>diminishes the difference between a pupil scoring 99 per cent and one scoring 91 per cent \u2014 both receive A1<\/b>.<br><br>In <b>co-scholastic<\/b> areas the grades awarded are <b>A+, A, B+, B and C<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 815,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"CBSE Grading and CCE\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Under the grading system introduced by the Board, a candidate who does not qualify receives a result described as:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"eligible for improvement of performance\",\r\n      \"compartment in the subjects not cleared\",\r\n      \"failed with permission to reappear\",\r\n      \"detained in the same class for the year\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) eligible for improvement of performance<\/b><br><br>Results are issued in two forms \u2014 <b>'Eligible for qualifying certificate' (QUAL)<\/b> and <b>'Eligible for improvement of performance' (EIOP)<\/b> \u2014 and <b>no pupil gets a compartment or is declared failed<\/b>.<br><br>The consequence is substantial: even a candidate who does not qualify in <b>any<\/b> subject <b>has five chances to improve his performance without having to repeat a year<\/b>.<br><br>The Ministry of Human Resource Development and the Board made the <b>board examination optional from 2010-11<\/b>, introducing continuous and comprehensive evaluation based wholly on grades.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 816,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"CBSE Grading and CCE\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Under the scheme of formative and summative evaluation described, the marks carried by the first and second term-end examinations respectively are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"20 and 40\",\r\n      \"40 and 20\",\r\n      \"30 and 30\",\r\n      \"25 and 50\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) 20 and 40<\/b><br><br>Continuous and comprehensive evaluation is <b>based on a twice-a-year system, two terms in one academic session<\/b>. <b>Formative<\/b> evaluation grades <b>class work, homework, assignments and project work<\/b>, and there is <b>one term-end examination for each term<\/b>. <b>Summative<\/b> evaluation rests on the term-end examinations, there being <b>two academic evaluations in the session, the final result being the sum of both<\/b>.<br><br>Grades in scholastic areas are decided <b>on the basis of both formative and summative evaluation<\/b>, and never on either alone.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 817,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"CBSE Grading and CCE\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Consider the following merits claimed for the grading system:<br>1. It helps in eliminating unhealthy competition among high achievers.<br>2. It works as a common scale for comparing achievement across different subjects and faculties.<br>3. It minimises the discrimination of pupils on the basis of marks.<br>Which of the statements given above are correct?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"1 and 2 only\",\r\n      \"1 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"2 and 3 only\",\r\n      \"1, 2 and 3\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 3,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: D) 1, 2 and 3<\/b><br><br>All three are stated, along with five others: grading is <b>useful in comparing the results of various examining institutions<\/b>; it is a <b>more reliable technique of evaluation<\/b>; it <b>helps pupils select future courses according to aptitude and ability<\/b>; it <b>provides flexibility by reducing the pressure of competition<\/b>; and it <b>creates a stress-free learning environment with a feeling of positive competition<\/b>.<br><br>The requirement attached is that a grading system <b>be comprehensive and take account of all aspects of a pupil's development, besides the marks scored<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 818,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"CBSE Grading and CCE\",\r\n    \"question\": \"Among the steps prescribed for building an effective all-round grading system, which one is stated?\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Teachers must collaborate and frame the system jointly, so that every teaching style is included\",\r\n      \"Each teacher must frame his own system for the subject he teaches\",\r\n      \"The system must be settled by the examining board without reference to the school\",\r\n      \"The basic points of the system must be withheld from pupils until the results are declared\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Teachers must collaborate and frame the system jointly, so that every teaching style is included<\/b><br><br><b>Option (D) inverts a stated requirement<\/b>: the basic points of the system <b>should be shared with pupils, so that they know how to improve their grades and on which areas to focus<\/b>.<br><br>The remaining steps are that <b>all class projects, unit tests and homework assignments be factored in<\/b>, each assigned a percentage according to its learning value and <b>the total adding up to 100 per cent<\/b>; that a section <b>list the penalty deductions<\/b> for lateness, sloppy work and lack of concentration; and that <b>exceptional performance be rewarded<\/b>.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 819,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"CBSE Grading and CCE\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The provision that has barred the detention or expulsion of a child and disallowed the conduct of board examinations until elementary schooling is completed is contained in:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"Section 13 of the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act\",\r\n      \"Section 13 of the Right to Information Act of the year 2005\",\r\n      \"the National Policy on Education as revised in the year 1986\",\r\n      \"the guidelines framed under the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan scheme\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) Section 13 of the Right to Free and Compulsory Education Act<\/b><br><br>The section also <b>bans any kind of screening procedure for children and parents at the time of admission<\/b>, and the bar on board examinations runs <b>until the child completes Class VIII<\/b>.<br><br>The stated purpose is to give the child <b>adequate time to develop his learning and understanding fully<\/b>, through an enabling educational environment and through <b>a system of continuous and comprehensive assessment which enhances learning<\/b>.<br><br><b>Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan<\/b> is named separately as the main programme for universalising elementary education.\"\r\n  },\r\n  {\r\n    \"id\": 820,\r\n    \"chapter\": \"CH 15: EXAMINATION REFORM, CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT, PORTFOLIO, QUESTION BANK AND COMPUTERS IN EVALUATION\",\r\n    \"topic\": \"Examination Reform and Evaluation Practice\",\r\n    \"subtopic\": \"CBSE Grading and CCE\",\r\n    \"question\": \"The assessment of life skills under the grading system covers three categories of skills. These are:\",\r\n    \"options\": [\r\n      \"thinking skills, social skills and emotional skills\",\r\n      \"reading skills, writing skills and numerical skills\",\r\n      \"manual skills, verbal skills and organisational skills\",\r\n      \"study skills, work skills and health skills\"\r\n    ],\r\n    \"correct\": 0,\r\n    \"explanation\": \"<b>Correct Answer: A) thinking skills, social skills and emotional skills<\/b><br><br>Under <b>thinking skills<\/b>, a pupil demonstrates the ability to <b>be original, flexible and imaginative; raise questions and analyse problems; implement a well-thought-out decision and take responsibility; generate new ideas with fluency; and build on new ideas<\/b>.<br><br>Under <b>social skills<\/b>, he demonstrates the ability to <b>respond to others' emotions empathetically, get along with others, take criticism positively, listen actively, and communicate using appropriate words, intonation and body language<\/b>.<br><br>Life skills form part of the wider <b>scholastic evaluation<\/b>, which also covers work experience, physical and health education, art education, attitudes and values, and outdoor activities.\"\r\n  }\r\n];\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   4. SANITISE + INDEX\r\n   One malformed row used to blank the whole widget. Bad rows are now\r\n   dropped with a console note; everything else still works.\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction sanitise(list){\r\n  if(!Array.isArray(list)) return [];\r\n  const ok=[], bad=[];\r\n  list.forEach((q,i)=>{\r\n    const good = q && q.id!==undefined && typeof q.question==='string'\r\n      && Array.isArray(q.options) && q.options.length>=2\r\n      && Number.isInteger(q.correct) && q.correct>=0 && q.correct<q.options.length\r\n      && typeof q.chapter==='string' && q.chapter.length;\r\n    good ? ok.push(q) : bad.push({row:i, id:q&&q.id});\r\n  });\r\n  if(bad.length) console.warn('[chapter bank] skipped '+bad.length+' malformed question(s):', bad);\r\n  return ok;\r\n}\r\nconst QS = sanitise(chapterQuestions);\r\nconst CHAPTERS = [...new Set(QS.map(q=>q.chapter))];\r\nconst uid = q => q.chapter+'##'+q.id;\r\nconst BY_UID = new Map(QS.map(q=>[uid(q), q]));\r\nconst BY_CH  = (()=>{ const m=new Map(); QS.forEach(q=>{ if(!m.has(q.chapter)) m.set(q.chapter,[]); m.get(q.chapter).push(q); }); return m; })();\r\nconst inCh = c => BY_CH.get(c) || [];\r\nconst L = ['A','B','C','D','E','F'];\r\n\r\n\/* ---- chapter label helpers ---- *\/\r\nconst chShort = c => { const m=c.match(\/^CH\\s*(\\d+)\\s*:\/i); return m ? 