DEDU504 \u2014 Educational Measurement and Evaluation | Bilingual Study Notes<\/title>\n<style>\n .elementor-section.elementor-section-stretched,\n .elementor-section-full_width,\n .elementor-container,\n .elementor-column,\n .elementor-column-wrap,\n .elementor-widget-wrap,\n .elementor-element {\n padding: 0 !important;\n margin: 0 !important;\n gap: 0 !important;\n }*, *::before, *::after { box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0; padding: 0; }\n :root {\n --navy: #14243f;\n --blue: #1f5fa9;\n --sky: #2f92d1;\n --teal: #0d8f79;\n --amber: #c9760f;\n --red: #c0392b;\n --gold: #c2a010;\n --purple: #6b3a8f;\n --plum: #8e2f5a;\n --text: #1c2b3a;\n --muted: #5a6d80;\n --border: #e1e8f0;\n }\n html { scroll-behavior: smooth; }\n body {\n font-family: 'DM Sans', -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, 'Segoe UI', sans-serif;\n background: #ffffff;\n color: var(--text);\n font-size: 15px;\n line-height: 1.85;\n }\n a { text-decoration: none; color: inherit; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 LANGUAGE TOGGLE \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .lang-toggle-bar { margin-left: auto; flex-shrink: 0; }\n .lang-toggle-btn {\n display: flex; align-items: center;\n background: #fff; border: 2px solid var(--navy);\n border-radius: 50px; padding: 3px;\n box-shadow: 0 2px 10px rgba(20,36,63,0.13);\n cursor: pointer; transition: box-shadow 0.18s;\n }\n .lang-toggle-btn:hover { box-shadow: 0 4px 18px rgba(20,36,63,0.22); }\n .lang-option {\n padding: 5px 16px; border-radius: 40px;\n font-size: 12.5px; font-weight: 700;\n letter-spacing: 0.04em; transition: all 0.22s ease;\n color: var(--muted); user-select: none; white-space: nowrap;\n }\n .lang-option.active {\n background: var(--navy); color: #fff;\n box-shadow: 0 2px 6px rgba(20,36,63,0.22);\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 LANGUAGE VISIBILITY \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .hi { display: none; }\n body.hindi-mode .en { display: none; }\n body.hindi-mode .hi { display: inline; }\n body.hindi-mode .hi-block { display: block !important; }\n body.hindi-mode .en-block { display: none !important; }\n .hi-block { display: none; }\n body.hindi-mode { font-family: 'Noto Sans Devanagari', 'DM Sans', sans-serif; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 HERO \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .hero {\n width: 100%;\n background: linear-gradient(135deg, #e6bf45 0%, #cf9a1e 38%, #9a6d0f 72%, #6d4b09 100%);\n padding: 58px 48px 52px;\n color: #fff; position: relative; overflow: hidden;\n text-align: center;\n }\n .hero::before {\n content: ''; position: absolute; inset: 0;\n background-image:\n linear-gradient(rgba(255,255,255,0.055) 1px, transparent 1px),\n linear-gradient(90deg, rgba(255,255,255,0.055) 1px, transparent 1px);\n background-size: 34px 34px;\n pointer-events: none;\n }\n .hero::after {\n content: ''; position: absolute; left: 50%; bottom: -240px;\n transform: translateX(-50%);\n width: 720px; height: 380px;\n background: radial-gradient(ellipse at center, rgba(255,255,255,0.20) 0%, transparent 70%);\n pointer-events: none;\n }\n .hero h1 {\n font-family: 'Crimson Pro', Georgia, serif;\n font-size: clamp(27px, 4.4vw, 42px);\n font-weight: 700; line-height: 1.2;\n margin: 0 auto 14px; position: relative; z-index: 1;\n color: #fff;\n text-shadow: 0 2px 10px rgba(0,0,0,0.28);\n }\n .hero-code {\n display: inline-block;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 11.5px; font-weight: 700;\n letter-spacing: 0.18em;\n background: rgba(255,255,255,0.20);\n border: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.55);\n padding: 5px 16px; border-radius: 4px;\n margin-bottom: 16px; position: relative; z-index: 1;\n }\n .hero-sub {\n font-size: 14.5px; opacity: 0.95; margin: 0 auto 16px;\n max-width: 760px; position: relative; z-index: 1; color: #fff;\n text-shadow: 0 1px 4px rgba(0,0,0,0.25);\n }\n .hero-meta {\n display: inline-flex; gap: 8px; align-items: center;\n background: rgba(255,255,255,0.94); padding: 5px 14px;\n border-radius: 50px; position: relative; z-index: 1;\n font-size: 12px; font-weight: 600; color: var(--navy);\n box-shadow: 0 2px 6px rgba(0,0,0,0.15);\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 BREADCRUMB \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .breadcrumb-bar { background: #fff; border-bottom: 1px solid var(--border); padding: 10px 48px; }\n .breadcrumb-inner {\n max-width: 1120px; margin: 0 auto;\n font-size: 12.5px; color: #aaa;\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 6px;\n }\n .breadcrumb-inner a { color: var(--blue); }\n .breadcrumb-inner a:hover { text-decoration: underline; }\n .breadcrumb-inner .sep { color: #ddd; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 LAYOUT \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .layout {\n max-width: 1120px; margin: 0 auto;\n padding: 44px 48px 88px;\n display: grid;\n grid-template-columns: 285px 1fr;\n gap: 54px;\n align-items: start;\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 CHAPTER HEADING \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .chapter-heading-block {\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 14px;\n margin: 8px 0 22px; padding-bottom: 14px;\n border-bottom: 2.5px solid var(--navy);\n flex-wrap: wrap;\n }\n .chapter-badge {\n background: var(--navy); color: #fff;\n font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700;\n padding: 5px 16px; border-radius: 4px;\n letter-spacing: 0.1em; text-transform: uppercase;\n white-space: nowrap; flex-shrink: 0;\n }\n .chapter-heading-block h2 {\n font-family: 'Crimson Pro', Georgia, serif;\n font-size: 23px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin: 0;\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 SECTION HEADING \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .section-heading-block {\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 12px;\n margin: 38px 0 14px; scroll-margin-top: 20px;\n }\n .section-badge {\n background: var(--blue); color: #fff;\n font-size: 10.5px; font-weight: 700;\n padding: 4px 12px; border-radius: 3px;\n letter-spacing: 0.04em; white-space: nowrap; flex-shrink: 0;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n }\n .section-heading-block h3 { font-size: 17.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin: 0; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 PROSE \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .article h4 { font-size: 14.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin: 24px 0 10px; }\n .article h5.sub { font-size: 13px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--purple); margin: 16px 0 8px; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.05em; }\n .article p { color: #2c3e50; margin-bottom: 12px; text-align: justify; hyphens: auto; }\n .article strong { color: #111; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 ICON LIST \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .icon-list { list-style: none; margin: 0 0 14px; display: flex; flex-direction: column; gap: 8px; }\n .icon-list li { display: flex; align-items: flex-start; gap: 10px; font-size: 14.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.78; }\n .icon-list li .ico { font-size: 14px; flex-shrink: 0; margin-top: 4px; width: 22px; text-align: center; font-weight: 700; color: var(--blue); }\n .icon-list li > span:not(.ico) { text-align: justify; hyphens: auto; flex: 1; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 CALLOUT \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .callout {\n border-left: 3px solid var(--blue);\n padding: 12px 18px; margin: 16px 0 20px;\n background: #f7fbff; text-align: justify; hyphens: auto;\n border-radius: 0 6px 6px 0;\n }\n .callout.amber { border-left-color: var(--amber); background: #fffbf4; }\n .callout.red { border-left-color: var(--red); background: #fff8f7; }\n .callout.teal { border-left-color: var(--teal); background: #f2fdfa; }\n .callout.purple{ border-left-color: var(--purple);background: #faf6ff; }\n .callout-label {\n font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700; text-transform: uppercase;\n letter-spacing: 0.12em; margin-bottom: 8px; color: var(--blue);\n }\n .callout.amber .callout-label { color: var(--amber); }\n .callout.red .callout-label { color: var(--red); }\n .callout.teal .callout-label { color: var(--teal); }\n .callout.purple .callout-label { color: var(--purple); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 KEY-FACT CARDS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .keyfact-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(auto-fit, minmax(240px, 1fr)); gap: 14px; margin: 20px 0 28px; }\n .keyfact-card { border: 1.5px solid var(--border); border-radius: 10px; padding: 18px 16px; text-align: center; background: #fff; }\n .keyfact-card.navy-hi { border-color: #93a8c2; background: #f3f6fb; }\n .keyfact-card.teal-hi { border-color: #7fd3c5; background: #f0fdf8; }\n .keyfact-card.amber-hi { border-color: #f0d58a; background: #fffbf0; }\n .keyfact-card .big-icon { font-size: 28px; margin-bottom: 8px; display: block; }\n .keyfact-card .kf-label { font-size: 10.5px; font-weight: 700; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.08em; color: var(--muted); margin-bottom: 6px; }\n .keyfact-card .kf-value { font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 17px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); line-height: 1.15; margin-bottom: 5px; }\n .keyfact-card.teal-hi .kf-value { color: var(--teal); }\n .keyfact-card.amber-hi .kf-value { color: var(--amber); }\n .keyfact-card .kf-sub { font-size: 11.5px; color: var(--muted); line-height: 1.5; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 DEFINITION CARD (scholar quotes) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .def-stack { display: flex; flex-direction: column; gap: 10px; margin: 16px 0 22px; }\n .def-card {\n background: linear-gradient(95deg, #f6f9fd 0%, #fff 60%);\n border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-left: 4px solid var(--navy);\n border-radius: 8px; padding: 14px 18px;\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 130px 1fr; gap: 16px; align-items: start;\n }\n .def-card:nth-child(2) { border-left-color: var(--blue); }\n .def-card:nth-child(3) { border-left-color: var(--teal); }\n .def-card:nth-child(4) { border-left-color: var(--amber); }\n .def-card:nth-child(5) { border-left-color: var(--purple); }\n .def-card .def-who {\n font-size: 12.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); line-height: 1.4;\n }\n .def-card .def-who small { display: block; font-size: 10.5px; font-weight: 600; color: var(--muted); text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.05em; margin-top: 2px; }\n .def-card .def-text { font-size: 13.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.68; }\n @media (max-width: 620px) { .def-card { grid-template-columns: 1fr; gap: 6px; } }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 FORMULA CARD (new) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .formula-card {\n background: linear-gradient(130deg, var(--navy) 0%, #1c3a63 100%);\n border-radius: 12px; padding: 22px 26px; margin: 18px 0 24px;\n color: #fff; text-align: center;\n }\n .formula-card .fx-eyebrow {\n font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.16em;\n text-transform: uppercase; color: #ffd970; margin-bottom: 12px;\n }\n .formula-card .fx-body {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: clamp(13px, 2vw, 16px); font-weight: 700;\n line-height: 1.9; color: #fff;\n }\n .formula-card .fx-body em { color: #ffd970; font-style: normal; }\n .formula-card .fx-note {\n margin-top: 12px; padding-top: 12px;\n border-top: 1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.2);\n font-size: 12.5px; color: rgba(255,255,255,0.9); line-height: 1.6;\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 VS COMPARE (new) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .vs-compare { display: grid; grid-template-columns: 1fr auto 1fr; gap: 0; margin: 18px 0 24px; align-items: stretch; }\n .vs-side { background: #fff; border: 2px solid var(--border); border-radius: 12px; padding: 18px 20px; }\n .vs-side.left { border-color: var(--blue); background: linear-gradient(180deg, #eef4fc 0%, #fff 65%); }\n .vs-side.right { border-color: var(--teal); background: linear-gradient(180deg, #eefbf7 0%, #fff 65%); }\n .vs-side h5 { font-size: 14.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin-bottom: 4px; }\n .vs-side .vs-tag {\n display: inline-block; font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 800; letter-spacing: 0.12em; text-transform: uppercase;\n padding: 3px 10px; border-radius: 12px; margin-bottom: 10px; color: #fff;\n }\n .vs-side.left .vs-tag { background: var(--blue); }\n .vs-side.right .vs-tag { background: var(--teal); }\n .vs-side ul { list-style: none; margin: 0; font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.65; }\n .vs-side ul li { padding: 4px 0 4px 16px; position: relative; }\n .vs-side ul li::before { content: '\u25b8'; position: absolute; left: 0; top: 4px; color: var(--blue); font-size: 10px; }\n .vs-side.right ul li::before { color: var(--teal); }\n .vs-mid {\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n padding: 0 12px; font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-weight: 800; font-size: 13px; color: var(--muted);\n }\n @media (max-width: 720px) {\n .vs-compare { grid-template-columns: 1fr; gap: 10px; }\n .vs-mid { padding: 2px 0; }\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 TABLES \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .data-table { width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 16px 0 24px; border-radius: 8px; overflow: hidden; border: 1px solid var(--border); font-size: 13.5px; }\n .data-table thead tr { background: var(--navy); color: #fff; }\n .data-table th { padding: 11px 14px; text-align: left; font-size: 12px; font-weight: 700; text-transform: uppercase; letter-spacing: 0.04em; }\n .data-table th.narrow, .data-table td.narrow { width: 52px; text-align: center; }\n .data-table td { padding: 11px 14px; vertical-align: top; border-bottom: 1px solid var(--border); color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6; }\n .data-table td.narrow { font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 12px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--blue); }\n .data-table tr:nth-child(even) td { background: #f9fbfd; }\n .data-table td strong { color: var(--navy); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 NUMBERED STACK \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .num-stack { counter-reset: ns; list-style: none; margin: 16px 0 24px; }\n .num-stack li {\n counter-increment: ns; position: relative;\n padding: 12px 16px 12px 56px; margin-bottom: 7px;\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-left: 4px solid var(--blue);\n border-radius: 6px; font-size: 13.5px; line-height: 1.65;\n }\n .num-stack li::before {\n content: counter(ns);\n position: absolute; left: 12px; top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%);\n width: 30px; height: 30px; border-radius: 50%;\n background: var(--navy); color: #fff;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 12px;\n }\n .num-stack.roman li::before { content: counter(ns, upper-roman); font-size: 10.5px; }\n .num-stack.alpha li::before { content: counter(ns, lower-alpha); }\n .num-stack li strong { color: var(--navy); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 FEATURE GRID \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .feat-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(auto-fit, minmax(230px, 1fr)); gap: 12px; margin: 16px 0 24px; }\n .feat-card {\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-radius: 10px; padding: 14px 16px 14px 46px;\n position: relative; font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6;\n border-left: 4px solid var(--teal);\n }\n .feat-card .fc-num {\n position: absolute; left: 10px; top: 14px;\n width: 26px; height: 26px; border-radius: 50%;\n background: var(--teal); color: #fff;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 11px;\n }\n .feat-card strong { color: var(--navy); display: block; margin-bottom: 3px; font-size: 13px; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 LADDER (hierarchical taxonomy levels) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .ladder { margin: 18px 0 26px; }\n .rung {\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 54px 1fr; gap: 16px;\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-radius: 10px; padding: 16px 18px; margin-bottom: 8px;\n align-items: start; transition: transform 0.15s, border-color 0.15s;\n }\n .rung:hover { transform: translateX(3px); border-color: var(--blue); }\n .rung .rung-step {\n width: 54px; text-align: center;\n }\n .rung .rung-num {\n display: block; width: 40px; height: 40px; margin: 0 auto 4px;\n border-radius: 10px; color: #fff;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 15px;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n }\n .rung .rung-tier { font-size: 8.5px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.08em; text-transform: uppercase; color: var(--muted); }\n .rung h5 { font-size: 14.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin-bottom: 5px; }\n .rung h5 .revised { font-size: 11px; font-weight: 600; color: var(--purple); font-style: italic; }\n .rung p { font-size: 13px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.65; margin: 0 0 6px; text-align: justify; }\n .rung .rung-eg {\n margin-top: 8px; padding: 8px 12px;\n background: #f7fbff; border-left: 3px solid var(--sky);\n border-radius: 0 5px 5px 0; font-size: 12px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6;\n }\n .rung .rung-eg b { color: var(--blue); text-transform: uppercase; font-size: 10px; letter-spacing: 0.08em; display: block; margin-bottom: 3px; }\n .rung:nth-child(1) .rung-num { background: var(--teal); }\n .rung:nth-child(2) .rung-num { background: var(--sky); }\n .rung:nth-child(3) .rung-num { background: var(--blue); }\n .rung:nth-child(4) .rung-num { background: var(--gold); }\n .rung:nth-child(5) .rung-num { background: var(--amber); }\n .rung:nth-child(6) .rung-num { background: var(--plum); }\n .rung:nth-child(1) { border-left: 4px solid var(--teal); }\n .rung:nth-child(2) { border-left: 4px solid var(--sky); }\n .rung:nth-child(3) { border-left: 4px solid var(--blue); }\n .rung:nth-child(4) { border-left: 4px solid var(--gold); }\n .rung:nth-child(5) { border-left: 4px solid var(--amber); }\n .rung:nth-child(6) { border-left: 4px solid var(--plum); }\n @media (max-width: 560px) { .rung { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } .rung .rung-step { text-align: left; } .rung .rung-num { margin: 0 0 4px; } }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 DOMAIN CARDS (3 domains) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .domain-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(3, 1fr); gap: 14px; margin: 18px 0 26px; }\n .domain-card {\n border: 2px solid var(--border); border-radius: 14px;\n padding: 20px 18px; text-align: center; background: #fff;\n position: relative; transition: transform 0.18s, box-shadow 0.18s;\n }\n .domain-card:hover { transform: translateY(-3px); box-shadow: 0 6px 18px rgba(20,36,63,0.10); }\n .domain-card.cog { border-color: var(--blue); background: linear-gradient(180deg, #eef4fc 0%, #fff 62%); }\n .domain-card.aff { border-color: var(--plum); background: linear-gradient(180deg, #fdf0f5 0%, #fff 62%); }\n .domain-card.psy { border-color: var(--teal); background: linear-gradient(180deg, #eefbf7 0%, #fff 62%); }\n .domain-card .dm-icon {\n width: 54px; height: 54px; border-radius: 50%;\n margin: 0 auto 10px; display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-size: 25px; color: #fff;\n }\n .domain-card.cog .dm-icon { background: var(--blue); }\n .domain-card.aff .dm-icon { background: var(--plum); }\n .domain-card.psy .dm-icon { background: var(--teal); }\n .domain-card h5 { font-size: 15px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin-bottom: 4px; }\n .domain-card .dm-gandhi {\n display: inline-block; font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700;\n letter-spacing: 0.1em; text-transform: uppercase;\n padding: 2px 10px; border-radius: 10px; margin-bottom: 8px; color: #fff;\n }\n .domain-card.cog .dm-gandhi { background: var(--blue); }\n .domain-card.aff .dm-gandhi { background: var(--plum); }\n .domain-card.psy .dm-gandhi { background: var(--teal); }\n .domain-card p { font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0; text-align: center; }\n .domain-card .dm-levels {\n margin-top: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-top: 1px dashed var(--border);\n font-size: 11px; color: var(--muted); line-height: 1.5;\n }\n @media (max-width: 720px) { .domain-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 ENRICHMENT BOX (beyond the textbook) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .enrich-box {\n border: 2px dashed var(--purple); border-radius: 12px;\n padding: 22px 24px; margin: 22px 0 26px;\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, #faf6ff 0%, #fff 70%);\n position: relative;\n }\n .enrich-stamp {\n position: absolute; top: -11px; left: 20px;\n background: var(--purple); color: #fff;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.1em;\n text-transform: uppercase; padding: 3px 12px; border-radius: 4px;\n }\n .enrich-box h4 { margin-top: 6px !important; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 SCALE STRIP (nominal\u2192ratio) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .scale-strip { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(4, 1fr); gap: 0; margin: 16px 0 18px; }\n .scale-step {\n position: relative; padding: 16px 14px; text-align: center;\n background: #fff; border: 2px solid var(--border); border-radius: 10px;\n margin: 0 5px;\n }\n .scale-step:nth-child(1) { border-color: var(--teal); background: linear-gradient(180deg,#eefbf7 0%,#fff 70%); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(2) { border-color: var(--sky); background: linear-gradient(180deg,#eaf6ff 0%,#fff 70%); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(3) { border-color: var(--amber); background: linear-gradient(180deg,#fffaef 0%,#fff 70%); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(4) { border-color: var(--plum); background: linear-gradient(180deg,#fdf0f5 0%,#fff 70%); }\n .scale-step .ss-num {\n display: inline-block; font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700; color: #fff;\n padding: 2px 8px; border-radius: 3px; margin-bottom: 6px;\n }\n .scale-step:nth-child(1) .ss-num { background: var(--teal); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(2) .ss-num { background: var(--sky); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(3) .ss-num { background: var(--amber); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(4) .ss-num { background: var(--plum); }\n .scale-step h6 { font-size: 13px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin-bottom: 4px; }\n .scale-step p { font-size: 11.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0; text-align: center; }\n .scale-step:not(:last-child)::after {\n content: '\u203a'; position: absolute; right: -10px; top: 50%;\n transform: translateY(-50%); font-size: 22px; color: #b8c8d8; font-weight: 700; z-index: 2;\n }\n @media (max-width: 780px) {\n .scale-strip { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, 1fr); row-gap: 12px; }\n .scale-step:nth-child(2)::after { display: none; }\n }\n @media (max-width: 460px) {\n .scale-strip { grid-template-columns: 1fr; }\n .scale-step::after { display: none; }\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .cyp-box {\n background: linear-gradient(95deg, #fffaef 0%, #fff 70%);\n border: 1.5px solid #f0d58a; border-left: 4px solid var(--amber);\n border-radius: 0 10px 10px 0; padding: 18px 22px; margin: 22px 0;\n }\n .cyp-title {\n font-size: 10.5px; font-weight: 700; text-transform: uppercase;\n letter-spacing: 0.12em; color: var(--amber); margin-bottom: 12px;\n }\n .cyp-q {\n border-bottom: 1px dashed #f0d58a; padding: 8px 0;\n }\n .cyp-q:last-child { border-bottom: none; }\n .cyp-q summary {\n cursor: pointer; font-size: 13.5px; font-weight: 600; color: var(--navy);\n list-style: none; display: flex; gap: 10px; align-items: flex-start;\n }\n .cyp-q summary::-webkit-details-marker { display: none; }\n .cyp-q summary::before {\n content: 'Q'; flex-shrink: 0;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700;\n background: var(--amber); color: #fff; padding: 2px 7px; border-radius: 3px; margin-top: 3px;\n }\n .cyp-q[open] summary { color: var(--amber); }\n .cyp-q .cyp-a {\n margin: 8px 0 4px 34px; padding: 10px 14px;\n background: #fff; border-left: 3px solid var(--teal); border-radius: 0 5px 5px 0;\n font-size: 13px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.7;\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 GLOSSARY \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .glossary { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(auto-fit, minmax(280px, 1fr)); gap: 10px; margin: 16px 0 24px; }\n .gloss-item {\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-left: 4px solid var(--sky); border-radius: 8px;\n padding: 12px 15px; font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6;\n }\n .gloss-item b { display: block; color: var(--navy); font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 3px; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 QUESTION BANK \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .qbank { margin: 16px 0 24px; }\n .qbank-head {\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 10px; margin: 18px 0 10px;\n }\n .qbank-head .qb-pill {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.08em;\n padding: 4px 12px; border-radius: 12px; color: #fff; text-transform: uppercase;\n }\n .qbank-head .qb-pill.short { background: var(--teal); }\n .qbank-head .qb-pill.long { background: var(--plum); }\n .qbank-head h5 { font-size: 13.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin: 0; }\n .qbank ol { margin: 0 0 0 24px; }\n .qbank ol li { font-size: 13.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.75; padding: 4px 0; }\n .qbank ol li::marker { color: var(--blue); font-weight: 700; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 EXAM TIP \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .exam-tip {\n background: linear-gradient(95deg, #f2fdfa 0%, #fff 70%);\n border: 1.5px solid #7fd3c5; border-radius: 10px;\n padding: 14px 18px; margin: 16px 0 22px;\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 40px 1fr; gap: 14px; align-items: start;\n }\n .exam-tip .et-icon {\n width: 40px; height: 40px; border-radius: 10px;\n background: var(--teal); color: #fff;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center; font-size: 19px;\n }\n .exam-tip .et-body { font-size: 13px; color: #1a4a3f; line-height: 1.68; }\n .exam-tip .et-body strong { color: var(--teal); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 PROCESS FLOW (step chain) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .flow-wrap { margin: 18px 0 26px; }\n .flow-note {\n font-size: 12.5px; color: var(--muted); font-style: italic;\n background: #f7fbff; border-left: 3px solid var(--sky);\n padding: 8px 14px; border-radius: 0 6px 6px 0; margin-bottom: 14px;\n }\n .flow-steps { position: relative; padding-left: 4px; }\n .flow-steps::before {\n content: ''; position: absolute; left: 23px; top: 18px; bottom: 18px;\n width: 2px; border-radius: 2px;\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, var(--teal) 0%, var(--sky) 35%, var(--blue) 70%, var(--navy) 100%);\n }\n .flow-step {\n position: relative; display: grid; grid-template-columns: 48px 1fr;\n gap: 16px; align-items: start; margin-bottom: 9px;\n }\n .flow-step .fs-num {\n position: relative; z-index: 1;\n width: 38px; height: 38px; border-radius: 50%; margin-left: 5px;\n background: #fff; border: 2.5px solid var(--blue); color: var(--blue);\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 13px;\n box-shadow: 0 0 0 5px #fff;\n }\n .flow-step .fs-body {\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-left: 4px solid var(--blue); border-radius: 8px;\n padding: 11px 16px; font-size: 13.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.65;\n transition: transform 0.15s, border-color 0.15s, box-shadow 0.15s;\n }\n .flow-step:hover .fs-body {\n transform: translateX(4px); border-color: var(--sky);\n box-shadow: 0 3px 12px rgba(20,36,63,0.07);\n }\n .flow-step .fs-body strong { color: var(--navy); }\n .flow-step .fs-body .fs-sub { display: block; margin-top: 3px; font-size: 12px; color: var(--muted); }\n .flow-step:nth-child(1) .fs-num { border-color: var(--teal); color: var(--teal); }\n .flow-step:nth-child(1) .fs-body { border-left-color: var(--teal); }\n .flow-step:nth-child(2) .fs-num { border-color: var(--sky); color: var(--sky); }\n .flow-step:nth-child(2) .fs-body { border-left-color: var(--sky); }\n .flow-step:last-child .fs-num { background: var(--navy); border-color: var(--navy); color: #fff; }\n .flow-step:last-child .fs-body {\n border-left-color: var(--navy);\n background: linear-gradient(95deg, #f3f6fb 0%, #fff 65%);\n }\n @media (max-width: 520px) {\n .flow-step { grid-template-columns: 40px 1fr; gap: 12px; }\n .flow-steps::before { left: 19px; }\n .flow-step .fs-num { width: 32px; height: 32px; font-size: 11.5px; margin-left: 3px; }\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 SPLIT LIST (breaks run-on enumerations inside callouts \/ rung-eg) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .split-list { list-style: none; margin: 9px 0 0; display: flex; flex-direction: column; gap: 6px; }\n .split-list li {\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 22px 1fr; gap: 8px; align-items: start;\n font-size: 12.5px; line-height: 1.62; color: #2c3e50;\n padding: 7px 11px; background: rgba(255,255,255,0.85);\n border: 1px solid rgba(0,0,0,0.05); border-left: 2.5px solid var(--sky);\n border-radius: 0 5px 5px 0;\n }\n .split-list li .sl-tag {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700;\n color: var(--blue); text-align: center; padding-top: 1px;\n }\n .callout.amber .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--amber); }\n .callout.amber .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--amber); }\n .callout.red .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--red); }\n .callout.red .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--red); }\n .callout.teal .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--teal); }\n .callout.teal .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--teal); }\n .callout.purple .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--purple); }\n .callout.purple .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--purple); }\n .exam-tip .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--teal); background: #fff; }\n .exam-tip .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--teal); }\n .rung-eg .split-list { margin-top: 6px; }\n .rung-eg .split-list li { background: #fff; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 KEY\u2013VALUE BLOCK (Examples: \/ Tools: \/ Features:) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .kv-block { display: flex; flex-direction: column; gap: 8px; margin-top: 9px; }\n .kv-row {\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 92px 1fr; gap: 11px; align-items: start;\n font-size: 12.5px; line-height: 1.62; color: #2c3e50;\n }\n .kv-row .kv-key {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 9px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.08em; text-transform: uppercase;\n color: #fff; background: var(--blue); padding: 4px 6px; border-radius: 10px;\n text-align: center; margin-top: 1px;\n }\n .kv-row:nth-child(2) .kv-key { background: var(--teal); }\n .kv-row:nth-child(3) .kv-key { background: var(--amber); }\n @media (max-width: 520px) {\n .kv-row { grid-template-columns: 1fr; gap: 4px; }\n .kv-row .kv-key { justify-self: start; padding: 3px 10px; }\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 SKILL MAP (overview cards) + UNIFORM SKILL HEADERS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .skill-map { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(5, 1fr); gap: 10px; margin: 18px 0 8px; }\n .skill-chip {\n display: block; text-align: center; padding: 14px 10px 13px;\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border); border-top: 3px solid var(--blue);\n border-radius: 10px; transition: transform 0.18s, box-shadow 0.18s, border-color 0.18s;\n }\n .skill-chip:hover { transform: translateY(-3px); box-shadow: 0 6px 16px rgba(20,36,63,0.10); }\n .skill-chip .sc-num {\n display: inline-block; font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.1em; text-transform: uppercase;\n color: #fff; background: var(--blue); padding: 2px 9px; border-radius: 10px; margin-bottom: 7px;\n }\n .skill-chip .sc-icon { display: block; font-size: 20px; margin-bottom: 5px; }\n .skill-chip h6 { font-size: 12.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); line-height: 1.3; margin-bottom: 4px; }\n .skill-chip p { font-size: 10.5px; color: var(--muted); line-height: 1.45; margin: 0; text-align: center; }\n .skill-chip.s1 { border-top-color: var(--teal); } .skill-chip.s1 .sc-num { background: var(--teal); }\n .skill-chip.s2 { border-top-color: var(--sky); } .skill-chip.s2 .sc-num { background: var(--sky); }\n .skill-chip.s3 { border-top-color: var(--blue); } .skill-chip.s3 .sc-num { background: var(--blue); }\n .skill-chip.s4 { border-top-color: var(--amber); } .skill-chip.s4 .sc-num { background: var(--amber); }\n .skill-chip.s5 { border-top-color: var(--plum); } .skill-chip.s5 .sc-num { background: var(--plum); }\n @media (max-width: 820px) { .skill-map { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, 1fr); } }\n @media (max-width: 430px) { .skill-map { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } }\n\n .skill-head {\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 46px 1fr; gap: 14px; align-items: center;\n margin: 34px 0 14px; padding-bottom: 10px;\n border-bottom: 2px solid var(--border); scroll-margin-top: 20px;\n }\n .skill-head .sh-num {\n width: 46px; height: 46px; border-radius: 12px;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 17px; color: #fff;\n background: var(--blue);\n }\n .skill-head h5 { font-size: 16px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin: 0; }\n .skill-head .sh-tag { display: block; font-size: 12px; color: var(--muted); margin-top: 3px; line-height: 1.45; }\n .skill-head.s1 { border-bottom-color: #7fd3c5; } .skill-head.s1 .sh-num { background: var(--teal); }\n .skill-head.s2 { border-bottom-color: #a6d8f2; } .skill-head.s2 .sh-num { background: var(--sky); }\n .skill-head.s3 { border-bottom-color: #a8c4e4; } .skill-head.s3 .sh-num { background: var(--blue); }\n .skill-head.s4 { border-bottom-color: #f0d58a; } .skill-head.s4 .sh-num { background: var(--amber); }\n .skill-head.s5 { border-bottom-color: #e0aac4; } .skill-head.s5 .sh-num { background: var(--plum); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 RECAP BOX (dotted, sets a revision block apart) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .recap-box {\n border: 2px dotted var(--teal); border-radius: 12px;\n padding: 26px 24px 20px; margin: 34px 0 28px;\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, #f2fdfa 0%, #fff 55%);\n position: relative;\n }\n .recap-stamp {\n position: absolute; top: -11px; left: 20px;\n background: var(--teal); color: #fff;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.1em;\n text-transform: uppercase; padding: 3px 12px; border-radius: 4px;\n }\n .recap-box > h5.sub { margin-top: 2px !important; color: var(--teal); }\n .recap-box .data-table { margin-bottom: 6px; }\n .recap-box .recap-foot {\n font-size: 12px; color: var(--muted); font-style: italic;\n padding-top: 10px; border-top: 1px dashed #7fd3c5; margin-top: 4px;\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 GRAPH THUMBNAILS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .graph-thumb {\n width: 100%; max-width: 150px; height: auto; display: block;\n background: #fbfdff; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 6px; padding: 4px;\n }\n .graph-thumb text { font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 7px; fill: var(--muted); }\n td.thumb-cell { width: 