'Ch '+m[1] : (c.length>26 ? c.slice(0,24).trim()+'\u2026' : c); };\r\n\/* chapters list in their own order \u2014 Ch 1..n, then Appendix 1..n, then anything\r\n   else alphabetically \u2014 never by score, so the list never shuffles under you *\/\r\nconst ROMAN = {i:1,ii:2,iii:3,iv:4,v:5,vi:6,vii:7,viii:8,ix:9,x:10,xi:11,xii:12};\r\nfunction chOrder(c){\r\n  const t=c.trim();\r\n  let m=t.match(\/^(?:CH|CHAPTER)\\s*[-\u2013]?\\s*(\\d+)\/i);\r\n  if(m) return [0, +m[1], t];\r\n  m=t.match(\/^APPENDIX\\s*[-\u2013]?\\s*([0-9]+|[ivxIVX]+)\\b\/i);\r\n  if(m){ const v=m[1]; return [1, \/^\\d+$\/.test(v) ? +v : (ROMAN[v.toLowerCase()]||99), t]; }\r\n  m=t.match(\/^(\\d+)\/);\r\n  if(m) return [0, +m[1], t];\r\n  return [2, 0, t];\r\n}\r\nfunction byChapterOrder(a,b){\r\n  const x=chOrder(a.chapter||a), y=chOrder(b.chapter||b);\r\n  return x[0]-y[0] || x[1]-y[1] || x[2].localeCompare(y[2]);\r\n}\r\n\/* a bank that stores chapter names in block capitals is softened for display *\/\r\nfunction titleCase(str){\r\n  const t=String(str);\r\n  const letters=t.replace(\/[^A-Za-z]\/g,'');\r\n  if(!letters || letters !== letters.toUpperCase()) return t;   \/\/ already mixed case, leave it\r\n  const small=new Set(['of','the','and','for','in','to','a','an','on','by','or','with','from','as','at','under']);\r\n  return t.toLowerCase().replace(\/[A-Za-z][A-Za-z'\u2019]*\/g,(w,i)=>\r\n    (i>0 && small.has(w)) ? w : w.charAt(0).toUpperCase()+w.slice(1))\r\n    .replace(\/\\bCh\\b\/g,'Ch').replace(\/\\bC&ag\\b\/gi,'C&AG').replace(\/\\bDpc\\b\/g,'DPC');\r\n}\r\nconst chBrief = c => { const m=c.match(\/^CH\\s*(\\d+)\\s*:\\s*(.+)$\/i);\r\n  const cap=t=>t.length>36?t.slice(0,34).trim()+'\u2026':t;\r\n  return m ? 'Ch '+m[1]+': '+cap(titleCase(m[2])) : cap(titleCase(c)); };\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   5. RANKING ENGINE\r\n   Importance where you have rated a chapter; share of the bank where you\r\n   have not. Either way the result is a share of 1, and every label on the\r\n   page is drawn from the T table below so nothing over-claims.\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\n\/* ---------------------------------------------------------------------\r\n   Matching your importance keys to the chapter strings in the bank.\r\n   Exact spelling is not required. Anything starting with a chapter or an\r\n   appendix number is reduced to a token \u2014 'CH 2', 'Ch-2', 'Chapter 2:\r\n   General Outlines...' all become CH2 \u2014 so a short key in the map finds\r\n   a long chapter name in the bank. Keys with no number fall back to a\r\n   loose text match (case, punctuation and spacing ignored).\r\n   --------------------------------------------------------------------- *\/\r\nfunction impKey(str){\r\n  const t = String(str).toUpperCase().replace(\/[\\u2010-\\u2015]\/g,'-').trim();\r\n  let m = t.match(\/^(?:CH|CHAP|CHAPTER)\\s*[-.:]?\\s*(\\d+)\/);\r\n  if(m) return 'CH'+(+m[1]);\r\n  \/\/ longest spellings first, or 'APPX 5' reads its own X as a roman numeral\r\n  m = t.match(\/^(?:APPENDICES|APPENDIX|ANNEXURES?|ANNEXES?|APNDX|APPX|APDX|APP)\\s*[-.:]?\\s*(\\d+|[IVX]+)\\b\/);\r\n  if(m){ const v=m[1]; return 'APP'+(\/^\\d+$\/.test(v) ? +v : (ROMAN[v.toLowerCase()]||v)); }\r\n  m = t.match(\/^(\\d+)\\s*[-.:)]\/);\r\n  if(m) return 'CH'+(+m[1]);\r\n  return 'T:'+t.replace(\/[^A-Z0-9]+\/g,' ').trim();\r\n}\r\nconst IMP_INDEX = (function(){\r\n  const idx={}, used={};\r\n  Object.keys(chapterImportance).forEach(k=>{\r\n    const v = chapterImportance[k];\r\n    if(typeof v!=='number' || !isFinite(v) || v<0) return;\r\n    const key = impKey(k);\r\n    if(idx[key]!==undefined) console.warn('[importance] two keys collapse to the same chapter: '+k);\r\n    idx[key] = v; used[key] = k;\r\n  });\r\n  return {idx, used};\r\n})();\r\nfunction importanceOf(chapter){\r\n  const k = impKey(chapter);\r\n  if(IMP_INDEX.idx[k]!==undefined) return {value:IMP_INDEX.idx[k], key:k};\r\n  \/\/ last resort for un-numbered names: one contains the other\r\n  if(k.startsWith('T:')){\r\n    const target = k.slice(2);\r\n    const hit = Object.keys(IMP_INDEX.idx).filter(x=>x.startsWith('T:')).find(x=>{\r\n      const a=x.slice(2);\r\n      return a.length>3 && target.length>3 && (target.startsWith(a) || a.startsWith(target));\r\n    });\r\n    if(hit) return {value:IMP_INDEX.idx[hit], key:hit};\r\n  }\r\n  return null;\r\n}\r\n\r\nconst W = (function(){\r\n  const counts={}, total=QS.length;\r\n  QS.forEach(q=>counts[q.chapter]=(counts[q.chapter]||0)+1);\r\n  const raw={}, source={}, derived=[];\r\n  let knownSum=0, knownShare=0;\r\n\r\n  const matched = new Set();\r\n  CHAPTERS.forEach(c=>{\r\n    const hit = importanceOf(c);\r\n    if(hit){\r\n      raw[c]=hit.value; source[c]='rated'; matched.add(hit.key);\r\n      knownSum+=hit.value; knownShare += total?counts[c]\/total:0;\r\n    } else { source[c]='derived'; derived.push(c); }\r\n  });\r\n  const scale = (knownSum>0 && knownShare>0) ? knownSum\/knownShare : 1;\r\n  derived.forEach(c => raw[c] = (total?counts[c]\/total:0)*scale);\r\n  let sum=0; CHAPTERS.forEach(c=>sum+=raw[c]);\r\n  if(!(sum>0)){ CHAPTERS.forEach(c=>{ raw[c]= total?counts[c]\/total:0; source[c]='derived'; }); sum=CHAPTERS.reduce((a,c)=>a+raw[c],0)||1; }\r\n  const weights={}; CHAPTERS.forEach(c=>weights[c]=raw[c]\/sum);\r\n  \/\/ keys you rated that never found a chapter in the bank\r\n  const unmatched = Object.keys(IMP_INDEX.idx).filter(k=>!matched.has(k)).map(k=>IMP_INDEX.used[k]);\r\n  return {weights, raw, source, counts, total, derived, unstocked:unmatched,\r\n          rated: CHAPTERS.some(c=>source[c]==='rated')};\r\n})();\r\nconst weightOf = c => W.weights[c] || 0;\r\nconst pctLabel = x => { const v=(x||0)*100; if(!(v>0)) return '0%';\r\n  return (v<10 ? Math.round(v*10)\/10 : Math.round(v)) + '%'; };\r\n\r\n\/* every phrase that could over-claim lives here, in one place *\/\r\nconst WT = W.rated;                       \/\/ is any chapter rated by hand?\r\nconst T = {\r\n  chipUnit  : ' importance',\r\n  onScreen  : WT ? 'Importance on screen' : 'Share on screen',\r\n  colWeight : 'Importance',\r\n  covered   : WT ? 'Weighted coverage'    : 'Bank covered',\r\n  projected : 'Projected score',\r\n  leakHead  : 'Where you are losing the most',\r\n  leakUnit  : 'points \/100',\r\n  leakWord  : 'points',\r\n  readyDef  : WT ? 'Readiness = \u03a3 (importance \u00d7 mastery)' : 'Readiness = \u03a3 (share of the bank \u00d7 mastery)',\r\n  paperOut  : 'you would score around'\r\n};\r\n\/\/ \"rated 15% importance\" where you have rated it; nothing where you have not\r\nconst impPhrase = r => W.source[r.chapter]==='rated'\r\n  ? 'rated <b>'+pctLabel(r.weight)+'<\/b> importance' : '';\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   6. PROGRESS (localStorage, one record per quizId)\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst SCHEMA = 1;\r\nconst KEY = 'pe_chapterdrill_' + CFG.quizId;\r\nfunction blank(){ return { schema:SCHEMA, stats:{}, weak:[], flags:[], log:[], queue:[], queueLabel:'', queueKind:'', lastUid:null, resume:null }; }\r\nlet P = (function(){\r\n  const p = blank();\r\n  try{\r\n    const s = localStorage.getItem(KEY);\r\n    if(s){ const j=JSON.parse(s);\r\n      if(j && j.schema===SCHEMA) Object.assign(p, j);\r\n      else if(j) console.warn('[storage] older schema found; starting fresh.');\r\n    }\r\n  }catch(e){ console.warn('progress load failed', e); }\r\n  ['weak','flags','log','queue'].forEach(k=>{ if(!Array.isArray(p[k])) p[k]=[]; });\r\n  if(!p.stats) p.stats={};\r\n  return p;\r\n})();\r\nlet storageWarned=false;\r\nfunction save(){\r\n  try{\r\n    if(P.log.length>400) P.log = P.log.slice(-400);\r\n    localStorage.setItem(KEY, JSON.stringify(P));\r\n  }catch(e){\r\n    try{ P.log = P.log.slice(-80); localStorage.setItem(KEY, JSON.stringify(P)); }\r\n    catch(e2){ if(!storageWarned){ storageWarned=true; toast('Your browser is blocking saved progress \u2014 this sitting will not be remembered'); } }\r\n  }\r\n}\r\nfunction stat(u){ if(!P.stats[u]) P.stats[u]={correct:0,incorrect:0,last:null,lastOk:null}; return P.stats[u]; }\r\n\/* A uid is chapter + '##' + id, so renaming a chapter or re-numbering a\r\n   question orphans anything saved against the old uid. Left alone, an\r\n   orphan still counts on the Flagged pill but matches nothing in the\r\n   pool \u2014 the count says 1, the list comes back empty. Drop them here. *\/\r\n(function pruneOrphans(){\r\n  const gone = [];\r\n  ['flags','queue'].forEach(k=>{\r\n    const before = (P[k]||[]).length;\r\n    P[k] = (P[k]||[]).filter(u=>BY_UID.has(u));\r\n    if(P[k].length !== before) gone.push(k+': '+(before-P[k].length));\r\n  });\r\n  if(P.resume && P.resume.uid && !BY_UID.has(P.resume.uid)) P.resume = null;\r\n  if(gone.length){ save(); console.info('[storage] dropped entries for questions no longer in the bank \u2014 '+gone.join(', ')); }\r\n})();\r\nconst flags = new Set(P.flags);\r\nconst weak  = new Set(P.weak);\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   7. SESSION STATE\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst S = { tab:'quiz', filter:'all', chapter:null, i:0, pick:null, nudge:false,\r\n            query:'', unattempted:false, ans:{}, order:[] };\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   8. FORMAT + TRAIT MODEL\r\n   SHAPE  = how the question is built (one per question)\r\n   TRAIT  = what it turns on (a question may carry several)\r\n   A shape gap is a reading habit; a trait gap is recall. Same number,\r\n   opposite remedy \u2014 so they are reported separately.\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst SHAPES = [\r\n  { key:'match',  label:'Match the following (List-I \/ List-II)',\r\n    test:q => \/list\\s*-?\\s*i\\b\/i.test(q.question) },\r\n  { key:'multi',  label:'Multi-statement \/ how many are correct',\r\n    test:q => q.question.split(\/<br\\s*\\\/?>|\\n\/).filter(x=>\/^\\s*\\d+[.)]\/.test(x)).length>=2 },\r\n  { key:'direct', label:'Explanation', test:()=>true }  \/\/ catch-all\r\n];\r\nconst TRAITS = [\r\n  { key:'cite',      label:'Para, rule, article or article-number recall',\r\n    test:q => \/\\b(para|paragraph|rule|article|section|appendix|schedule|clause)\\s*[-\u2013]?\\s*\\d\/i.test(q.question+' '+q.options.join(' ')) },\r\n  { key:'period',    label:'Time limits and periods',\r\n    test:q => \/\\b\\d+\\s*(day|week|month|year|hour)s?\\b|\\b(one|two|three|four|five|six|seven|ten|fourteen|fifteen|twenty|twenty-five|thirty|forty-five|sixty|ninety)[\\s-](day|week|month|year)s?\\b\/i.test(q.options.join(' ')) },\r\n  { key:'money',     label:'Numbers, monetary limits and percentages',\r\n    test:q => \/\u20b9|\\bRs\\.?\\s*\\d|\\blakhs?\\b|\\bcrores?\\b|per\\s*cent|%|\\bone-(third|fourth|half|tenth)\\b\/i.test(q.options.join(' ')) },\r\n  { key:'authority', label:'Competent authority \/ level \/ who does what',\r\n    test:q => \/\\bwho\\b|\\bby whom\\b|\\bauthority\\b|\\brank of\\b|\\blevel of\\b|\\bnot below\\b|addressed to|shall be (signed|issued|approved|maintained|prepared|submitted)\/i.test(q.question+' '+q.options.join(' ')) },\r\n  { key:'negative',  label:'Negatively phrased (\u201cNOT correct\u201d, \u201cexcept\u201d)',\r\n    test:q => \/\\bnot correct\\b|\\bis incorrect\\b|\\bare not correct\\b|\\bexcept\\b|\\bdoes not\\b|\\bcannot\\b|\\bnot required\\b|\\bneed not\\b|\\bis\\\/are not\\b\/i.test(q.question) }\r\n];\r\nconst _shape = {};\r\nfunction shapeOf(q){ const u=uid(q); return _shape[u] || (_shape[u] = SHAPES.find(s=>s.test(q)) || SHAPES[SHAPES.length-1]); }\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   9. MODELS\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction smoothed(c,i){ const k=CFG.priorStrength, p0=CFG.priorAccuracy; return (c + k*p0)\/(c + i + k); }\r\nfunction expectedRate(c,i,coverage){ return smoothed(c,i)*coverage + CFG.priorAccuracy*(1-coverage); }\r\nfunction recall(st){\r\n  if(!st || !st.last || st.correct<2) return null;\r\n  const R=CFG.retention, reps=Math.max(1, st.correct - st.incorrect);\r\n  const stability = R.baseDays * Math.pow(R.growth, reps-1);\r\n  return Math.exp(-((Date.now()-st.last)\/86400000)\/stability);\r\n}\r\nfunction retentionIndex(){\r\n  let s=0,n=0; QS.forEach(q=>{ const r=recall(P.stats[uid(q)]); if(r!==null){s+=r;n++;} });\r\n  return n ? Math.round(s\/n*100) : null;\r\n}\r\nfunction chapterRows(){\r\n  return CHAPTERS.map(c=>{\r\n    const qs=inCh(c), n=qs.length;\r\n    let att=0, ok=0, bad=0, mastSum=0;\r\n    qs.forEach(q=>{ const s=P.stats[uid(q)];\r\n      if(s && (s.correct+s.incorrect)>0){ att++; ok+=s.correct; bad+=s.incorrect; }\r\n      mastSum += s ? Math.min(s.correct\/CFG.masteryThreshold,1) : 0; });\r\n    const acc = (ok+bad) ? ok\/(ok+bad) : null;\r\n    const weight = weightOf(c), coverage = n?att\/n:0, mastery = n?mastSum\/n:0;\r\n    const expected = expectedRate(ok,bad,coverage);\r\n    const leak = weight*(1-expected);\r\n    const difficulty = acc===null ? 1 : (1.4 - 0.6*acc);\r\n    return { chapter:c, count:n, weight, source:W.source[c], att, ok, bad,\r\n             coverage, acc, mastery, expected, leak,\r\n             priority: weight*(1-mastery)*difficulty };\r\n  }).sort((a,b)=>b.weight-a.weight);\r\n}\r\nfunction readiness(){\r\n  const rows=chapterRows();\r\n  return {\r\n    score     : Math.round(rows.reduce((a,r)=>a+r.weight*r.mastery,0)*100),\r\n    projected : Math.round(rows.reduce((a,r)=>a+r.weight*r.expected,0)*100),\r\n    covered   : Math.round(rows.reduce((a,r)=>a+r.weight*r.coverage,0)*100),\r\n    touched   : Object.values(P.stats).some(s=>(s.correct+s.incorrect)>0),\r\n    rows\r\n  };\r\n}\r\nfunction masteredCount(){ return QS.filter(q=>{ const s=P.stats[uid(q)]; return s && s.correct>=CFG.masteryThreshold; }).length; }\r\nfunction formatRows(){\r\n  const acc={};\r\n  const ensure=(k,l,kind)=> acc[k] || (acc[k]={key:k,label:l,kind:kind,ok:0,bad:0,total:0,seen:0});\r\n  SHAPES.forEach(s=>ensure(s.key,s.label,'shape'));\r\n  TRAITS.forEach(t=>ensure(t.key,t.label,'trait'));\r\n  QS.forEach(q=>{\r\n    const s=P.stats[uid(q)], buckets=[acc[shapeOf(q).key]];\r\n    TRAITS.forEach(t=>{ if(t.test(q)) buckets.push(acc[t.key]); });\r\n    buckets.forEach(r=>{ r.total++; if(s && (s.correct+s.incorrect)>0){ r.seen++; r.ok+=s.correct; r.bad+=s.incorrect; } });\r\n  });\r\n  return Object.values(acc).map(r=>{ const n=r.ok+r.bad; r.attempts=n; r.acc = n? r.ok\/n : null; return r; })\r\n    .filter(r=>r.total>0);\r\n}\r\nfunction dueForRevision(){\r\n  const risk=CFG.retention.riskBelow;\r\n  return QS.map(q=>{\r\n    const st=P.stats[uid(q)], r=recall(st);\r\n    if(r===null || r>=risk) return null;\r\n    return { q, recall:r, days:Math.floor((Date.now()-st.last)\/86400000), urgency: weightOf(q.chapter)*(1-r) };\r\n  }).filter(Boolean).sort((a,b)=>b.urgency-a.urgency);\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   10. SESSION PLANNER\r\n   Focused set \u2014 chapter time in proportion to the marks leaking out.\r\n   Mock paper  \u2014 ignores your history, mirrors the shape of the bank.\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction gain(q){\r\n  const u=uid(q), st=P.stats[u], c=st?st.correct:0, i=st?st.incorrect:0;\r\n  const deficit = 1 - Math.min(c\/CFG.masteryThreshold, 1);\r\n  let urgency = 1 + 0.15*deficit;\r\n  if(weak.has(u)) urgency += 0.60;\r\n  const r = recall(st);\r\n  if(r!==null && r<CFG.retention.riskBelow) urgency += (1-r);\r\n  if(c+i===0) urgency += 0.15;\r\n  return weightOf(q.chapter)*(deficit+0.12)*urgency;\r\n}\r\nfunction allocate(rows,n,shareOf){\r\n  const total = rows.reduce((a,r)=>a+Math.max(0,shareOf(r)),0);\r\n  if(!(total>0)) return rows.map(r=>({r,slots:0}));\r\n  const out = rows.map(r=>{ const exact=n*Math.max(0,shareOf(r))\/total;\r\n    return {r, exact, slots:Math.min(Math.floor(exact), r.count)}; });\r\n  let left = n - out.reduce((a,x)=>a+x.slots,0);\r\n  out.slice().sort((a,b)=>(b.exact-b.slots)-(a.exact-a.slots))\r\n     .forEach(x=>{ if(left>0 && x.slots<x.r.count){ x.slots++; left--; } });\r\n  if(left>0) out.slice().sort((a,b)=>shareOf(b.r)-shareOf(a.r))\r\n     .forEach(x=>{ while(left>0 && x.slots<x.r.count){ x.slots++; left--; } });\r\n  return out;\r\n}\r\n\/* Fisher\u2013Yates, so the order of a sitting is never the order of the bank *\/\r\nfunction shuffle(a){\r\n  for(let i=a.length-1;i>0;i--){ const j=Math.floor(Math.random()*(i+1)); [a[i],a[j]]=[a[j],a[i]]; }\r\n  return a;\r\n}\r\n\/* Weighted sampling without replacement: a high score makes a question\r\n   likely, never certain. Two sittings built back to back therefore share\r\n   only part of their content instead of being identical. *\/\r\nfunction sampleWeighted(pool, n, scoreFn){\r\n  const items = pool.map(q=>({q, w:Math.max(scoreFn(q), 1e-9)}));\r\n  const out=[];\r\n  n = Math.min(n, items.length);\r\n  for(let k=0;k<n;k++){\r\n    let total=0; items.forEach(x=>total+=x.w);\r\n    let r=Math.random()*total, hit=items.length-1;\r\n    for(let i=0;i<items.length;i++){ r-=items[i].w; if(r<=0){ hit=i; break; } }\r\n    out.push(items[hit].q);\r\n    items.splice(hit,1);\r\n  }\r\n  return out;\r\n}\r\nfunction buildSession(kind){\r\n  const rows = chapterRows().filter(r=>r.count>0);\r\n  if(!rows.length) return 0;\r\n  const n = Math.min(kind==='mock'?CFG.mockSize:CFG.sessionSize, QS.length);\r\n  const alloc = allocate(rows, n, kind==='mock' ? (r=>r.weight) : (r=>r.leak));\r\n\r\n  \/\/ whatever you were given last time is pushed down, not banned\r\n  const last = new Set(P.queue||[]);\r\n  const fresh = u => last.has(u) ? 0.3 : 1;\r\n\r\n  const picked=[];\r\n  alloc.forEach(({r,slots})=>{\r\n    if(!slots) return;\r\n    const pool = inCh(r.chapter).slice();\r\n    if(kind==='mock'){\r\n      \/\/ the mock ignores how well you know a question and simply spreads\r\n      \/\/ itself over the bank, favouring what you have seen least\r\n      picked.push(...sampleWeighted(pool, slots, q=>{\r\n        const st=P.stats[uid(q)], seen=st?(st.correct+st.incorrect):0;\r\n        const stale=(st&&st.last) ? Math.min((Date.now()-st.last)\/(86400000*30),1) : 1;\r\n        return (1\/(1+seen*1.6) + 0.35*stale) * fresh(uid(q));\r\n      }));\r\n    } else {\r\n      picked.push(...sampleWeighted(pool, slots, q=>gain(q)*fresh(uid(q))));\r\n    }\r\n  });\r\n  shuffle(picked);\r\n  P.queue = picked.map(uid);\r\n  P.queueLabel = kind==='mock' ? 'Mock paper' : 'Focused set';\r\n  P.queueKind = kind;\r\n  save();\r\n  return picked.length;\r\n}\r\nfunction startSession(kind){\r\n  const had = (P.queue||[]).length;\r\n  const n = buildSession(kind);\r\n  if(!n){ toast('Nothing to build a session from yet'); return; }\r\n  setTab('quiz'); setFilter('session');\r\n  S.ans = {}; clearResume();                    \/\/ a new sitting starts clean\r\n  toast(P.queueLabel+' ready \u2014 '+n+' fresh questions'+(had?' (previous set replaced)':''), true);\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   11. POOL \/ FILTERS\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction pool(){\r\n  let p = QS.slice();\r\n  if(S.filter==='chapter' && S.chapter) p = inCh(S.chapter).slice();\r\n  if(S.filter==='weak')    p = p.filter(q=>weak.has(uid(q)));\r\n  if(S.filter==='flagged') p = p.filter(q=>flags.has(uid(q)));\r\n  if(S.filter==='session') p = (P.queue||[]).map(u=>BY_UID.get(u)).filter(Boolean);\r\n  if(S.query){ const t=S.query.toLowerCase();\r\n    p = p.filter(q=>(q.question+' '+q.options.join(' ')+' '+q.explanation).toLowerCase().includes(t)); }\r\n  if(S.unattempted) p = p.filter(q=>S.ans[uid(q)]==null);\r\n  return p;\r\n}\r\nfunction refreshWeak(){\r\n  weak.clear();\r\n  QS.forEach(q=>{ const s=P.stats[uid(q)];\r\n    if(s && s.incorrect>=CFG.weakThreshold && s.correct<CFG.masteryThreshold) weak.add(uid(q)); });\r\n  P.weak=[...weak];\r\n}\r\nrefreshWeak();\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   12. STEM RENDERING (statements + List-I \/ List-II)\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst cleanStem = t => String(t).replace(\/^\\s*(?:Q|Question)\\s*\\.?