160px; vertical-align: middle; }\n @media (max-width: 720px) { td.thumb-cell { width: 110px; } }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 PREVIOUS-YEAR MCQ BOX \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .mcq-box {\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, #fff9ef 0%, #fff 60%);\n border: 1.5px solid #f0d58a; border-left: 4px solid var(--amber);\n border-radius: 10px; padding: 20px 22px 16px; margin: 26px 0 30px;\n }\n .mcq-title {\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 9px; flex-wrap: wrap;\n font-family: 'Crimson Pro', serif; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 700;\n color: var(--amber); margin-bottom: 4px;\n }\n .mcq-src {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 9px; font-weight: 700;\n letter-spacing: 0.06em; text-transform: uppercase; color: #fff;\n background: var(--amber); padding: 3px 9px; border-radius: 10px;\n }\n .mcq-note { font-size: 12px; color: var(--muted); font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 12px; }\n details.mcq-q {\n background: #fff; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 7px;\n margin-bottom: 9px; overflow: hidden;\n }\n details.mcq-q summary {\n cursor: pointer; padding: 11px 15px; font-size: 13.5px; font-weight: 600;\n color: var(--navy); list-style: none; line-height: 1.55;\n display: flex; gap: 9px; align-items: flex-start;\n }\n details.mcq-q summary::-webkit-details-marker { display: none; }\n details.mcq-q summary::before {\n content: '\u25b8'; color: var(--amber); font-size: 12px; flex-shrink: 0; padding-top: 2px;\n transition: transform 0.18s;\n }\n details.mcq-q[open] summary::before { transform: rotate(90deg); }\n details.mcq-q summary:hover { background: #fffaf2; }\n .mcq-num {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 10.5px; font-weight: 700;\n color: #fff; background: var(--navy); padding: 2px 7px; border-radius: 4px;\n flex-shrink: 0; margin-top: 1px;\n }\n .mcq-opts { padding: 0 15px 4px 38px; }\n .mcq-opts li {\n font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.65; margin-bottom: 3px; list-style: none;\n }\n .mcq-ans {\n margin: 8px 15px 14px 38px; padding: 11px 14px;\n background: #f2fdfa; border-left: 3px solid var(--teal); border-radius: 0 6px 6px 0;\n font-size: 12.5px; line-height: 1.7; color: #1a4a3f;\n }\n .mcq-ans b { color: var(--teal); }\n .mcq-ans .mcq-ref {\n display: block; margin-top: 6px; padding-top: 6px; border-top: 1px dashed #7fd3c5;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 10.5px; color: var(--muted);\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 ABBREVIATION TABLE \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .abbr-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr; gap: 0 26px; margin: 18px 0 28px; }\n @media (max-width: 900px) { .abbr-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } }\n .abbr-grid table { width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 10px; font-size: 12.5px; }\n .abbr-grid thead th {\n background: var(--navy); color: #fff; text-align: left; padding: 8px 12px;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700;\n letter-spacing: 0.07em; text-transform: uppercase;\n }\n .abbr-grid tbody tr { border-bottom: 1px solid var(--border); }\n .abbr-grid tbody tr:nth-child(even) { background: #f8fbfe; }\n .abbr-grid tbody tr:hover { background: #eef5fd; }\n .abbr-grid td { padding: 7px 12px; vertical-align: top; line-height: 1.55; }\n .abbr-grid td.ab {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 11.5px;\n color: var(--blue); white-space: nowrap; width: 78px;\n }\n .abbr-grid td.ab sub { font-size: 9px; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 PROS \/ CONS PANELS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .pc-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr; gap: 20px; margin: 22px 0 30px; }\n @media (max-width: 860px) { .pc-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } }\n .pc-panel { border-radius: 11px; padding: 17px 20px 15px; border: 1.5px solid; }\n .pc-panel.pro { background: linear-gradient(180deg, #f1fdf9 0%, #fff 55%); border-color: #a3dbcc; }\n .pc-panel.con { background: linear-gradient(180deg, #fff6f4 0%, #fff 55%); border-color: #f0bcb4; }\n .pc-panel.neu { background: linear-gradient(180deg, #f5f8fd 0%, #fff 55%); border-color: #b9cde6; }\n .pc-head {\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 8px;\n font-family: 'Crimson Pro', serif; font-size: 15.5px; font-weight: 700;\n padding-bottom: 9px; margin-bottom: 11px; border-bottom: 1px dashed;\n }\n .pc-panel.pro .pc-head { color: var(--teal); border-color: #b6e3d6; }\n .pc-panel.con .pc-head { color: var(--red); border-color: #f3ccc6; }\n .pc-panel.neu .pc-head { color: var(--blue); border-color: #cbdcef; }\n .pc-head .pc-ico {\n width: 21px; height: 21px; border-radius: 50%; flex-shrink: 0;\n display: inline-flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-size: 11px; color: #fff; font-family: 'DM Sans', sans-serif;\n }\n .pc-panel.pro .pc-ico { background: var(--teal); }\n .pc-panel.con .pc-ico { background: var(--red); }\n .pc-panel.neu .pc-ico { background: var(--blue); }\n .pc-panel ul { list-style: none; margin: 0; padding: 0; }\n .pc-panel li {\n position: relative; padding-left: 21px; margin-bottom: 9px;\n font-size: 12.8px; line-height: 1.68; color: var(--text);\n }\n .pc-panel li:last-child { margin-bottom: 0; }\n .pc-panel li::before { position: absolute; left: 0; top: 0; font-weight: 700; font-size: 11.5px; }\n .pc-panel.pro li::before { content: '\u2713'; color: var(--teal); }\n .pc-panel.con li::before { content: '\u2717'; color: var(--red); }\n .pc-panel.neu li::before { content: '\u25b8'; color: var(--blue); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 LIST INSIDE A TABLE CELL \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .cell-list { list-style: none; margin: 0; padding: 0; }\n .cell-list li { position: relative; padding-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 5px; line-height: 1.6; }\n .cell-list li:last-child { margin-bottom: 0; }\n .cell-list li::before { content: '\u25aa'; position: absolute; left: 0; color: 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130 l 0 -6 M 292 127 l 6 0\"\/>\n <\/g>\n <\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<div class=\"breadcrumb-bar\">\n <div class=\"breadcrumb-inner\">\n <a href=\"#\">Home<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/a>\n \u203a<\/span>\n <a href=\"#\">Notes<\/span>\u0928\u094b\u091f\u094d\u0938<\/span><\/a>\n \u203a<\/span>\n Measurement & Evaluation in Education<\/span>\n \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span>\n\n <div class=\"lang-toggle-bar\">\n <div class=\"lang-toggle-btn\" id=\"langToggle\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"Switch language\">\n <div class=\"lang-option active\" id=\"optEn\">English<\/div>\n <div class=\"lang-option\" id=\"optHi\">\u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940<\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"layout\">\n\n \n <aside class=\"sidebar\">\n <div class=\"toc-card\">\n <div class=\"toc-card-title\">\n Table of Contents<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter active\" data-chap=\"1\">\n I<\/span>\n \n Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u1-0\">1.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-2\">1.1<\/span>Concept of Measurement and Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-21\">1.2<\/span>The Missing Middle Term: Measurement \u2192 Assessment \u2192 Evaluation<\/span>\u091b\u0942\u091f\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u2192 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u2192 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-31\">1.3<\/span>Need for Measurement and Evaluation in Education<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-41\">1.4<\/span>Assessment OF, FOR and AS Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-63\">1.5<\/span>Perspectives of Assessment: Behaviourism \u2192 Cognitivism \u2192 Constructivism<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923: \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u2192 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u2192 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-44\">1.6<\/span>Issues and Concerns in Assessment and Evaluation<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-3\">1.7<\/span>Different Types of Measuring Scales<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-5\">1.8<\/span>Role of Teachers in an Evaluation Programme<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"2\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n II<\/span>\n \n Characteristics of a Good Test<\/span>\n \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u5-0\">2.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-22\">2.1<\/span>Essential Qualities of Good Measuring Instruments<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-3\">2.2<\/span>Validity: Concept and Uses<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e: \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-31\">2.3<\/span>Determining the Validity Coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-2\">2.4<\/span>Reliability: Concept and Factors Affecting It<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e: \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-21\">2.5<\/span>Methods of Determining the Reliability Coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-32\">2.6<\/span>Relation between Validity and Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-3\">2.7<\/span>Education Tests<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-31\">2.8<\/span>Other Tools and Techniques of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"3\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n III<\/span>\n \n Test Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u2-0\">3.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-6\">3.1<\/span>Taxonomy of Educational Objectives<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-6a\">3.2<\/span>The Cognitive Domain<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-6b\">3.3<\/span>The Affective Domain<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-6c\">3.4<\/span>The Psychomotor Domain<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-61\">3.5<\/span>Specification of Objectives & Steps in the Evaluation Process<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-62\">3.6<\/span>The Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-51\">3.7<\/span>Writing Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-2\">3.8<\/span>Teacher-made and Standardized Tests<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-41\">3.9<\/span>Construction of Achievement Tests and Standardization<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"4\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n IV<\/span>\n \n Scores and Their Interpretation<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u4-0\">4.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-2\">4.1<\/span>Statistical Treatment of Data<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-21\">4.2<\/span>The Vocabulary of Inferential Statistics<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-3\">4.3<\/span>Frequency Distribution and Graphical Representation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-4\">4.4<\/span>Measures of Central Tendency<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-44\">4.5<\/span>Measures of Variability (Dispersion)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e (\u0905\u092a\u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923) \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-45\">4.6<\/span>Short-Cut Methods and the Combined Mean<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-5\">4.7<\/span>Coefficient of Correlation<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-51\">4.8<\/span>Choosing the Right Coefficient, and Prediction from Correlation<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-61\">4.9<\/span>Skewness and Kurtosis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-7\">4.10<\/span>Normal Probability Curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-6\">4.11<\/span>Percentile and Percentile Rank<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-8\">4.12<\/span>Derived Scores: Z-score, Standard Score and T-score<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915: Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-82\">4.13<\/span>C-Scores and the Eleven-Point Scale<\/span>C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-83\">4.14<\/span>Interpretation of Test Scores: Qualitative and Quantitative<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928: \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-81\">4.15<\/span>Further Statistics and Research Methodology<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"5\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n V<\/span>\n \n Referencing and Factors Affecting Scores<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u2-21\">5.1<\/span>Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Tests<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-5\">5.2<\/span>Factors Influencing Test Scores<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"6\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n VI<\/span>\n \n Evaluation Systems, Marking and Grading<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u6-0\">6.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-1\">6.1<\/span>Integrated Approach of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-2\">6.2<\/span>Marking System: Need, Problems and Components<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940: \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-4\">6.3<\/span>Trends in Evaluation: Grading, Credit System and Cumulative Record Card<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-3\">6.4<\/span>Methods of Feedback for Students<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"7\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n VII<\/span>\n \n Examination Reform and Technology<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u3-0\">7.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-4\">7.1<\/span>Examination System: Current Strategies<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-43\">7.2<\/span>Semester System<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-4\">7.3<\/span>Continuous Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-41\">7.4<\/span>Reforms in the Examination System<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-42\">7.5<\/span>Open Book Examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-41\">7.6<\/span>Issues and Problems<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-42\">7.7<\/span>Inclusive and Equitable Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0932\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-43\">7.8<\/span>Recent Trends, ICT-Supported Evaluation and the National Education Policy 2020<\/span>\u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, ICT-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-5\">7.9<\/span>Computer in Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-51\">7.10<\/span>Multimedia in Education<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"8\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n VIII<\/span>\n \n Achievement and Diagnostic Tests<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u2-4\">8.1<\/span>Measurement of Achievement<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-5\">8.2<\/span>Diagnostic Test: Construction and Usefulness<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923: \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-51\">8.3<\/span>Types of Diagnostic Tests<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"9\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n IX<\/span>\n \n Types of Test Items<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u2-42\">9.1<\/span>Relative Merits and Demerits of Different Test Items<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"10\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n X<\/span>\n \n Formative, Summative and Psychological Measurement<\/span>\n \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u1-4\">10.1<\/span>Placement, Diagnostic, Formative and Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-2\">10.2<\/span>Testing in Intelligence<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-3\">10.3<\/span>Attitude and Personality Tests<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-31\">10.4<\/span>Aptitude, Interest and Creativity Tests<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"11\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n REV<\/span>\n \n Revision and Reference<\/span>\n \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u1-1\">11.1<\/span>Objectives: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-1\">11.2<\/span>Objectives: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-1\">11.3<\/span>Objectives: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-1\">11.4<\/span>Objectives: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-1\">11.5<\/span>Objectives: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-7\">11.6<\/span>Summary: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-6\">11.7<\/span>Summary: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-5\">11.8<\/span>Summary: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-9\">11.9<\/span>Summary: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-6\">11.10<\/span>Summary: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-8\">11.11<\/span>Key Terms: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-7\">11.12<\/span>Key Terms: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-6\">11.13<\/span>Key Terms: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-10\">11.14<\/span>Key Terms and Formula Sheet<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-7\">11.15<\/span>Key Terms: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-11\">11.16<\/span>Abbreviations Used Throughout<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-10\">11.17<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-9\">11.18<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-8\">11.19<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-12\">11.20<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-9\">11.21<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-6\">11.22<\/span>DEDU504 Syllabus Map<\/span>DEDU504 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-12\">11.23<\/span>Further Reading: Measurement and Evaluation<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-10\">11.24<\/span>Further Reading: Tests and Construction<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-9\">11.25<\/span>Further Reading: Psychological Testing<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-13\">11.26<\/span>Further Reading: Statistics<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-10\">11.27<\/span>Further Reading: Reliability and Validity<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <\/div>\n <\/aside>\n\n <main class=\"article\">\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content active\" data-chap=\"1\" id=\"c1\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 1<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Measurement and Evaluation: Concept, Need, Scope, Difference and Relevance; Educational Testing and Assessment; Scales of Measurement<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928: \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e; \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \ud83d\udccf<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Core Distinction<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092d\u0947\u0926<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">How much? vs How good?