\\s*\\d+\\s*[.):\\-]\\s*\/i,'').trim();\r\nlet QNUM = '';                               \/\/ set by render() just before each stem is built\r\nconst QN = () => '<span class=\"qno\">' + (QNUM || 'Q.') + '<\/span>';\r\nfunction buildStem(raw){\r\n  const lines = raw.split(\/<br\\s*\\\/?>|\\n\/).map(s=>s.trim()).filter(Boolean);\r\n  const plain = s => s.replace(\/<\\\/?b>\/g,'').trim();\r\n  const isMatch = lines.some(l=>\/^List\\s*[-\u2013\u2014]?\\s*I\\b\/i.test(plain(l)));\r\n  const numbered = lines.filter(l=>\/^\\d+[.)]\\s\/.test(plain(l)));\r\n  if(isMatch) return matchCard(lines, plain);\r\n  if(numbered.length>=2) return stmtCard(lines, plain);\r\n  return plainCard(lines);\r\n}\r\n\/* a single-statement question gets the same sheet as the other two, so\r\n   every question on the page reads the same way *\/\r\nfunction plainCard(lines){\r\n  return '<div class=\"stem\" id=\"qStem\"><div class=\"qsheet\">'\r\n    + lines.map((l,i)=>'<p class=\"'+(i===0?'lead':'close')+'\">'+(i===0?QN():'')+l+'<\/p>').join('')\r\n    + '<\/div><\/div>';\r\n}\r\nfunction stmtCard(lines, plain){\r\n  const isN = l => \/^\\d+[.)]\\s\/.test(plain(l));\r\n  const first = lines.findIndex(isN);\r\n  let last=-1; lines.forEach((l,i)=>{ if(isN(l)) last=i; });\r\n  const head = lines.slice(0,first), tail = lines.slice(last+1);\r\n  const items = lines.slice(first,last+1).filter(isN).map(l=>plain(l).replace(\/^\\d+[.)]\\s*\/,''));\r\n  return '<div class=\"stem\" id=\"qStem\"><div class=\"qsheet\">'\r\n    + head.map((l,i)=>'<p class=\"'+(i===0?'lead':'intro')+'\">'+(i===0?QN():'')+l+'<\/p>').join('')\r\n    + '<ol class=\"stmts\">'+items.map(t=>'<li><span>'+t+'<\/span><\/li>').join('')+'<\/ol>'\r\n    + tail.map(l=>'<p class=\"close\">'+l+'<\/p>').join('')\r\n    + '<\/div><\/div>';\r\n}\r\n\/* Match-the-following comes in every shape: one item per line, or the\r\n   whole list run together on a single line separated by semicolons or\r\n   commas, or nothing at all between items. All three are split here so\r\n   the two columns always come out as proper rows. *\/\r\nfunction splitItems(body, kind){\r\n  const lab = kind==='alpha' ? '[A-Fa-f]' : '\\\\d{1,2}';\r\n  const mk  = re => new RegExp(re.replace('LAB', lab), 'g');\r\n  let parts = body.split(mk('\\\\s*[;\\\\n]\\\\s*(?=LAB\\\\s*[.):]\\\\s)'));\r\n  if(parts.length < 2) parts = body.split(mk('\\\\s*,\\\\s*(?=LAB\\\\s*[.):]\\\\s)'));\r\n  if(parts.length < 2) parts = body.split(mk('(?<=\\\\S)\\\\s+(?=LAB\\\\s*[.)]\\\\s)'));\r\n  const re = new RegExp('^\\\\s*('+lab+')\\\\s*[.):]\\\\s*(.+?)\\\\s*[;,.]?\\\\s*$');\r\n  return parts.map(p=>{ const m=String(p).match(re);\r\n    return m ? {k:m[1].toUpperCase(), v:m[2]} : null; }).filter(Boolean);\r\n}\r\nfunction matchCard(lines, plain){\r\n  \/\/ keep line breaks, normalise only runs of spaces\r\n  const text = lines.map(plain).join('\\n').replace(\/[ \\t]+\/g,' ').trim();\r\n\r\n  \/* The opening line almost always names both lists \u2014 \"Match List-I with\r\n     List-II and select\u2026\" \u2014 so the first occurrence of each is the wrong\r\n     one. Take the last List-I that actually has items after it, and the\r\n     first List-II following that. *\/\r\n  const at = re => [...text.matchAll(re)].map(m=>m.index);\r\n  const posI  = at(\/List\\s*[-\u2013\u2014]?\\s*I\\b\/gi);\r\n  const posII = at(\/List\\s*[-\u2013\u2014]?\\s*II\\b\/gi);\r\n  const hasItems = (str,kind) =>\r\n    (kind==='alpha' ? \/[A-F]\\s*[.):]\\s\/ : \/\\d{1,2}\\s*[.):]\\s\/).test(str);\r\n  let iI=-1, iII=-1;\r\n  for(let k=posI.length-1;k>=0 && iI<0;k--){\r\n    const ii = posII.find(x=>x>posI[k]);\r\n    if(ii===undefined) continue;\r\n    if(hasItems(text.slice(posI[k],ii),'alpha') && hasItems(text.slice(ii),'num')){ iI=posI[k]; iII=ii; }\r\n  }\r\n  if(iI<0 || iII<0) return plainCard(lines);\r\n\r\n  const head  = text.slice(0, iI).trim();\r\n  let segI    = text.slice(iI, iII).trim();\r\n  let segII   = text.slice(iII).trim();\r\n\r\n  \/\/ anything after the lists \u2014 \"Code :\", \"Select the correct answer\u2026\"\r\n  let tail = '';\r\n  const t = segII.match(\/(?:\\n|\\s)(Code\\s*[:.]?\\s*$|(?:Select|Choose)\\b[\\s\\S]*$)\/i);\r\n  if(t){ tail = t[1].trim(); segII = segII.slice(0, t.index).trim(); }\r\n\r\n  \/\/ column captions: \"List-I (Purpose of Leave) :\"\r\n  const capRe = \/^List\\s*[-\u2013\u2014]?\\s*I{1,2}\\b\\s*(\\([^)]*\\))?\\s*[:.]?\\s*\/i;\r\n  const hI  = segI.match(capRe),  hII = segII.match(capRe);\r\n  const capI  = hI  ? hI[0].replace(\/[\\s:.]+$\/,'')  : 'List-I';\r\n  const capII = hII ? hII[0].replace(\/[\\s:.]+$\/,'') : 'List-II';\r\n  const rowsI  = splitItems(hI  ? segI.slice(hI[0].length)  : segI,  'alpha');\r\n  const rowsII = splitItems(hII ? segII.slice(hII[0].length): segII, 'num');\r\n  if(!rowsI.length || !rowsII.length) return plainCard(lines);\r\n\r\n  const cell = x => '<li><b>'+x.k+'.<\/b><span>'+x.v+'<\/span><\/li>';\r\n  const headLines = head ? head.split('\\n').filter(Boolean) : [];\r\n  return '<div class=\"stem\" id=\"qStem\"><div class=\"qsheet\">'\r\n    + (headLines.length\r\n        ? headLines.map((l,i)=>'<p class=\"'+(i===0?'lead':'intro')+'\">'+(i===0?QN():'')+l+'<\/p>').join('')\r\n        : '<p class=\"lead\">'+QN+'Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists:<\/p>')\r\n    + '<div class=\"lists\">'\r\n      + '<div class=\"lcol\"><h5>'+capI+'<\/h5><ul>'+rowsI.map(cell).join('')+'<\/ul><\/div>'\r\n      + '<div class=\"lcol\"><h5>'+capII+'<\/h5><ul>'+rowsII.map(cell).join('')+'<\/ul><\/div>'\r\n    + '<\/div>'\r\n    + '<p class=\"close\">'+(tail || 'Select the correct answer using the code given below:')+'<\/p>'\r\n    + '<\/div><\/div>';\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   13. UI HELPERS\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst $ = id => document.getElementById(id);\r\nlet toastTimer=null;\r\nfunction toast(msg, ok){\r\n  const t=$('toast'); t.innerHTML=msg; t.className='toast show'+(ok?' ok':'');\r\n  clearTimeout(toastTimer); toastTimer=setTimeout(()=>t.className='toast',3000);\r\n}\r\nconst SRC_ON = !!(CFG.sourceUrl && CFG.sourceUrl.trim());\r\nconst stripHtml = s => String(s).replace(\/<[^>]+>\/g,'').replace(\/\\s+\/g,' ').trim();\r\nconst preview = (q,n) => { const t=stripHtml(q.question); return t.length>n ? t.slice(0,n)+'\u2026' : t; };\r\nfunction stars(u){\r\n  const s=P.stats[u]; if(!s || (s.correct+s.incorrect)===0) return null;\r\n  return { filled: Math.min(s.correct, CFG.masteryThreshold), c:s.correct, i:s.incorrect };\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   14. RENDER \u2014 PRACTICE\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction renderCtx(){\r\n  const panel=$('chapPanel');\r\n  const on = S.filter==='chapter';\r\n  panel.classList.toggle('hide', !on);\r\n  if(!on) return;\r\n  const rows = chapterRows().filter(r=>r.count>0).sort(byChapterOrder);\r\n  if(!S.chapter || !rows.some(r=>r.chapter===S.chapter)) S.chapter = rows[0] ? rows[0].chapter : null;\r\n  $('chapList').innerHTML = rows.map((r,n)=>{\r\n    const sel = r.chapter===S.chapter;\r\n    const mastered = inCh(r.chapter).filter(q=>{ const s=P.stats[uid(q)]; return s && s.correct>=CFG.masteryThreshold; }).length;\r\n    const title = r.chapter+' \u00b7 '+r.count+' question'+(r.count===1?'':'s')+' \u00b7 '\r\n                + Math.round(r.coverage*100)+'% seen'+(mastered?' \u00b7 '+mastered+' mastered':'');\r\n    return '<button class=\"chapchip\" aria-pressed=\"'+sel+'\" data-ch=\"'+encodeURIComponent(r.chapter)+'\" title=\"'+title+'\">'\r\n      + '<span class=\"no\">'+(n+1)+'<\/span>'\r\n      + '<span class=\"cn\">'+titleCase(r.chapter)+'<\/span>'\r\n\r\n      + (mastered===r.count ? '<span class=\"done\">\u2713<\/span>' : '')\r\n      + '<span class=\"cc\">'+r.count+'<\/span><\/button>';\r\n  }).join('');\r\n  const r = rows.find(x=>x.chapter===S.chapter);\r\n  $('ctxMeta').textContent = r\r\n    ? Math.round(r.coverage*100)+'% seen \u00b7 '+(r.acc===null?'not attempted':Math.round(r.acc*100)+'% accurate')\r\n    : '';\r\n}\r\n\/* --- page turn: set by the navigation handlers, consumed by render() --- *\/\r\nlet TURN = 0;                       \/* +1 forward, -1 back, 0 = no animation *\/\r\nfunction playTurn(dir){\r\n  const sheet = document.querySelector('#cdRoot .qbody');\r\n  if(!sheet) return;\r\n  sheet.classList.remove('turn-f','turn-b');\r\n  void sheet.offsetWidth;                       \/* force reflow so it replays *\/\r\n  sheet.classList.add(dir > 0 ? 'turn-f' : 'turn-b');\r\n  sheet.addEventListener('animationend', function clear(ev){\r\n    if(ev.target !