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e? \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e?<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Measurement quantifies; evaluation judges worth<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \ud83c\udfaf<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">Bloom's Domains<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\">3<\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Cognitive (6) \u2022 Affective (5) \u2022 Psychomotor (5)<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (6) \u2022 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (5) \u2022 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (5)<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-0\">\n 1.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Measurement is an essential component of the learning system<\/strong> and carries greater administrative utility<\/strong> in education than evaluation does.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Evaluation, by contrast, is useful in modifying and improving<\/strong> the learning system and the instructional procedure.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Measurement is more precise and objective<\/strong> in approach than evaluation.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Measurement is always of a quality, attribute or variable<\/strong> of a thing or person. It converts variables into quantities from which inferences are drawn \u2014 e.g. intelligence is quantified as IQ<\/strong>; achievement is quantified as scores<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b IQ<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-2\">\n 1.1<\/span>\n <h3>Concept of Measurement and Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Concept of Measurement<\/span>\u0915. \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Working Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Measurement<\/strong> is the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some object are determined. In a learning context it means applying a standard scale or measuring device<\/strong> to an object, a series of objects, events or conditions, according to practices accepted by those skilled in using that device. In short, it is \"the assignment of one of a set of numbers to each of a set of persons or objects according to certain established rules.\"<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0936\u0943\u0902\u0916\u0932\u093e, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u0936\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u0936\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915-\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \"\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964\"<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>?<\/span>\n Measurement answers the question \"how much\"<\/strong> \u2014 how great or how small, how much more than or how much less than.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>\n Common misconception:<\/strong> that measurement happens only with tapes and scales. In fact ranking contestants in a debate<\/strong> or rating human behaviour<\/strong> is equally measurement.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f:<\/strong> \u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092b\u093c\u0940\u0924\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093e\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u03a3<\/span>\n Measurement involves quantification<\/strong> \u2014 indicating to what extent a particular attribute is present in a particular object.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Definitions by scholars<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">E. L. ThorndikeFoundational premise<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Anything that exists at all exists in some quantity; and anything that exists in some quantity is capable of being measured<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948; \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Encyclopedia of Educational ResearchRefined statement<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n To measure means \"to observe or determine the magnitude of a variant.\"<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964\"<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">James M. BradfieldSymbol-based view<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The process of assigning symbols to the dimension of phenomenon<\/strong> in order to characterize the status of the phenomenon as precisely as possible.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">J. P. GuilfordRule-based view<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The \"assignment of numerals to objects or events according to certain rules.\"<\/strong><\/span>\n \"\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964\"<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Norman E. GronlundOutcome view<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Measurement results are some score or numerical value<\/strong> and quantitative descriptions of the pupils.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three essentials of any measurement<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack roman\">\n <li>\n Identification and definition<\/span>\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong> \u2014\n of the quantity, attribute or variable that is to be measured.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/li>\n <li>\n Determining operations<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong> \u2014\n the set of operations by which the attribute or variable may be made perceivable<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span>\n <\/li>\n <li>\n Translation procedure<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong> \u2014\n establishing a set of procedures for translating observations into quantitative statements of degree, extent or amount<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0936, \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Two types of measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Physical Measurement<\/span>\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Of objects that have absolute existence<\/strong> \u2014 height, weight of rice, etc.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u091a\u093e\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0926\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Measurement is direct<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>All tools start from an absolute zero<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Always accurate and quantitative<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A fixed set of tools<\/strong> exists worldwide.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u092d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Mental \/ Psychological \/ Educational Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \/ \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \/ \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Always relative<\/strong>; there is no absolute zero<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong>; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Measurement is indirect<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. intelligence via an intelligence test, inferred from responses.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Tests are subjective in nature<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Both qualitative and quantitative<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>No fixed tools<\/strong> \u2014 the same tool may not suit different types of persons.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Educational measurement \u2014 what it does<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The application of the principles of measurement in the field of education. In the school system it is the quantitative assessment of student performance<\/strong> on a given test.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Used to compare performance<\/strong> between students and to indicate their strengths and weaknesses<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0907\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Helps in classifying students into homogeneous groups<\/strong>, assigning educational and vocational guidance, and providing remedial measures to low achievers<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947, \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928-\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Tests used:<\/strong> intelligence, achievement, attitude, aptitude, interest inventory, personality. Methods used:<\/strong> observation, interview, checklist, rating scale, examinations, cumulative record card, anecdotal record.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923:<\/strong> \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\/\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901:<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915, \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Ebel's six competencies for teachers in measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0908\u092c\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0939 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">i<\/span>Administer properly<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Know how to administer a test properly, efficiently and fairly.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924, \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">ii<\/span>Interpret scores<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Interpret test scores correctly and fully \u2014 but with recognition of their limitations.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">iii<\/span>Select a test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Select a standardized test that will be effective in a particular situation.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">iv<\/span>Plan and write<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Plan a test and write the test questions to be included in it.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">v<\/span>Uses and limits<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong>Know the educational uses as well as the limitations of educational tests.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">vi<\/span>Judge quality<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/span><\/strong>Know the criteria by which test quality is judged and how to secure evidence relating to them.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u091f\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Ten characteristics of a good measuring tool<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0938 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n \n To measure psychological traits soundly, the instrument must be free of personal errors, variable errors, constant errors and interpretative errors<\/strong>. It should be:<\/span>\n \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\">\n <li>Valid<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the truthfulness<\/em> of a test; the extent to which it measures what it actually intends to measure. A numerical reasoning test is valid only if it really measures reasoning ability.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/em>; \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reliable<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the consistency<\/em> or faithfulness of the instrument. If Ram scores 50 in a Class VI English test and scores 50 again on re-administration a few days later, the test is reliable.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/em> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0930\u093e\u092e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e VI \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 50 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Objective<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 two aspects: (a) item objectivity<\/em> \u2014 items must have one definite answer, so different examiners award the same marks; (b) scoring objectivity<\/em> \u2014 whoever scores it, the test fetches the same score. Hence avoid ambiguous, double-barrelled, double-negative and essay-type items.<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937: (\u0915) \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u2014 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0902; (\u0916) \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f, \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0928\u093e\u0932\u0940, \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u0947-\u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0928 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Usable \/ practicable<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \/ \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the degree to which teachers and school administrators can successfully use it.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Comprehensive and precise<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 items free from ambiguity; directions for items, administration and scoring clearly stated.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easy to administer<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 complicated or time-and-labour-heavy directions cause users to lag behind. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)<\/em> is a good test but very difficult to administer.<\/span>\u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u090f\u0921\u0932\u094d\u091f \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 (WAIS)<\/em> \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Economical<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 less time-consuming; cost reasonable enough for schools to afford.<\/span>\u0915\u092e \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e; \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0935\u0939\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easy to score<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 clear, simple scoring procedure with an adequate scoring key supplied.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f, \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0915\u0941\u0902\u091c\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easily available<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 some well-known standardized tests are not easily available, and therefore have less usability<\/em>.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u092e<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Good get-up \/ appearance<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u093e\u091c-\u0938\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093e<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 quality of paper, typography and printing, letter size, spacing, pictures and diagrams, binding, and space for pupils' responses.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e, \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091f\u0902\u0915\u0923, \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932, \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916, \u091c\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0926\u0938\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h4>B. Nature of Evaluation<\/span>\u0916. \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Working Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Evaluation<\/strong> is an act or process that assigns \"value\"<\/strong> to a measure. When we evaluate, we make a judgement about the suitability, desirability or worth<\/strong> of a thing. In teaching\u2013learning it is a continuous process<\/strong> concerned with far more than formal academic achievement \u2014 it assesses the student's progress towards stated objectives, the efficiency of teaching<\/strong> and the effectiveness of the curriculum<\/strong>, across the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0915\u094b \"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\"<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0939\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e, \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">J. M. BradfieldValue-standard view<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The assignment of symbols to phenomenon in order to characterize the worth or value of the phenomenon<\/strong>, usually with reference to some social, cultural and scientific standards.