== sheet) return;             \/* ignore bubbling from children *\/\r\n    sheet.classList.remove('turn-f','turn-b');\r\n    sheet.removeEventListener('animationend', clear);\r\n  });\r\n  const card = document.getElementById('qCard');\r\n  if(card && card.getBoundingClientRect().top < 0){\r\n    try{ card.scrollIntoView({block:'start', behavior:'smooth'}); }catch(e){}\r\n  }\r\n}\r\nfunction render(){\r\n  const _turn = TURN; TURN = 0;\r\n  renderCtx();\r\n  const p = pool();\r\n  const ec = $('emptyCard');\r\n  if(!p.length){\r\n    $('qCard').classList.add('hide'); ec.classList.remove('hide');\r\n    $('emptyBody').innerHTML =\r\n      S.query    ? '<b>No match for \u201c'+S.query+'\u201d<\/b>Try a rule or paragraph number, or a phrase like \u201cpart file\u201d.' :\r\n      S.filter==='weak'    ? '<b>No weak areas yet<\/b>Anything you answer wrong lands here until you have it right '+CFG.masteryThreshold+' times.' :\r\n      S.filter==='flagged' ? '<b>Nothing flagged yet<\/b>Press <b style=\"display:inline\">Flag for review<\/b> under any question and it collects here.' :\r\n      S.filter==='session' ? '<b>No session built yet<\/b>Open My Performance and build a Focused set or a Mock paper.' :\r\n      S.unattempted        ? '<b>You have attempted everything here<\/b>Turn off \u201cUnattempted only\u201d to revise what you have done.' :\r\n                             '<b>No questions in this selection<\/b>Clear the search or pick another chapter.';\r\n    renderNav(p); rail(p); return;\r\n  }\r\n  ec.classList.add('hide'); $('qCard').classList.remove('hide');\r\n  if(S.i>=p.length) S.i=0; if(S.i<0) S.i=p.length-1;\r\n\r\n  const q=p[S.i], u=uid(q), given=S.ans[u];\r\n  $('qCount').textContent = 'Question '+(S.i+1)+' of '+p.length;\r\n  $('qChap').textContent  = chBrief(q.chapter);\r\n  \/* PYQ tag \u2014 shows when the item carries a year\/exam field, hidden otherwise *\/\r\n  const _src = $('qSrc'), _yr = q.year || q.exam || '';\r\n  if(_yr){ _src.className='badge-src pyq'; _src.textContent = (CFG.pyqLabel||'PYQ')+' '+_yr; _src.style.display=''; }\r\n  else if(CFG.showConceptTag){ _src.className='badge-src con'; _src.textContent='Concept'; _src.style.display=''; }\r\n  else { _src.style.display='none'; }\r\n  const tags=[];\r\n  if(weak.has(u))  tags.push('<span class=\"qtag weak\">\u26a0\ufe0f Weak<\/span>');\r\n  if(flags.has(u)) tags.push('<span class=\"qtag flag\">\ud83d\udd16 Flagged<\/span>');\r\n  const sMast=P.stats[u];\r\n  if(sMast && sMast.correct>=CFG.masteryThreshold) tags.push('<span class=\"qtag done\">\u2713 Mastered<\/span>');\r\n  $('qTags').innerHTML = tags.join('');\r\n  const st = stars(u), badge=$('qMastery');\r\n  if(!st){ badge.textContent='Not seen yet'; badge.className='badge-m'; }\r\n  else {\r\n    const done = st.c>=CFG.masteryThreshold;\r\n    badge.textContent = '\u2605'.repeat(st.filled)+'\u2606'.repeat(Math.max(0,CFG.masteryThreshold-st.filled))+'  '+st.c+'\u2713 '+st.i+'\u2717';\r\n    badge.className = 'badge-m'+(weak.has(u)&&!done?' weak':'');\r\n  }\r\n  QNUM = CFG.numberQuestions ? ((q.id != null ? q.id : (S.i + 1)) + '.') : 'Q.';\r\n  const _foot = $('cdFoot');\r\n  if(_foot) _foot.innerHTML = '<span>' + (CFG.bookletCode || '') + '<\/span>'\r\n                            + '<span>( ' + (S.i + 1) + ' \\u2013 A )<\/span>';\r\n  $('qStem').outerHTML = buildStem(cleanStem(q.question));\r\n\r\n  const box=$('qOpts'); box.innerHTML='';\r\n  q.options.forEach((o,k)=>{\r\n    const b=document.createElement('button');\r\n    b.className='opt';\r\n    b.innerHTML='<span class=\"key\">('+L[k].toLowerCase()+')<\/span><span class=\"txt\">'+o+'<\/span>';\r\n    if(given!=null){\r\n      b.disabled=true;\r\n      if(k===q.correct){ b.classList.add('right'); b.insertAdjacentHTML('beforeend','<span class=\"mark r\">Correct<\/span>'); }\r\n      else if(k===given){ b.classList.add('wrong'); b.insertAdjacentHTML('beforeend','<span class=\"mark w\">Your answer<\/span>'); }\r\n    } else if(S.pick===k) b.classList.add('sel');\r\n    b.onclick=()=>{ if(given!=null) return; S.pick=k; S.nudge=false; render(); };\r\n    box.appendChild(b);\r\n  });\r\n\r\n  const bc=$('btnCheck');\r\n  bc.disabled = given!=null;\r\n  bc.textContent = given!=null ? 'Answered \u2713' : 'Check answer';\r\n  $('pickHint').classList.toggle('hide', !(given==null && S.pick==null && S.nudge));\r\n  const on = flags.has(u);\r\n  $('btnFlag').setAttribute('aria-pressed', on);\r\n  $('flagIco').textContent = on ? '\ud83d\udd16' : '\ud83c\udff3\ufe0f';\r\n  $('flagTxt').textContent = on ? 'Flagged' : 'Flag for review';\r\n\r\n  const res=$('result');\r\n  res.classList.toggle('hide', given==null);\r\n  if(given!=null){\r\n    const ok = given===q.correct, v=$('verdict');\r\n    v.className='verdict '+(ok?'r':'w');\r\n    v.innerHTML = ok ? '\u2713 Correct \u2014 '+L[q.correct]+' is right'\r\n                     : '\u2715 Not quite \u2014 the answer is '+L[q.correct];\r\n    $('explBody').innerHTML = q.explanation;\r\n  }\r\n  renderNav(p); rail(p);\r\n  if(_turn) playTurn(_turn);\r\n  if(S.tab==='quiz') markResume();\r\n}\r\nlet navOpen=true;\r\nfunction renderNav(p){\r\n  const card=$('navCard');\r\n  if(!p.length){ card.classList.add('hide'); return; }\r\n  card.classList.remove('hide');\r\n  const done=p.filter(q=>S.ans[uid(q)]!=null).length;\r\n  $('navTitle').textContent = 'Navigator \u2014 '+done+' of '+p.length+' attempted';\r\n  const g=$('navGrid');\r\n  g.classList.toggle('hide', !navOpen);\r\n  $('navToggle').textContent = navOpen ? 'Hide' : 'Show';\r\n  if(!navOpen) return;\r\n  g.innerHTML='';\r\n  p.forEach((q,k)=>{\r\n    const u=uid(q), a=S.ans[u], s=P.stats[u];\r\n    const b=document.createElement('button');\r\n    b.className='nq'+(k===S.i?' cur':(a!=null?(a===q.correct?' r':' w'):''))\r\n              + (s && s.correct>=CFG.masteryThreshold ? ' mastered':'');\r\n    b.innerHTML=(k+1)+(flags.has(u)?'<span class=\"fl\">\ud83d\udd16<\/span>':'');\r\n    b.title = 'Q'+(k+1)+' \u00b7 '+chBrief(q.chapter)+(a!=null?(a===q.correct?' \u00b7 correct':' \u00b7 wrong'):'');\r\n    b.setAttribute('aria-label','Go to question '+(k+1));\r\n    b.onclick=()=>{ TURN=(k>S.i?1:-1); S.i=k; S.pick=null; render(); };\r\n    g.appendChild(b);\r\n  });\r\n}\r\nfunction rail(p){\r\n  const seen=Object.keys(S.ans).length;\r\n  const right=Object.entries(S.ans).filter(([u,a])=>BY_UID.get(u) && BY_UID.get(u).correct===a).length;\r\n  $('sPct').textContent = seen ? Math.round(right\/seen*100)+'%' : '\u2014';\r\n  $('sFrac').textContent = right+' of '+seen+' correct';\r\n  $('sBar').style.width = (seen?right\/seen*100:0)+'%';\r\n  $('sSeen').textContent = seen+' attempted';\r\n  $('sLeft').textContent = Math.max(0,p.length-S.i-1)+' left here';\r\n  const st=$('streak'); st.innerHTML='';\r\n  Object.entries(S.ans).slice(-10).forEach(([u,a])=>{\r\n    const q=BY_UID.get(u); if(!q) return;\r\n    const el=document.createElement('i'); el.className = q.correct===a?'r':'w'; st.appendChild(el);\r\n  });\r\n  const chs=[...new Set(p.map(q=>q.chapter))];\r\n  const w=chs.reduce((s,c)=>s+weightOf(c),0)*100;\r\n  $('wPct').textContent = w.toFixed(1)+'%';\r\n  $('wNote').textContent = p.length+' questions on screen, from '+chs.length+' '+(chs.length===1?'chapter':'chapters')+'. '\r\n    + (w>=35 ? 'That is a big slice in one sitting \u2014 worth clearing properly.' : 'Useful for topping up once the bigger chapters are secure.');\r\n  hdr();\r\n}\r\nfunction hdr(){\r\n  $('hQ').textContent = QS.length;\r\n  $('hCh').textContent = CHAPTERS.length;\r\n  $('hMastered').textContent = (QS.length ? Math.round(masteredCount()\/QS.length*100) : 0)+'%';\r\n  const r=readiness();\r\n  $('hReady').textContent = r.touched ? r.score+'%' : '\u2014';\r\n  $('fAll').textContent  = QS.length;\r\n  $('fWeak').textContent = weak.size;\r\n  \/* counted against the live bank so the pill can never disagree with the list *\/\r\n  const nFlag = [...flags].filter(u=>BY_UID.has(u)).length;\r\n  const nSess = (P.queue||[]).filter(u=>BY_UID.has(u)).length;\r\n  $('fFlag').textContent = nFlag;\r\n  $('fSess').textContent = nSess;\r\n  $('pillSession').classList.toggle('hide', !nSess);\r\n  $('sessLabel').textContent = P.queueLabel || 'My session';\r\n  $('perfPill').classList.toggle('hide', weak.size<5);\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   15. RENDER \u2014 PERFORMANCE\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction renderPerf(){\r\n  const body=$('perfBody');\r\n  const seen=Object.values(P.stats).filter(s=>(s.correct+s.incorrect)>0).length;\r\n  $('perfCount').textContent = seen+' questions attempted';\r\n\r\n  if(!QS.length){ body.innerHTML='<div class=\"empty\"><b>No questions loaded<\/b>Paste your bank into <code>chapterQuestions<\/code> and reload.<\/div>'; return; }\r\n  const R = readiness();\r\n  if(!R.touched){\r\n    body.innerHTML = '<div class=\"empty\"><b>Your coach is waiting for data<\/b>Answer a few questions in Practice. '\r\n      + 'The coach then scores your readiness against the weightage of each chapter, works out where marks are leaking, and builds the next sitting for you.<\/div>'\r\n      + plannerHTML(true);\r\n    bindPerf(); return;\r\n  }\r\n  const rows=R.rows, byPriority=[...rows].sort((a,b)=>b.priority-a.priority);\r\n  const allC=Object.values(P.stats).reduce((a,s)=>a+s.correct,0);\r\n  const allI=Object.values(P.stats).reduce((a,s)=>a+s.incorrect,0);\r\n  const accAll = (allC+allI) ? Math.round(allC\/(allC+allI)*100) : 0;\r\n  const recent = P.log.slice(-20);\r\n  const accRec = recent.length ? Math.round(recent.filter(x=>x.ok).length\/recent.length*100) : 0;\r\n  const trend = recent.length>=5 ? (accRec>accAll?' \u2197':(accRec<accAll?' \u2198':'')) : '';\r\n  const ret = retentionIndex();\r\n  const due = dueForRevision();\r\n  const band=(v,hi,mid)=> v>=hi?'var(--ok)': v>=mid?'#8A6206':'var(--bad)';\r\n\r\n  const verdict = R.score>=80 ? '<b>In good shape.<\/b> Hold it there with the revision queue and weak-area drills.'\r\n    : R.score>=60 ? '<b>Strong base.<\/b> Close the gaps in the biggest chapters below to cross 80.'\r\n    : R.score>=35 ? '<b>Building up.<\/b> Work the plan top-down \u2014 it is ordered by what will move this number fastest.'\r\n    : '<b>Early stage.<\/b> Start at the top of the plan; the biggest chapters move this number fastest.';\r\n\r\n  body.innerHTML =\r\n  '<div class=\"hero2\">'\r\n  + '<div class=\"ring-card\"><div class=\"ring\" role=\"img\" aria-label=\"Readiness '+R.score+' out of 100\">'\r\n    + '<svg width=\"150\" height=\"150\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><circle class=\"bg\" cx=\"75\" cy=\"75\" r=\"64\"><\/circle>'\r\n    + '<circle class=\"fg\" cx=\"75\" cy=\"75\" r=\"64\" stroke-dasharray=\"402\" stroke-dashoffset=\"'+(402-402*R.score\/100)+'\"><\/circle><\/svg>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"ring-txt\"><b>'+R.score+'<\/b><span>Readiness \/ 100<\/span><\/div><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"verdict2\">'+verdict+'<br><span style=\"font-size:11.6px;opacity:.85\">'+T.readyDef+' across '+CHAPTERS.length\r\n    + ' chapters. On today\\u2019s form '+T.paperOut+' <b>'+R.projected+'%<\/b>.<\/span><\/div><\/div>'\r\n  + '<div class=\"coach\"><h4>\ud83e\udded What to do next<\/h4><div id=\"recoList\"><\/div><\/div>'\r\n  + '<\/div>'\r\n\r\n  + plannerHTML(false)\r\n\r\n  + '<div class=\"kpis\">'\r\n    + kpi(R.projected+'%',T.projected, band(R.projected,65,45))\r\n    + kpi(R.covered+'%',T.covered, band(R.covered,70,40))\r\n    + kpi(ret===null?'\u2014':ret+'%','Retention now', ret===null?'var(--slate)':band(ret,75,55))\r\n    + kpi(accAll+'%','Lifetime accuracy', band(accAll,70,45))\r\n    + kpi(accRec+'%'+trend,'Last 20 attempts', band(accRec,70,45))\r\n    + kpi(masteredCount(),'Mastered ('+CFG.masteryThreshold+'\u2713)','var(--ok)')\r\n    + kpi(weak.size,'Weak questions','var(--bad)')\r\n    + kpi(flags.size,'Flagged','#8A6206')\r\n  + '<\/div>'\r\n\r\n  + '<section class=\"pblock\"><div class=\"pbh\"><div class=\"txt\">'\r\n    + '<h4><span class=\"dot\"><\/span>Chapter performance \u2014 priority first<\/h4>'\r\n    + '<p>Ordered by what will move your readiness fastest, not by chapter number.<\/p><\/div>'\r\n    + '<span class=\"pbtag\">'+rows.length+' chapters<\/span><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"tblwrap\" style=\"border:0;border-radius:0\"><table class=\"perf-t\"><thead><tr>'\r\n    + '<th>Chapter<\/th>'+(WT?'<th>'+T.colWeight+'<\/th>':'')+'<th>Coverage<\/th><th>Accuracy<\/th><th>Expected<\/th><th>Status<\/th><th><\/th>'\r\n    + '<\/tr><\/thead><tbody>'\r\n    + byPriority.map(r=>{\r\n        const a = r.acc===null?null:Math.round(r.acc*100);\r\n        const tag = r.count===0 ? '<span class=\"tag na\">No questions<\/span>'\r\n          : r.acc===null ? '<span class=\"tag na\">Not started<\/span>'\r\n          : a<45 ? '<span class=\"tag hot\">Critical<\/span>'\r\n          : a<65 ? '<span class=\"tag warm\">Needs work<\/span>'\r\n          : a<85 ? '<span class=\"tag ok\">On track<\/span>'\r\n                 : '<span class=\"tag good\">Strong<\/span>';\r\n        const bar = a===null ? '\u2014'\r\n          : '<div class=\"tbar\"><i style=\"width:'+a+'%;background:'+(a<45?'var(--bad)':a<65?'var(--gold)':'var(--ok)')+'\"><\/i><\/div><span style=\"font-size:11.5px;font-weight:700\">'+a+'%<\/span>';\r\n        const wcell = WT\r\n          ? '<td><b style=\"color:#8A6206;font-size:15px\">'+pctLabel(r.weight)+'<\/b>'\r\n            + '<span class=\"sub\">'+(r.source==='rated'?'you rated this':'not rated yet')+'<\/span><\/td>'\r\n          : '';\r\n        return '<tr><td title=\"'+r.chapter+'\">'+chBrief(r.chapter)\r\n          + '<span class=\"sub\">'+r.count+' question'+(r.count===1?'':'s')+'<\/span><\/td>'\r\n          + wcell\r\n          + '<td>'+r.att+'\/'+r.count+'<span class=\"sub\">'+Math.round(r.coverage*100)+'% seen<\/span><\/td>'\r\n          + '<td>'+bar+'<\/td>'\r\n          + '<td><b>'+Math.round(r.expected*100)+'%<\/b><span class=\"sub\">\u2248 '+(r.leak*100).toFixed(1)+' '+T.leakWord+' lost<\/span><\/td>'\r\n          + '<td>'+tag+'<\/td>'\r\n          + '<td><button class=\"mini-go\" data-goch=\"'+encodeURIComponent(r.chapter)+'\">Drill<\/button><\/td><\/tr>';\r\n      }).join('')\r\n    + '<\/tbody><\/table><\/div><\/section>'\r\n\r\n  + '<section class=\"pblock\"><div class=\"pbh\"><div class=\"txt\">'\r\n    + '<h4><span class=\"dot\"><\/span>'+T.leakHead+'<\/h4>'\r\n    + '<p id=\"leakNote\"><\/p><\/div>'\r\n    + '<span class=\"pbtag\">'+rows.filter(r=>r.count>0).length+' chapters<\/span><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"bars\" id=\"leakBars\"><\/div><\/section>'\r\n\r\n  + '<section class=\"pblock\"><div class=\"pbh\"><div class=\"txt\">'\r\n    + '<h4><span class=\"dot\"><\/span>How you handle each kind of question<\/h4>'\r\n    + '<p id=\"fmtNote\"><\/p><\/div>'\r\n    + '<span class=\"pbtag\">Format analysis<\/span><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"subhead\"><h5>How the question is built<\/h5><span>one shape per question<\/span><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"bars\" id=\"shapeBars\"><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"subhead\"><h5>What the question turns on<\/h5><span>a question can sit in more than one \u2014 a time limit asked as a multi-statement code counts on both<\/span><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"bars\" id=\"traitBars\"><\/div><\/section>'\r\n\r\n  + '<div class=\"split\">'\r\n    + '<div class=\"panel\"><h4 class=\"ph\">Revision queue \u2014 what is fading fastest<\/h4><div id=\"revQ\"><\/div><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"panel\"><h4 class=\"ph\">Mastery distribution<\/h4><div id=\"mastDist\"><\/div><\/div>'\r\n  + '<\/div>'\r\n\r\n  + '<div class=\"danger\"><p><b>Danger zone.<\/b> This permanently erases your lifetime performance for this subject \u2014 mastery, weak areas, flags, accuracy history and the readiness score. Reset session on the Practice tab does <b>not<\/b> touch this.<\/p>'\r\n    + '<button class=\"dbtn\" id=\"btnWipe\">\ud83d\uddd1\ufe0f Reset my performance<\/button><\/div>';\r\n\r\n  renderRecos(byPriority, rows, due);\r\n  renderLeaks(rows);\r\n  renderFormats();\r\n  renderRevision(due);\r\n  renderMastery();\r\n  bindPerf();\r\n}\r\nfunction kpi(v,l,color){ return '<div class=\"kpi\"><b style=\"color:'+color+'\">'+v+'<\/b><span>'+l+'<\/span><\/div>'; }\r\nfunction plannerHTML(empty){\r\n  const rows=chapterRows().filter(r=>r.count>0).sort((a,b)=>b.leak-a.leak).slice(0,2).map(r=>chShort(r.chapter));\r\n  return '<div class=\"planner\"><div><h4>Plan the next sitting<\/h4><p id=\"plannerNote\">'\r\n    + (empty\r\n        ? 'The focused set gives each chapter time in proportion to what you are losing in it. The mock paper ignores your history and mirrors the shape of the whole bank. Neither is fixed \\u2014 build again and you get a fresh set of questions.'\r\n        : 'The focused set gives each chapter time in proportion to what is leaking out of it \\u2014 right now mostly <b>'+rows.join('<\/b> and <b>')+'<\/b>. The mock paper ignores your history and mirrors the shape of the whole bank. Neither is fixed: press again for a fresh set, and last time\\u2019s questions are pushed to the back of the queue.')\r\n    + '<\/p><\/div><div class=\"pbtns\">'\r\n    + '<button class=\"pbtn primary\" id=\"btnFocus\">\ud83e\udde9 Focused set \u2014 '+Math.min(CFG.sessionSize,QS.length)+' Q<\/button>'\r\n    + '<button class=\"pbtn\" id=\"btnMock\">\ud83d\udcc4 Mock paper \u2014 '+Math.min(CFG.mockSize,QS.length)+' Q<\/button>'\r\n    + '<\/div><\/div>';\r\n}\r\nfunction renderRecos(byPriority, rows, due){\r\n  const out=[], named=new Set();\r\n  byPriority.slice(0,3).forEach(r=>{\r\n    if(!r.count) return;\r\n    named.add(r.chapter);\r\n    const imp = impPhrase(r);\r\n    if(r.acc===null)\r\n      out.push({ic:'warm',icon:'\ud83e\udded',txt:'<b>'+chBrief(r.chapter)+'<\/b>'+(imp?' is '+imp+' and':'')+' you have not touched it yet \u2014 start here.',ch:r.chapter});\r\n    else if(r.acc<0.6)\r\n      out.push({ic:'hot',icon:'\ud83d\udd25',txt:'<b>'+chBrief(r.chapter)+'<\/b>'+(imp?', '+imp+',':'')+' is running at only <b>'+Math.round(r.acc*100)+'%<\/b> \u2014 about <b>'+(r.leak*100).toFixed(1)+' '+T.leakWord+' per 100<\/b> are going here.',ch:r.chapter});\r\n    else if(r.coverage<0.6)\r\n      out.push({ic:'cool',icon:'\ud83d\udd0d',txt:'<b>'+chBrief(r.chapter)+'<\/b>: accuracy is fine at '+Math.round(r.acc*100)+'%, but you have seen only <b>'+Math.round(r.coverage*100)+'%<\/b> of a chapter'+(imp?' '+imp:'')+' \u2014 finish the set.',ch:r.chapter});\r\n    else\r\n      out.push({ic:'good',icon:'\u2705',txt:'<b>'+chBrief(r.chapter)+'<\/b>'+(imp?' ('+stripHtml(imp)+')':'')+' is in good shape at '+Math.round(r.acc*100)+'% \u2014 keep it warm through the revision queue.',ch:r.chapter});\r\n  });\r\n\r\n  \/\/ a format gap costs you in every chapter at once\r\n  const f = formatRows().filter(r=>r.acc!==null && r.attempts>=8).sort((a,b)=>a.acc-b.acc);\r\n  if(f.length>=2){\r\n    const worst=f[0], best=f[f.length-1];\r\n    if(best.acc-worst.acc >= 0.12){\r\n      const tail = worst.kind==='shape'\r\n        ? 'That is a reading habit, not a gap in the rules \u2014 and it costs you in every chapter at once.'\r\n        : 'That is recall, not comprehension \u2014 these have to be committed to memory, and they turn up everywhere.';\r\n      out.push({ic:'hot',icon:'\ud83e\udde9',txt:'<b>'+worst.label+'<\/b> questions are running at <b>'+Math.round(worst.acc*100)+'%<\/b> while you sit at '+Math.round(best.acc*100)+'% on '+best.label.toLowerCase()+'. '+tail});\r\n    }\r\n  }\r\n  \/\/ big chapter you have exhausted\r\n  const done = rows.filter(r=>!named.has(r.chapter) && r.weight>=0.08 && r.coverage>=0.9 && r.count>0).sort((a,b)=>b.weight-a.weight)[0];\r\n  if(done) out.push({ic:'warm',icon:'\ud83d\udcd8',txt:'You have worked nearly every question in <b>'+chBrief(done.chapter)+'<\/b>'+(impPhrase(done)?', '+impPhrase(done):'')+'. Practice has given what it can \u2014 go back to the source text for the rest.',ch:done.chapter});\r\n  if(WT && W.unstocked.length)\r\n    out.push({ic:'hot',icon:'\ud83d\udd73\ufe0f',txt:'<b>'+W.unstocked.length+' rated '+(W.unstocked.length===1?'chapter has':'chapters have')+' no questions in this bank<\/b> \u2014 '+W.unstocked.slice(0,3).map(chBrief).join(', ')+(W.unstocked.length>3?' and others':'')+'. Nothing here prepares you for them.'