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Wright StoneScope view<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930-\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n A relatively new technical term introduced to designate a more comprehensive concept of measurement<\/strong> than is implied in conventional tests and examinations.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0928\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0926 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">HannaBehaviour-change view<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The process of gathering and interpreting evidence on change in the behaviour<\/strong> of all students as they progress through school.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The Evaluation Equation \u2014 memorize this<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Evaluation = Quantitative Description (Measurement)<\/em> and \/ or Qualitative Description (Non-measurement)<\/em> + Value Judgement<\/em><\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 = \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 (\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928)<\/em> \u0914\u0930 \/ \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 (\u0905-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928)<\/em> + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Classroom sequence: the teacher gives a test<\/b> \u2192 awards numerals to answer papers (this step is measurement<\/b>, purely quantitative) \u2192 then arranges pupils as first, second, third according to achievement (this step is evaluation<\/b>). Evaluation is therefore philosophical and subjective<\/b>; measurement is precise and objective<\/b>.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e: \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/b> \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2192 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u092f\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/b> \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u2192 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e, \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f, \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u092f\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/b> \u0939\u0948)\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/b> \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/b>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Eleven characteristics of evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>It is a systematic process<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>It measures the effectiveness of learning experiences<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>It measures how far instructional objectives<\/strong> have been achieved.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>It uses tools<\/strong> \u2014 tests, observation, interview.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>It is a continuous process<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>It is a subjective judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>It is philosophical<\/strong> in nature.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>It includes quantitative description, qualitative description and value judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">9<\/span>It gets its data from measurement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">10<\/span>It not only determines magnitude but also adds meaning<\/strong> to measurement.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">11<\/span>It involves values and purposes<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Exam Add-on \u2014 Comparison Table<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0928 \u2014 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Measurement vs. Evaluation \u2014 consolidated<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Compiled from the points scattered across \u00a71.0 and \u00a71.1 \u2014 this exact contrast is the most frequently asked short question from this unit.<\/span>\n \u00a71.0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Question answered<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>How much?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e?<\/span><\/td><td>How good \/ how worthwhile?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \/ \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0928?<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Nature<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Precise, objective<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/td><td>Philosophical, subjective<\/span>\u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Description<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Quantitative only<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>Quantitative + qualitative + value judgement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 + \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Scope<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Narrow \u2014 a single trait at a time<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>Broad \u2014 whole personality, teaching, curriculum<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Utility<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>More administrative<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>Modifies and improves the learning system<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Dependence<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Independent of evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Draws its data from measurement<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Product<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A score or numerical value<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>A judgement, grade or rank order<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Evaluation from the educational angle \u2014 what can be evaluated<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack roman\">\n <li>The school site<\/strong> \u2014 location, building, hygienic condition, strength of students and teachers.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u0932<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u092d\u0935\u0928, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0936\u093e, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The school programme<\/strong> \u2014 syllabus, co-curricular activities, guidance programmes.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Teaching methods<\/strong> \u2014 with reference to aims, purposes, suitability and efficacy.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u2014 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902, \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The total programme of instruction<\/strong> \u2014 across cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>School administration<\/strong> \u2014 discipline, control, management, organization.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Textbooks<\/strong> and other course materials.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Students' growth.<\/strong><\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n \n <h5 class=\"sub\">Steps in the evaluation process (hierarchy)<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923 (\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e)<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83d\udcd0 The text presents these as a hierarchy read upward<\/strong> \u2014 objectives are fixed first, evaluation comes last. Each step is possible only because the one above it has been settled.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udcd0 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Identification and definition of general objectives<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n The broad aims of the course or curriculum.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Identification and definition of specific objectives<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n The general aims broken down unit by unit.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Specification of desired student behaviour<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928\u0964<\/span>\n Objectives restated in observable, behavioural terms.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0915\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Selecting appropriate teaching points<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928\u0964<\/span>\n The content through which the behaviour will be developed.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Planning of appropriate learning experiences<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n The classroom activities that let the pupil react actively.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 6<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Evaluating.<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/strong><\/span>\n Judging how far the behaviour specified at step 3 has actually been produced.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u091a\u0930\u0923 3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-21\">\n 1.2<\/span>\n <h3>The Missing Middle Term: Measurement \u2192 Assessment \u2192 Evaluation<\/span>\u091b\u0942\u091f\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u2192 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u2192 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a71.1 contrasted measurement with evaluation directly. Most modern writing places a third term between them \u2014 assessment<\/strong> \u2014 which has a narrower meaning than evaluation but a broader meaning than measurement<\/strong>. Examiners increasingly ask for all three.<\/span>\n \u00a71.1 \u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u0964 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u090f\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0938\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u2014 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">AERA (American Educational Research Association) et al., 1999Assessment<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n A systematic procedure for collecting information<\/strong> that can be used to make inferences about the characteristics of people or objects \u2014 a process of gathering evidence and making judgements relating to outcomes.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947 \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Etymology<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span>Why the word matters<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The word assess<\/em> derives from \"to sit beside\"<\/strong> or \"to assist the judge\"<\/strong> \u2014 the assessor gathers the data and shapes it into interpretable form; the judgement itself comes afterwards<\/strong>. That is exactly why assessment stops short of evaluation.<\/span>\n assess<\/em> \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \"\u092a\u093e\u0938 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \"\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0927\u0940\u0936 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Gay, 1991Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n A systematic process of collecting and analysing data<\/strong> in order to determine whether, and to what degree, objectives have been or are being achieved. It leads to decision making.<\/strong><\/span>\n \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong>, \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Evaluation as the umbrella term \u2014 three equivalent statements<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Evaluation = Measurement + Value Judgement<\/em> Evaluation = Assessment + Value Judgement<\/em> Evaluation = Measurement + Assessment + Value Judgement<\/em><\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 = \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/em> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 = \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/em> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 = \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 + \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Evaluation is the umbrella<\/b>: measurement sits innermost, assessment surrounds it, evaluation surrounds both. Without value judgement there is no evaluation<\/b> \u2014 which matches the equation already given in \u00a71.1.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u091b\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/b> \u0939\u0948: \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/b> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Worked example \u2014 the same pupil read at all three levels<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n \n \"Ramesh scored 65 marks in Mathematics in the final examination, which is above-average performance, but he did not do well on items related to mensuration. Ramesh has improved significantly compared with his half-yearly examination.\"<\/em><\/span>\n \"\u0930\u092e\u0947\u0936 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 65 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f, \u091c\u094b \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u093e\u0964 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u092e\u0947\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em><\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>M<\/span>Measurement<\/strong> \u2014 \"scored 65 marks\". Pure quantification, nothing more.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \"65 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f\"\u0964 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>A<\/span>Assessment<\/strong> \u2014 \"above-average performance\" and \"did not do well on mensuration\". Interpretation of the number and identification of the weak area.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928\" \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\"\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>E<\/span>Evaluation<\/strong> \u2014 \"has improved significantly compared with his half-yearly examination\". A judgement of worth against a standard.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\"\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>Three assumptions underlying all educational assessment<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Constructs exist<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/strong>Psychological and educational constructs exist \u2014 there are always traits available to be measured. (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2002)<\/em><\/span>\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 (\u0915\u094b\u0939\u0947\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0932\u093f\u0915, 2002)<\/em><\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Constructs can be measured<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/strong>Cronbach (1990): if a thing exists, it exists in some amount; if it exists in some amount, it can be measured.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 (1990): \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948; \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>But measurement is imperfect<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Our measurement is never perfect \u2014 every educational measure carries error. This is the basis of the true-score model of \u00a72.4.<\/span>\u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u00a72.4 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd2c<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Process of measurement \u2014 Thorndike & Christ (2010).<\/strong> The three steps are the \"three essentials\" of \u00a71.1, with step 2 given a name worth quoting: identifying and defining the attribute<\/strong> \u2192 determining the set of operations to isolate and display it<\/strong> (this is operationalizing the attribute<\/em>, or giving an operational definition<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. \"in this study, IQ means the score obtained on standard test XYZ\") \u2192 quantifying the attribute<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0925\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0921\u093e\u0907\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0907\u0938\u094d\u091f (2010)\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u00a71.1 \u0915\u0947 \"\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\" \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091a\u0930\u0923 2 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0930\u0923-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u2192 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> (\u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/em> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \"\u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 IQ \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 XYZ \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\") \u2192 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-31\">\n 1.3<\/span>\n <h3>Need for Measurement and Evaluation in Education<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The process of evaluation consists of three aspects<\/strong>, each compensating for the limits of the previous one:<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u093f\u091b\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Numbers<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Quantitative Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Performance measured through tests \u2014 teacher-made, standardized, etc. Achievement depends not only on the nature of the test but also on the pupil's physical and mental health, level of preparation and motivation<\/strong> during the test. Marks obtained in terminal examinations, expressed as an aggregate percentage, are the typical example.