});\r\n  if(weak.size>=3) out.push({ic:'hot',icon:'\u26a0\ufe0f',txt:'You have <b>'+weak.size+' weak questions<\/b> flagged, biggest chapter first. One Weak-areas sitting clears the backlog.',weak:true});\r\n  if(due.length) out.push({ic:'warm',icon:'\ud83d\udd01',txt:'<b>'+due.length+' questions<\/b> you had mastered have decayed below <b>'+Math.round(CFG.retention.riskBelow*100)+'% recall<\/b>. Re-answering one costs seconds; re-learning it later costs an evening.'});\r\n  if(flags.size) out.push({ic:'cool',icon:'\ud83d\udd16',txt:'<b>'+flags.size+'<\/b> question'+(flags.size>1?'s are':' is')+' flagged for review. Clear the flags before the next mock.',flag:true});\r\n\r\n  $('recoList').innerHTML = out.map(r=>{\r\n    let btn='';\r\n    if(r.ch)        btn='<button class=\"go\" data-goch=\"'+encodeURIComponent(r.ch)+'\">Practice \u2192<\/button>';\r\n    else if(r.weak) btn='<button class=\"go\" data-goweak=\"1\">Start \u2192<\/button>';\r\n    else if(r.flag) btn='<button class=\"go\" data-goflag=\"1\">Open \u2192<\/button>';\r\n    return '<div class=\"reco\"><span class=\"ic '+r.ic+'\">'+r.icon+'<\/span><p>'+r.txt+'<\/p>'+btn+'<\/div>';\r\n  }).join('');\r\n}\r\nfunction renderLeaks(rows){\r\n  const list = rows.filter(r=>r.count>0).sort((a,b)=>b.leak-a.leak);\r\n  if(!list.length) return;\r\n  const max = Math.max(0.0001, ...list.map(r=>r.leak));\r\n  const total = list.reduce((a,r)=>a+r.leak,0)*100;\r\n  const top3 = list.slice(0,3);\r\n  $('leakNote').innerHTML = 'On today\\u2019s form you would expect to drop about <b>'+Math.round(total)+' '+T.leakWord+' in every 100<\/b>. <b>'\r\n    + top3.map(r=>chShort(r.chapter)).join(', ')+'<\/b> alone account for <b>'+Math.round(top3.reduce((a,r)=>a+r.leak,0)*100)\r\n    + '<\/b> of them \u2014 the shortest route to a better score.';\r\n  $('leakBars').innerHTML = list.map(r=>{\r\n    const m=r.leak*100;\r\n    const col = m>=8?'linear-gradient(90deg,#F08A92,var(--bad))' : m>=4?'linear-gradient(90deg,var(--gold-lt),var(--gold))' : 'linear-gradient(90deg,#9DB6EE,var(--blue-700))';\r\n    return '<div class=\"lrow\"><div><span class=\"lname\" title=\"'+r.chapter+'\">'+chBrief(r.chapter)+'<\/span>'\r\n      + '<span class=\"lsub\">'+(impPhrase(r)?stripHtml(impPhrase(r))+' \u00b7 ':'')+'you would clear about '+Math.round(r.expected*100)+'% today<\/span><\/div>'\r\n      + '<div class=\"ltrack\"><div class=\"lfill\" style=\"width:'+(r.leak\/max*100)+'%;background:'+col+'\"><\/div><\/div>'\r\n      + '<div class=\"lval\">'+m.toFixed(1)+'<small>'+T.leakUnit+'<\/small><\/div><\/div>';\r\n  }).join('');\r\n}\r\nfunction renderFormats(){\r\n  const rows=formatRows();\r\n  const bar = r => {\r\n    const p = r.acc===null?null:Math.round(r.acc*100);\r\n    const col = p===null?'#CBD5E1' : p<50?'linear-gradient(90deg,#F08A92,var(--bad))' : p<70?'linear-gradient(90deg,var(--gold-lt),var(--gold))' : 'linear-gradient(90deg,#6EE7B7,var(--ok))';\r\n    return '<div class=\"lrow\"><div><span class=\"lname\">'+r.label+'<\/span>'\r\n      + '<span class=\"lsub\">'+r.total+' in this bank \u00b7 '+r.seen+' attempted<\/span><\/div>'\r\n      + '<div class=\"ltrack\"><div class=\"lfill\" style=\"width:'+(p===null?0:p)+'%;background:'+col+'\"><\/div><\/div>'\r\n      + '<div class=\"lval\">'+(p===null?'\u2014':p+'%')+'<small>accuracy<\/small><\/div><\/div>';\r\n  };\r\n  const sorter=(a,b)=>(a.acc===null)-(b.acc===null)||(a.acc-b.acc);\r\n  $('shapeBars').innerHTML = rows.filter(r=>r.kind==='shape').sort(sorter).map(bar).join('');\r\n  $('traitBars').innerHTML = rows.filter(r=>r.kind==='trait').sort(sorter).map(bar).join('');\r\n  const rated = rows.filter(r=>r.acc!==null && r.attempts>=8).sort(sorter);\r\n  $('fmtNote').innerHTML = rated.length>=2\r\n    ? (()=>{ const w=rated[0], b=rated[rated.length-1], gap=Math.round((b.acc-w.acc)*100);\r\n        return gap>=12\r\n          ? 'Your weakest kind of question is <b>'+w.label+'<\/b> at <b>'+Math.round(w.acc*100)+'%<\/b>, against <b>'+Math.round(b.acc*100)+'%<\/b> on '+b.label.toLowerCase()+' \u2014 a <b>'+gap+'-point<\/b> gap. That is worth more than any single chapter, because these turn up in all of them.'\r\n          : 'You handle the different kinds of question evenly, within <b>'+gap+' points<\/b> of each other. Nothing to fix here \u2014 keep working the chapter list.'; })()\r\n    : 'Attempt a few more and this will show whether the format is costing you more than the topic.';\r\n}\r\nfunction renderRevision(due){\r\n  $('revQ').innerHTML = due.length\r\n    ? due.slice(0,8).map(d=>'<button class=\"rev\" data-gouid=\"'+encodeURIComponent(uid(d.q))+'\">'\r\n        + '<span class=\"n\">Q'+d.q.id+'<\/span><span class=\"t\">'+preview(d.q,58)+'<\/span>'\r\n        + '<span class=\"d\">'+Math.round(d.recall*100)+'% recall<\/span><\/button>').join('')\r\n    : '<p style=\"font-size:13px;color:var(--slate);line-height:1.6\">Nothing decaying right now. Mastered questions return here as their estimated recall drops below '+Math.round(CFG.retention.riskBelow*100)+'%.<\/p>';\r\n}\r\nfunction renderMastery(){\r\n  const b=[0,0,0,0];\r\n  QS.forEach(q=>{ const s=P.stats[uid(q)];\r\n    if(!s || (s.correct+s.incorrect)===0) b[0]++;\r\n    else if(s.correct>=CFG.masteryThreshold) b[3]++;\r\n    else if(s.correct>=2) b[2]++;\r\n    else b[1]++; });\r\n  const labels=['Untouched','Learning (0\u20131 \u2713)','Almost there (2 \u2713)','Mastered ('+CFG.masteryThreshold+' \u2713+)'];\r\n  const cols=['#CBD5E1','var(--gold)','var(--blue-700)','var(--ok)'];\r\n  $('mastDist').innerHTML = b.map((n,i)=>\r\n    '<div class=\"lrow\" style=\"grid-template-columns:minmax(120px,1fr) 2fr 54px\"><span class=\"lname\">'+labels[i]+'<\/span>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"ltrack\"><div class=\"lfill\" style=\"width:'+(QS.length?n\/QS.length*100:0)+'%;background:'+cols[i]+'\"><\/div><\/div>'\r\n    + '<div class=\"lval\" style=\"font-size:15px\">'+n+'<\/div><\/div>').join('');\r\n}\r\nfunction bindPerf(){\r\n  const f=$('btnFocus'), m=$('btnMock'), w=$('btnWipe');\r\n  if(f) f.onclick=()=>startSession('focus');\r\n  if(m) m.onclick=()=>startSession('mock');\r\n  if(w) w.onclick=wipe;\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   16. ANSWERING\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction check(){\r\n  const p=pool(), q=p[S.i]; if(!q) return;\r\n  if(S.pick==null){ S.nudge=true; render(); return; }\r\n  const u=uid(q), ok = S.pick===q.correct;\r\n  S.ans[u]=S.pick; S.pick=null; S.nudge=false;\r\n  const s=stat(u);\r\n  ok ? s.correct++ : s.incorrect++;\r\n  s.last=Date.now(); s.lastOk=ok;\r\n  P.log.push({u, ok, ts:Date.now()});\r\n  P.lastUid=u;\r\n  refreshWeak(); save(); render();\r\n  const res=$('result'); if(res && res.scrollIntoView) try{ res.scrollIntoView({block:'nearest',behavior:'smooth'}); }catch(e){}\r\n}\r\nfunction wipe(){\r\n  if(!confirm('Permanently erase ALL lifetime performance for this subject?\\n\\nMastery, weak areas, flags, accuracy history, the built session and the readiness score all go. This cannot be undone.')) return;\r\n  P = blank(); flags.clear(); weak.clear(); S.ans={}; S.i=0;\r\n  save(); setFilter('all'); renderPerf(); hdr();\r\n  toast('Lifetime performance erased', true);\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   18. EVENTS\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction setTab(t){\r\n  S.tab=t;\r\n  document.querySelectorAll('#cdRoot .tab').forEach(b=>b.setAttribute('aria-selected', b.dataset.tab===t));\r\n  $('viewQuiz').classList.toggle('hide', t!=='quiz');\r\n  $('viewPerf').classList.toggle('hide', t!=='perf');\r\n  $('cdFilters').classList.toggle('hide', t!=='quiz');\r\n  if(t==='perf') renderPerf();\r\n}\r\nfunction setFilter(f, ch){\r\n  S.filter=f; S.i=0; S.pick=null;\r\n  if(ch) S.chapter=ch;\r\n  document.querySelectorAll('#cdRoot .pill-f').forEach(b=>b.setAttribute('aria-pressed', b.dataset.f===f));\r\n  render();\r\n}\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   RESUME  \u2014  pick the sitting up where it was left\r\n   The position, the filter that was in force and the answers given so\r\n   far are written under the same quizId key as everything else, so a\r\n   subject resumes independently of every other subject.\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nfunction markResume(){\r\n  const p = pool(), q = p[S.i];\r\n  if(!q) return;\r\n  const u = uid(q), n = Object.keys(S.ans).length;\r\n  const R = P.resume;\r\n  if(R && R.uid===u && R.n===n && R.filter===S.filter) return;   \/* nothing moved *\/\r\n  P.resume = { uid:u, n:n, filter:S.filter, chapter:S.chapter, query:S.query,\r\n               unattempted:!!S.unattempted, ans:S.ans, ts:Date.now() };\r\n  save();\r\n}\r\nfunction clearResume(){ P.resume=null; save(); }\r\n\r\nfunction restoreResume(){\r\n  const R = P.resume;\r\n  if(!R || !R.uid) return 0;\r\n  if(R.ans && typeof R.ans==='object') S.ans = R.ans;\r\n  S.chapter     = R.chapter || null;\r\n  S.query       = R.query || '';\r\n  S.unattempted = !!R.unattempted;\r\n  const sb = $('cdSearch'); if(sb) sb.value = S.query;\r\n  const tg = $('tglUn');\r\n  if(tg){ tg.setAttribute('aria-pressed', S.unattempted);\r\n          tg.firstChild.textContent = S.unattempted ? '\\u2611 ' : '\\u25FB '; }\r\n  if(R.filter && R.filter!