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0906\u0926\u093f \u2014 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Limitation<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/b>It gives the overall achievement level<\/strong> but does not<\/strong> reveal an individual child's performance or the difficulties he or she faces \u2014 hence it must be supplemented by qualitative assessment<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0924\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Records<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Qualitative Assessment<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Observation by teachers<\/strong> and the records they maintain on various facets of student personality and school performance. A systematic statement by a teacher about special achievement, exceptional ability in a non-scholastic area, or exceptional behaviour<\/strong> illustrates this.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0917\u0948\u0930-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Judgement<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Teachers' Opinion<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u093e\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n Opinions formed from conclusions drawn out of both<\/strong> quantitative measures and qualitative description of behaviour. This gives a comprehensive picture<\/strong> of the student's progress. Though an evaluation in an informal setting<\/strong>, it conveys information about performance on vital issues.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0930\u093e\u092f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092a\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Importance of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 (CCE) \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>In the modern era it does not suffice to be good only in academics<\/strong>. Activities in scholastic and non-scholastic<\/strong> areas must both be evaluated regularly.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0941\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Regular evaluation monitors individual progress<\/strong> and shows each student's achievement level in both areas throughout the year<\/strong>, and checks whether curricular objectives have been achieved.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Objectives target all three domains<\/strong>, because they are complementary<\/strong> \u2014 the absence of any one creates a sense of lack in an individual's life.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0942\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Assessment across all three domains is what makes evaluation \"comprehensive\"<\/strong>; learning being a result of continuous formal and informal experience is what makes it \"continuous\"<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\"<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \"\u0938\u0924\u0924\"<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Modifications observed may relate to the development of intellect, emotions and practical skills<\/strong>; objective records of such changes must be maintained from time to time.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Techniques may be formal or informal<\/strong> \u2014 written examination, observation tests, group work, individual assignments, oral or written questioning individually or in a group.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The National Curriculum Framework<\/strong> prescribes social qualities that all children need to develop regardless of academic aptitude<\/strong> \u2014 a student weak academically may excel in arts, humanities, sports, athletics or music. Confidence gained there may inspire greater effort in curricular studies.<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e<\/strong> \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0915\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0932\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0940, \u0916\u0947\u0932, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2605<\/span>The key insight:<\/strong> through this evaluation system, students finally understand that their competition is with themselves, not with others<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f:<\/strong> \u0907\u0938 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">How CCE empowers teachers<\/span>CCE \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack alpha\">\n <li>They get pointers on how to improve the evaluation procedure<\/strong> itself.<\/span>\u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>They can formulate ways to help students master competencies they are falling behind in<\/strong>, through planned remedial steps.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u0926\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u093f\u091b\u0921\u093c \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>They can select and deploy audio-visual and other media<\/strong>, especially for subjects that cannot be understood by theoretical learning alone.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f-\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>They are encouraged to take important decisions regarding the learning process, efficiency, quality assurance and accountability<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u0906\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u0935\u093e\u092c\u0926\u0947\u0939\u0940<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf Why CCE matters for the Indian education system \u2014 four reasons<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 CCE \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u2014 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>1<\/span>To make sure learning in schools is not just rote method<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0928 \u0930\u0939\u0947<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>To ensure the examination system is more flexible<\/strong> and tests a wider range of capabilities<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>To make sure the curriculum enriches the individual as a whole<\/strong>, besides promoting academic learning.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>To ensure classroom knowledge is relevant to life outside<\/strong> as well.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0940 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 CCE and the components of evaluation<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 CCE \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>39<\/span>Which of the following are the components of evaluation? 1. Qualitative descriptions 2. Quantitative descriptions 3. Value judgments 4. Graphical descriptions<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/b> Evaluation comprises quantitative description (measurement), qualitative description (assessment) and value judgement. Graphical description is only a way of presenting data, not a component of evaluation.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 (\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928), \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 (\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.3, \u00a71.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>84<\/span>Which of the following best defines Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Evaluation of learner performance in cognitive and non-cognitive aspects throughout the teaching-learning process<\/li>\n <li>(b) Evaluation of performance by teachers, students and parents<\/li>\n <li>(c) Evaluation with the help of periodic tests by the teachers<\/li>\n <li>(d) Evaluation with the help of structured tools at regular intervals<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a)<\/b> The two words carry the definition: \"continuous\" means throughout the teaching-learning process, and \"comprehensive\" means both scholastic (cognitive) and non-scholastic (non-cognitive) aspects.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902: \"\u0938\u0924\u0924\" \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092d\u0930, \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 (\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 (\u0905-\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.3 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>85<\/span>Statement-I: A sound assessment system incorporates both cognitive and non-cognitive aspects spread over the total span of instructional time. Statement-II: Learner assessment should be holistic.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Both correct and II explains I<\/li>\n <li>(b) Both correct but II does not explain I<\/li>\n <li>(c) I correct, II incorrect<\/li>\n <li>(d) I incorrect, II correct<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) Both correct and II explains I<\/b> Statement I describes exactly what CCE requires, and Statement II \u2014 that assessment should be holistic \u2014 is the underlying principle that explains why. NEP 2020 states the same in requiring 360-degree assessment.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 I \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b CCE \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928 II \u2014 \u0915\u093f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 NEP 2020 \u092d\u0940 360-\u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.3, \u00a77.8 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-41\">\n 1.4<\/span>\n <h3>Assessment OF, FOR and AS Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n This three-way classification has largely replaced the bare formative\/summative pair in current writing, and it maps directly onto \u00a710.1 above. The descriptors follow the New South Wales Education Standards Authority (NSWESA)<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\/\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u00a710.1 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942 \u0938\u093e\u0909\u0925 \u0935\u0947\u0932\u094d\u0938 \u090f\u091c\u0941\u0915\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0902\u0921\u0930\u094d\u0921\u094d\u0938 \u0905\u0925\u0949\u0930\u093f\u091f\u0940 (NSWESA)<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"domain-grid\">\n <div class=\"domain-card cog\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\ud83c\udfc1<\/div>\n OF learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Assessment of Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Achievement judged against predefined outcomes and standards<\/strong>, at the end of a unit, term or semester, to grade or rank<\/strong>. Provides evidence to parents, teachers and outside groups.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">= Summative assessment \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/span>= \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"domain-card aff\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\ud83d\udd04<\/div>\n FOR learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Assessment for Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Carried on during<\/strong> teaching to improve teaching and enhance learning<\/strong>. Frequent, often unstructured. Reflects the belief that all students can improve<\/strong>, and gives feedback that motivates rather than merely marks.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">= Formative assessment \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/span>= \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"domain-card psy\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\ud83e\ude9e<\/div>\n AS learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Assessment as Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Learners assess themselves<\/strong>, identify their own knowledge gaps and choose their learning strategy. Assessment itself becomes a tool for new learning<\/strong>, and the pupil takes responsibility for his own learning<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0915\u092e\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0928\u090f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">Self- and peer assessment \u00b7 Self-regulated learning<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The bearing of this on the CCE question.<\/strong> The insight stated in \u00a71.3 \u2014 that under CCE the student's \"competition is with themselves, not with others\"<\/em> \u2014 is precisely what assessment AS learning<\/strong> formalizes. Cited alongside that line, the trio turns a textbook sentence into a well-supported argument.<\/span>\n CCE \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0964<\/strong> \u00a71.3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f CCE \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \"\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\"<\/em> \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0943\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-63\">\n 1.5<\/span>\n <h3>Perspectives of Assessment: Behaviourism \u2192 Cognitivism \u2192 Constructivism<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923: \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u2192 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u2192 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a73.1 A presented Cognitive Learning Theory on its own. Placing it between the perspective that preceded it and the one that followed makes that section far easier to argue in an essay answer.<\/span>\n \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Before Cognitive Learning Theory<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Behaviourist perspective<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Learning is shown by change in observable behaviour<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The environment shapes behaviour<\/strong>; contiguity and reinforcement<\/strong> are central.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0917\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>; \u0938\u0928\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Competence is achieved by breaking tasks into small steps<\/strong> and reinforcing each step \u2014 think of a child's delight at getting \"good\" or \"fair\".<\/span>\u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \"\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e\" \u092f\u093e \"\u0920\u0940\u0915\" \u092a\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Assessment focus: the observable end product<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">\u2192<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n After Cognitive Learning Theory<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Constructivist perspective<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Knowledge is actively constructed by the individual<\/strong>; learning is an adaptive process built on experience<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The learner as a passive recipient<\/strong> is replaced by the learner as a situated, active knowledge constructor<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f-\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Knowledge cannot be transferred uniformly<\/strong> \u2014 a teacher teaches one content to the whole class, yet each pupil processes it through his own experience. Hence teaching and learning are not synonymous<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0915\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Assessment focus: the understanding of the learner<\/strong>, not surface knowledge and the ability to recall facts.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930: \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u091d<\/strong>, \u0938\u0924\u0939\u0940 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Where the Cognitive Learning Theory of \u00a73.1 A sits.<\/strong> CLT<\/strong> is the bridge<\/strong>: it kept the behaviourists' concern with what the learner does, but moved the explanation inside the head \u2014 to insight, goals, meaningful wholes and the organization of experience<\/strong>. Constructivism then took the final step, making the learner's previous experience the deciding factor<\/strong> in what is learnt. Notice that \u00a73.1 A's own instruction \u2014 \"begin with meaningful wholes\"<\/em> and \"match the student's level of thought\"<\/em> \u2014 is already constructivist in spirit.<\/span>\n \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> CLT<\/strong> \u0938\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u093e, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u0917\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f, \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0915\u0964 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0915\u0926\u092e \u0909\u0920\u093e\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u2014 \"\u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\"<\/em> \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\"<\/em> \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-44\">\n 1.6<\/span>\n <h3>Issues and Concerns in Assessment and Evaluation<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The whole debate can be framed as five questions<\/strong> that any assessment system must answer. They give a ready-made structure for a long answer on \"issues in evaluation\", and each one connects to a section already covered.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\" \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0922\u093e\u0901\u091a\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n What is to be assessed?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f?<\/span><\/strong>\n Only scholastic achievement, or also attitudes, values, interests, health and social skills? The narrower the answer, the more the affective and psychomotor domains<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 are neglected \u2014 and what is not assessed ceases to be taught.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092d\u0940? \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u00a73.1 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0906\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n What criteria should assess process and product?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921?<\/span><\/strong>\n Should we judge only the final product<\/strong> \u2014 the answer script \u2014 or also the process<\/strong> by which the pupil reached it? Performance assessment and portfolios (\u00a73.1 C) assess process; the conventional paper assesses only product.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u092e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u2014 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0947\u0902, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u093e? \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b (\u00a73.1 \u0917) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Who will apply the criteria and award marks or grades?<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0926\u0947?<\/span><\/strong>\n The external examiner, the class teacher, the pupil himself or his peers? This is the internal versus external<\/strong> question of \u00a710.1 and the argument for self and peer assessment<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940? \u092f\u0939 \u00a710.1 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n How will the scores or grades be interpreted?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b?<\/span><\/strong>\n Against a fixed criterion<\/strong> or against the group<\/strong>? This is exactly the criterion-referenced versus norm-referenced distinction of \u00a75.1, and it decides whether all pupils may pass.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937? \u092f\u0939 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a75.1 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n What are the sources of error in examination?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/strong>\n Error enters through the question paper<\/strong> (poor sampling, ambiguity), the examinee<\/strong> (anxiety, health, guessing), the examiner<\/strong> (subjectivity, halo effect, fatigue) and the conditions<\/strong> of administration \u2014 precisely the error component E<\/strong> of the true-score model in \u00a72.4.<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> (\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u093e), \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940<\/strong> (\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928), \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/strong> (\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935, \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a72.4 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0936 E<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-3\">\n 1.7<\/span>\n <h3>Different Types of Measuring Scales<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What is \"scaling\"?<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \"\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917\" \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/div>\n In the social sciences, scaling refers to the process of measuring<\/strong>. Scaling techniques are used to estimate individual levels of a trait \u2014 for example level of extraversion, or level of satisfaction.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0939\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Method 1<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Comparative Scaling<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Items are directly compared with each other<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Example: \"Do you prefer Beverage A or Beverage B?\"<\/em><\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923: \"\u0906\u092a \u092a\u0947\u092f A \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u092a\u0947\u092f B?\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Yields insight into relative preference<\/strong> within a market or group.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Method 2<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Non-comparative Scaling<\/span>\u0905-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Each item is scaled independently of the others<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Questions are more subjective<\/strong> in nature.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Example: \"State the exact reason for preferring one beverage over another.\"<\/em><\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923: \"\u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0947\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Extended Note \u2014 The Four Levels<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940 \u2014 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>The four levels of measurement (Stevens' scales)<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 (\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0940\u0935\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901)<\/span><\/h4>\n \n University papers almost always ask for these four levels, set out by S. S. Stevens in 1946. They underlie every statistic in Units 4 and 5, since the scale a variable is measured on decides which statistic may legitimately be applied to it. Mnemonic: N-O-I-R<\/strong> (French for \"black\").<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0940\u0935\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0928\u0947 1946 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930: N-O-I-R<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n N<\/span>\n <h6>Nominal<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n Labels only \u2014 no order. Gender, roll number, subject stream. Only counting<\/em> and mode<\/em> are permissible.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/em> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n O<\/span>\n <h6>Ordinal<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n Rank order, but unequal intervals<\/em>. Merit position, Likert agreement, grades A\/B\/C. Median<\/em> and rank correlation apply.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/em>\u0964 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 A\/B\/C\u0964 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n I<\/span>\n <h6>Interval<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932<\/span><\/h6>\n Equal intervals but arbitrary zero<\/em>. Achievement scores, IQ, temperature in \u00b0C. Mean, standard deviation and correlation<\/em> apply.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0924<\/em>\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, IQ, \u00b0C \u0924\u093e\u092a\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/em> \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n R<\/span>\n <h6>Ratio<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/h6>\n Equal intervals plus a true zero<\/em>. Height, weight, reaction time. All statistics apply.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/em>\u0964 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0964 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udca1<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Link this back to \u00a71.1:<\/strong> the reason mental measurement has no absolute zero<\/strong> is precisely that educational and psychological data sit at the interval<\/strong> level, not the ratio level. A student scoring 0 in mathematics does not have zero mathematical ability. Physical measurement<\/strong>, by contrast, is ratio<\/strong>-level \u2014 which is why the text calls it \"always accurate\".<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u00a71.1 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093f\u090f:<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 0 \u092a\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong>-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \"\u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\" \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Functions of Measurement \u2014 Cronbach (1949)<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 (1949)<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Lee J. Cronbach classified all applications of mental measurement under three main functions<\/strong>:<\/span>\n \u0932\u0940 \u091c\u0947. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Predict<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Prognosis Function<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n Tests reveal differences among people's present performance<\/strong>; all decisions built on them involve prediction<\/strong>. Measurement supplies the extent of a variable for the specific purpose of predicting future behaviour<\/strong>. It carries the administrative<\/strong> functions \u2014 classification, selection, promotion and gradation of students. Guidance and counselling services also rest on this function.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0947\u0935\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The IQ test given in school to predict academic performance; a counsellor helping a college student choose the best curriculum or job.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e IQ \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Diagnose<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Diagnosis Function<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n Where prognosis reveals the student's level<\/strong>, diagnosis identifies the weakness in student learning<\/strong>. Remedial instruction<\/strong> is prepared on its basis. It too implies prediction, but is listed separately because the diagnostic function establishes a cause\u2013effect relationship<\/strong>, whereas prediction implies only a simple relationship. It is the function through which the instructional procedure is improved<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u2013\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Verify<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Research Function<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n Verification of scientific hypotheses<\/strong>. Its use is less frequent<\/strong> than prediction and diagnosis, because a measure is usually taken as a completely valid measure of a human characteristic. The investigator must treat test scores as an accurate quantification of a real and useful variable<\/strong>. Measurement gives a more objective and dependable basis for comparison<\/strong> than rough impressions, so valid generalizations<\/strong> follow from accurate measurement.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Methods of Measurement \u2014 the eight instruments<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0906\u0920 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Both physical and mental measurement need tools. The method varies with the nature of the variable<\/strong> and the purpose of measurement<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Method<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it is and when it is used<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">i<\/td>\n <td>Tests<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A set of questions to be answered or tasks to be performed, used to assess an ability or trait. Items are placed in increasing order of difficulty<\/strong> and administration is standardized<\/strong> to ensure maximum objectivity. Types: achievement, intelligence, attitude, aptitude, personality, creativity.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930: \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">ii<\/td>\n <td>Inventories<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Different inventories for different traits \u2014 interest inventories<\/strong> measure interest, personality inventories<\/strong> measure personality traits.<\/span>\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/strong> \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">iii<\/td>\n <td>Observation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>For traits that can hardly be measured objectively by tests \u2014 honesty, punctuality, persistence, truthfulness<\/strong>. May be participant<\/strong> or non-participant<\/strong>; observation schedules and other instruments aid accuracy.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e, \u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">iv<\/td>\n <td>Interview<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Face-to-face interaction between an interviewee and one or more interviewers. Reaches things an individual does not wish to express otherwise<\/strong>; a congenial atmosphere and good rapport help draw out inner feelings.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0906\u092e\u0928\u0947-\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e<\/strong>; \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">v<\/td>\n <td>Checklist<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A series of items needing a response; presence or absence indicated by Yes\/No<\/strong> (\u2713 or \u2717). Popular for appraising school buildings, textbooks, outcomes and instructional procedures.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0943\u0902\u0916\u0932\u093e; \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0939\u093e\u0901\/\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> (\u2713 \u092f\u093e \u2717) \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092d\u0935\u0928, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">vi<\/td>\n <td>Rating Scales<\/span>\u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Psychological traits are relative concepts<\/strong>, so watertight compartments are hard to make. Opinions of teachers, parents, friends or judges are taken along a scale of 5, 7, 9 or 11 points<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. very good, good, average, below average, poor. Used to evaluate personality traits, tests, school courses and practices.<\/span>\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u093e\u092f 5, 7, 9 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e 11 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e, \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e, \u0914\u0938\u0924, \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947, \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">vii<\/td>\n <td>Attitude Scales<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Attitude is the bent of mind or feeling<\/strong> towards an object, idea, institution, belief, subject or person. Attitude scales measure this trait objectively and with accuracy.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">viii<\/td>\n <td>Projective Techniques<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Very ambiguous and subjective<\/strong>; they reflect the sub-conscious and pre-conscious mind<\/strong>. Example: the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)<\/strong> for personality. Anecdotal record cards<\/em> and cumulative record cards<\/em> are also used in educational measurement.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong>; \u092f\u0947 \u0905\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923: \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (TAT)<\/strong>\u0964 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/em> \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Scales of Measurement<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>45<\/span>Which one of the following measurement scales has an absolute zero point?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Ordinal<\/li>\n <li>(b) Nominal<\/li>\n <li>(c) Interval<\/li>\n <li>(d) Ratio<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) Ratio<\/b> Only the ratio scale has a true or absolute zero, which is why all four arithmetical operations are permissible on it. The interval scale has an arbitrary zero \u2014 0\u00b0C does not mean no temperature.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 0\u00b0C \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0924\u093e\u092a \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>97<\/span>Consider the following pairs: 1. Weight in kilograms a student can lift \u2014 Ratio Scale; 2. Number assigned consecutively to students as they complete a test \u2014 Ordinal Scale. Which pair(s) is\/are correctly matched?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Both 1 and 2<\/b> Weight has a true zero, so it is ratio. Numbering students by order of finishing gives rank order without equal intervals, so it is ordinal.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>98<\/span>Consider the following pairs: 1. Number of items a student answers correctly out of 20 \u2014 Ratio Scale; 2. Numbers assigned to groups solving a problem by different methods \u2014 Nominal Scale. Which is\/are correctly matched?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Both 1 and 2<\/b> A count of correct items has an absolute zero (zero correct means none), so it is ratio. Numbers used only as labels for groups carry no order or magnitude, so they are nominal.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 (\u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u090f\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902), \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>53<\/span>Which one of the following variables does not fall into a continuous series?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Age<\/li>\n <li>(b) Time<\/li>\n <li>(c) Class size<\/li>\n <li>(d) Weight<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Class size<\/b> Age, time and weight can take any value however small the subdivision, so they are continuous. Class size is a count \u2014 a class cannot have 34.7 pupils \u2014 so it is discrete.