=='all') setFilter(R.filter, R.chapter);\r\n  const p = pool();\r\n  const k = p.findIndex(q => uid(q)===R.uid);\r\n  if(k < 0) return Object.keys(S.ans).length ? -1 : 0;   \/* answers kept, question gone *\/\r\n  S.i = k;\r\n  if(!R.n && k===0) return 0;        \/* nothing was actually attempted \u2014 no bar *\/\r\n  return k + 1;                                          \/* 1-based, for the message *\/\r\n}\r\n\r\nfunction resumeBar(nAt){\r\n  const host = $('qCard'); if(!host) return;\r\n  const bar = document.createElement('div');\r\n  bar.className = 'resumebar';\r\n  const done = Object.keys(S.ans).length;\r\n  bar.innerHTML = '<span>Picked up where you left off'\r\n    + (nAt>0 ? ' \\u2014 question <b>'+nAt+'<\/b>' : '')\r\n    + (done  ? ', <b>'+done+'<\/b> already answered' : '')\r\n    + '.<\/span><button type=\"button\" class=\"rb-btn\" id=\"rbFresh\">Start from the beginning<\/button>';\r\n  host.insertBefore(bar, host.firstChild);\r\n  $('rbFresh').onclick = ()=>{\r\n    S.ans={}; S.i=0; S.pick=null; S.query=''; S.unattempted=false;\r\n    const sb=$('cdSearch'); if(sb) sb.value='';\r\n    const tg=$('tglUn');\r\n    if(tg){ tg.setAttribute('aria-pressed', false);\r\n            tg.firstChild.textContent = '\\u25FB '; }\r\n    clearResume(); bar.remove(); setFilter('all');\r\n    toast('Starting fresh \u2014 your lifetime mastery and flags are untouched', true);\r\n  };\r\n}\r\ndocument.querySelectorAll('#cdRoot .tab').forEach(b=>b.onclick=()=>setTab(b.dataset.tab));\r\ndocument.querySelectorAll('#cdRoot .pill-f').forEach(b=>b.onclick=()=>setFilter(b.dataset.f));\r\n$('chapList').addEventListener('click', e=>{\r\n  const chip=e.target.closest('.chapchip'); if(!chip) return;\r\n  S.chapter = decodeURIComponent(chip.dataset.ch);\r\n  S.i=0; S.pick=null; render();\r\n});\r\n$('btnCheck').onclick = check;\r\n$('btnNext').onclick  = ()=>{ TURN=1; S.i++; S.pick=null; render(); };\r\n$('btnPrev').onclick  = ()=>{ TURN=-1; S.i--; S.pick=null; render(); };\r\n$('btnFlag').onclick  = ()=>{\r\n  const p=pool(), q=p[S.i]; if(!q) return;\r\n  const u=uid(q);\r\n  flags.has(u) ? flags.delete(u) : flags.add(u);\r\n  P.flags=[...flags]; save(); render();\r\n};\r\n$('navToggle').onclick = ()=>{ navOpen=!navOpen; renderNav(pool()); };\r\nlet tmr;\r\n$('cdSearch').addEventListener('input', e=>{\r\n  clearTimeout(tmr);\r\n  tmr=setTimeout(()=>{ S.query=e.target.value.trim(); S.i=0; S.pick=null; render(); },220);\r\n});\r\n$('tglUn').onclick = e=>{\r\n  S.unattempted=!S.unattempted;\r\n  e.currentTarget.setAttribute('aria-pressed',S.unattempted);\r\n  e.currentTarget.firstChild.textContent = S.unattempted?'\u2611 ':'\u25fb ';\r\n  S.i=0; S.pick=null; render();\r\n};\r\n$('tglReset').onclick = ()=>{\r\n  if(!Object.keys(S.ans).length) return;\r\n  if(!confirm('Reset this sitting? Only the answers on screen are cleared \u2014 your lifetime performance and mastery are kept.')) return;\r\n  S.ans={}; S.i=0; S.pick=null; render();\r\n  toast('Session reset \u2014 performance data kept', true);\r\n};\r\n\r\n\/* performance-tab jumps + AI chips, delegated *\/\r\ndocument.addEventListener('click', e=>{\r\n  if(!e.target.closest('#cdRoot')) return;\r\n  const goch=e.target.closest('[data-goch]');\r\n  if(goch){ setTab('quiz'); setFilter('chapter', decodeURIComponent(goch.dataset.goch));\r\n    toast('Filtered to '+chShort(S.chapter), true); return; }\r\n  if(e.target.closest('[data-goweak]')){ setTab('quiz'); setFilter('weak'); return; }\r\n  if(e.target.closest('[data-goflag]')){ setTab('quiz'); setFilter('flagged'); return; }\r\n  const gu=e.target.closest('[data-gouid]');\r\n  if(gu){\r\n    const u=decodeURIComponent(gu.dataset.gouid);\r\n    setTab('quiz'); setFilter('all');\r\n    const idx=pool().findIndex(q=>uid(q)===u);\r\n    if(idx>=0){ TURN=(idx>S.i?1:-1); S.i=idx; render(); }\r\n    return;\r\n  }\r\n});\r\n\/* keyboard, scoped to the widget *\/\r\ndocument.addEventListener('keydown', e=>{\r\n  if(S.tab!=='quiz') return;\r\n  const t=e.target;\r\n  if(t && (\/^(INPUT|TEXTAREA|SELECT)$\/.test(t.tagName) || t.isContentEditable)) return;\r\n  if(e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey||e.altKey) return;\r\n  const p=pool(); if(!p.length) return;\r\n  const q=p[S.i];\r\n  if(\/^[1-9]$\/.test(e.key)){\r\n    const k=+e.key-1;\r\n    if(q && S.ans[uid(q)]==null && k<q.options.length){ e.preventDefault(); S.pick=k; S.nudge=false; render(); }\r\n    return;\r\n  }\r\n  const low=e.key.toLowerCase();\r\n  if(\/^[a-f]$\/.test(low)){\r\n    const k=low.charCodeAt(0)-97;\r\n    if(q && S.ans[uid(q)]==null && k<q.options.length){ e.preventDefault(); S.pick=k; S.nudge=false; render(); }\r\n    return;\r\n  }\r\n  if(e.key==='Enter'){ e.preventDefault();\r\n    if(q && S.ans[uid(q)]==null) check();\r\n    else if(S.i<p.length-1){ TURN=1; S.i++; S.pick=null; render(); }\r\n    return; }\r\n  if(e.key==='ArrowRight'){ e.preventDefault(); TURN=1; S.i++; S.pick=null; render(); return; }\r\n  if(e.key==='ArrowLeft'){ e.preventDefault(); TURN=-1; S.i--; S.pick=null; render(); return; }\r\n  if(low==='f'){ e.preventDefault(); $('btnFlag').click(); }\r\n});\r\nwindow.addEventListener('beforeunload', save);\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   19. BOOT\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\n$('cdEyebrow').textContent = 'CSS ADDA \u00b7 PromotionExams.com' + (CFG.eyebrow ? '  \u00b7  '+CFG.eyebrow : '');\r\n$('cdTopic').textContent   = CFG.topic;\r\n$('cdSub').textContent     = CFG.sub;\r\ndocument.getElementById('cdRoot').classList.toggle('paper', !!CFG.paperMode);\r\ndocument.getElementById('cdRoot').classList.toggle('stock', !!CFG.paperTexture);\r\ndocument.getElementById('cdRoot').classList.toggle('boldq', !!CFG.boldQuestion);\r\n$('wHead').textContent     = T.onScreen;\r\n$('wUnit').textContent     = WT ? 'importance' : 'of this bank';\r\n$('chapHint').textContent  = '';\r\nif(SRC_ON){\r\n  $('srcCard').classList.remove('hide');\r\n  $('srcLink').href = CFG.sourceUrl;\r\n}\r\nif(WT && W.derived.length) console.warn('[importance] not rated yet: '+W.derived.join(' | ')+' \u2014 using share of the bank for these.');\r\nif(WT && W.unstocked.length) console.warn('[importance] these keys matched no chapter in the bank: '+W.unstocked.join(' | '));\r\nif(WT) console.info('[importance] '+CHAPTERS.filter(c=>W.source[c]==='rated').length+' of '+CHAPTERS.length+' chapters matched a rating.');\r\nif(!WT) console.info('[ranking] chapterImportance is empty \u2014 chapters are ranked by their share of this bank and importance is not mentioned anywhere.');\r\nsetTab('quiz');\r\nconst _resumedAt = restoreResume();\r\ntry{ render(); }catch(err){ console.error('render failed', err); }\r\nif(_resumedAt !== 0) resumeBar(_resumedAt);\r\nwindow.addEventListener('pagehide', markResume);\r\ndocument.addEventListener('visibilitychange', ()=>{ if(document.hidden) markResume(); });\r\n\r\n\/* =====================================================================\r\n   20. CONTENT PROTECTION\r\n   Honest about what this can and cannot do.\r\n\r\n   REALLY BLOCKED\r\n     copy, cut, right-click, drag-out, text selection, Ctrl\/Cmd+C, X, S,\r\n     P, U, and printing or \"Save as PDF\" from the browser.\r\n\r\n   DETERRED, NOT BLOCKED\r\n     screenshots. No web page can stop the operating system taking one \u2014\r\n     Print Screen, Snipping Tool, macOS Shift-Cmd-4 and every phone all\r\n     work below the browser. What is done instead: the questions blur the\r\n     moment this window stops being the front window, which defeats the\r\n     common \"screenshot with another app\" and casual screen-share cases,\r\n     and Print Screen is caught where the browser reports it and the\r\n     clipboard is overwritten.\r\n\r\n   NOT BLOCKED AT ALL\r\n     View Source, Save Page, DevTools, or Reader Mode. Every question is\r\n     in the page HTML because that is how the widget runs. Anyone willing\r\n     to open the source can read the bank. Serving questions from a\r\n     licence-checked endpoint is the only real fix for that; this layer\r\n     stops casual copying, which is what it is for.\r\n   ===================================================================== *\/\r\nconst PROTECT = {\r\n  selection : true,   \/\/ block selecting, copying, cutting, dragging\r\n  context   : true,   \/\/ block right-click inside the widget\r\n  keys      : true,   \/\/ block Ctrl\/Cmd + C X S P U\r\n  print     : true,   \/\/ swap the paper for a notice when printing\r\n  veil      : true    \/\/ blur the questions when the window loses focus\r\n};\r\n\r\n(function protectContent(){\r\n  const root = $('cdRoot');\r\n  const stop = (e, msg) => { e.preventDefault(); e.stopPropagation(); if(msg) toast(msg); return false; };\r\n\r\n  if(PROTECT.selection){\r\n    ['copy','cut'].forEach(ev => root.addEventListener(ev, e=>{\r\n      if(e.target && \/^(INPUT|TEXTAREA)$\/.test(e.target.tagName)) return;   \/\/ let the search box work\r\n      stop(e,'This content cannot be copied');\r\n    }));\r\n    root.addEventListener('dragstart', e=>stop(e));\r\n    root.addEventListener('selectstart', e=>{\r\n      if(e.target && \/^(INPUT|TEXTAREA)$\/.test(e.target.tagName)) return;\r\n      e.preventDefault();\r\n    });\r\n  }\r\n\r\n  if(PROTECT.context)\r\n    root.addEventListener('contextmenu', e=>stop(e,'Right-click is disabled here'));\r\n\r\n  if(PROTECT.keys){\r\n    document.addEventListener('keydown', e=>{\r\n      const t=e.target;\r\n      const inField = t && (\/^(INPUT|TEXTAREA)$\/.test(t.tagName) || t.isContentEditable);\r\n      const k=(e.key||'').toLowerCase();\r\n      if((e.ctrlKey||e.metaKey) && ['c','x','s','p','u'].includes(k)){\r\n        if(inField && (k==='c'||k==='x')) return;    \/\/ copying inside the search box is harmless\r\n        return stop(e, k==='p' ? 'Printing is disabled' : k==='s' ? 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