<\/span>\u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 34.7 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7, \u00a74.3 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-5\">\n 1.8<\/span>\n <h3>Role of Teachers in an Evaluation Programme<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udd17 The central relationship<\/span>\ud83d\udd17 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/div>\n Teaching remains central to both learning and assessment. There is an interrelatedness<\/strong> between teaching objectives (ends)<\/strong>, learning experiences (means)<\/strong> and assessment (evidence of what is taught and learnt)<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 (\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f)<\/strong>, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 (\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928)<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 (\u091c\u094b \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f)<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Assessment is the process of determining \u2014<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0907\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack roman\">\n <li>The extent to which an objective is achieved<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The effectiveness of the learning experiences<\/strong> provided in the classroom.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>How well the goals of teaching<\/strong> have been accomplished.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u0924\u0930\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>In assessment one must know where students were at the beginning<\/strong> in order to determine what changes are occurring. It involves obtaining a record of changes<\/strong> by appropriate methods of appraisal, judging how good the changes are<\/strong> in light of the evidence, and ensuring change is ushered into teaching technology and learning technology<\/strong> alike.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0925\u0947<\/strong>, \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Assessment therefore enters at the planning stage<\/strong>, when teaching objectives are identified \u2014 and at every point of learning it attempts to discover the effectiveness of the learning situation in evoking the desired changes.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e-\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092a\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2605<\/span>Its purpose is to improve learning \u2014 not merely to measure achievement.<\/strong> At its highest it brings out factors inherent in student growth: proper attitudes and habits, manipulative skills, appreciations and understanding, in addition to the conventional acquisition of knowledge.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u0947\u0902, \u0939\u0938\u094d\u0924-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932, \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Four essential steps of the educational process<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Identification of educational objectives.<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Determination of the experiences<\/strong> students must have to attain those objectives.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Knowing the pupils well enough<\/strong> to design appropriate experiences.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Assessing the degree<\/strong> to which pupils attain those objectives.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Teaching objectives = the changes we wish to produce in the child<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f = \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u0939\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Knowledge<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>The knowledge children acquire \u2014 the pupil knows<\/em> something of which he was ignorant before.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u092d\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Skills & abilities<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong>He can solve<\/em> problems he could not solve before and can do<\/em> what he could not do before.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0925\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Interests<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong>The interests children develop.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Attitudes<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong>The attitudes children manifest \u2014 he revises<\/em> his attitudes desirably towards things.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/em> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccb A statement of classroom objectives does two things<\/span>\ud83d\udccb \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0926\u094b \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>It serves as a basis for classroom procedures<\/strong> that should provide suitable experiences to children.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>It serves as a guide in seeking evidence<\/strong> to determine the extent to which classroom work has accomplished what it set out to do.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0915<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0915\u093f \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Learning experiences \u2014 three selection criteria<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u2014 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/h5>\n \n A learning experience is not synonymous with the content of instruction or what the teacher does<\/strong>. Learning results from the active reaction of the pupil<\/strong> to the stimulus situation the teacher creates \u2014 a pupil learns what he does<\/em>. Changes in thinking, concepts, attitudes and interests come about gradually<\/strong>; no single experience produces the change. Many experiences, one reinforcing another<\/strong>, repeated in increasing complexity in a meaningful sequence over time, produce a cumulative effect<\/strong>. Ask:<\/span>\n \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>\u0964 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0936\u0903<\/strong> \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935, \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f<\/strong>, \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093f\u090f:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\">\n <li>Are they directly related to the goals<\/strong>?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Are they meaningful and satisfying<\/strong> to the learners?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0937\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Are they appropriate to the maturity<\/strong> of the learners?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0935\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h4>Why to Assess \u2014 fourteen purposes<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u091a\u094c\u0926\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Purpose<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Explanation<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td>Assess achievement<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Examinations discover whether or not the child has acquired a certain amount of knowledge or skill.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td>Measure personality<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>They test the power of clear thinking, quickness of mind, calmness and perseverance<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0927\u0948\u0930\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td>Measure teacher and school efficiency<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>They give authorities an occasion to measure teacher efficiency and institutional efficiency, and let teachers know whether their methods are appropriate.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td>Help in diagnosis<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Help parents know their children's progress; discover specific weak points of an individual or class so both teacher and taught can remove these defects.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td>Act as an incentive<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Stimulation to work hard; objectives placed before students develop habits of constant hard work.<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0926\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td>Help in prognosis<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Examinations have prognostic value \u2014 the aptitudes<\/strong> of students are determined.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><td>Uniformity of standard<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>External<\/strong> examinations facilitate uniformity of standards attained by students of different institutions.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0932\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td>Help in guidance<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Facilitate grouping individuals for teaching by bringing together those of more or less the same attainment.<\/span>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0932\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td>Fitness for higher courses<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Determine capacity and fitness to pursue higher general or professional study; such tests are called entrance or qualifying examinations<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0939\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0939\u0932\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td>Selection by competition<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Conducted to select the best candidates for public service appointments or for awarding prizes and scholarships.<\/span>\u0932\u094b\u0915 \u0938\u0947\u0935\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">11<\/td><td>Study of every subject<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Students study all subjects \u2014 including the so-called \"dull ones\" \u2014 for fear of examinations.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e\u0915\u0925\u093f\u0924 \"\u0928\u0940\u0930\u0938\" \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td>Parents' point of view<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Provide an opportunity to know where their wards stand and whether money spent is being utilized properly.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0916\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0927\u0928 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">13<\/td><td>Certify competency<\/span>\u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A technological society needs qualified doctors, engineers and scientists; the examination system certifies their presence, even if inadequately.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u091a\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092d\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">14<\/td><td>Link schools with the world<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Examinations fulfil an important role in linking schools with each other and with the world.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"2\" id=\"c2\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 2<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Characteristics of a Good Test<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Characteristics of a Good Test; Planning for Different Types of Test; Validity and Reliability \u2014 Types, Methods and Usability<\/span>\n \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901; \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928; \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \u2696\ufe0f<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Governing Rule<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:13px;\">Necessary but not sufficient<\/span>\u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Reliability is the precondition of validity \u2014 never the guarantee of it<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \ud83d\udd17<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">Built on Unit 4<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">r \u00b7 \u03c3 \u00b7 NPC<\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Every coefficient here is a Pearson r; every grade band is a \u03c3-distance<\/span>\u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-0\">\n 2.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n This unit completes the course by returning to two ideas first met in Unit 1 \u00a71.1 and listed among the essential qualities of a good instrument in Unit 2 \u00a72.1 \u2014 reliability and validity<\/strong>. There they were described in words. Here they are computed as numbers<\/strong>, using the correlation of Unit 4.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 2 \u00a72.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Every coefficient in this unit \u2014 of reliability and of validity alike \u2014 is a coefficient of correlation<\/strong>, computed by exactly the product-moment formula learnt in \u00a74.7. Nothing new has to be learnt about the arithmetic; only about what is being correlated with what<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b \u092f\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u00a74.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n The second half turns from the instrument<\/strong> to the system<\/strong>: the modern trends of grading, the credit system and the cumulative record card<\/strong>, the problems they raise, and the place of the computer and multimedia<\/strong> in evaluation.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0927 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0909\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0920\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-22\">\n 2.1<\/span>\n <h3>Essential Qualities of Good Measuring Instruments<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Unit 1 \u00a71.1 listed ten characteristics of a good measuring tool. Of those, four are primary or technical qualities<\/strong> \u2014 the instrument is worthless without them \u2014 and the rest are secondary or practical<\/strong> qualities that decide whether it will actually be used.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0938 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0917\u094c\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Primary<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span> \u2014 does it measure what it claims to measure?<\/span>\u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The truthfulness<\/strong> of a test. It is the most important single quality<\/strong>, because a test that measures the wrong thing consistently is still useless. Validity is specific to a purpose<\/strong> \u2014 a test valid for measuring arithmetic is not thereby valid for measuring reasoning.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Four types<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>Content validity<\/strong> \u2014 do the items adequately sample the whole syllabus and all the objectives? Judged by experts against a blueprint.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Criterion-related validity<\/strong> \u2014 how well do scores agree with an outside criterion? Concurrent<\/em> if the criterion is available now, predictive<\/em> if it lies in the future.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940<\/em>, \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Construct validity<\/strong> \u2014 does the test really measure the psychological trait (intelligence, anxiety, attitude) it names?<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 (\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f) \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>d<\/span>Face validity<\/strong> \u2014 does it look<\/em> appropriate to the person taking it? The weakest form, but it affects motivation and acceptance.<\/span>\u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Primary<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span> \u2014 does it measure consistently?<\/span>\u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The consistency, stability and dependability<\/strong> of scores. If the same pupils are tested again under the same conditions, a reliable test returns substantially the same scores. Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition<\/strong> for validity.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Four methods of determining it \u2014 treated fully in Unit 5<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>Test\u2013retest<\/strong> \u2014 the same test given twice to the same group.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Parallel \/ equivalent forms<\/strong> \u2014 two matched forms of the test given to the same group.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \/ \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Split-half<\/strong> \u2014 odd and even items scored separately and correlated, then corrected by the Spearman\u2013Brown formula.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>d<\/span>Rational equivalence<\/strong> \u2014 the Kuder\u2013Richardson formulae, computed from a single administration.<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Primary<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Objectivity<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/span> \u2014 is it free of the scorer's judgement?<\/span>\u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Two aspects, exactly as in Unit 1: item objectivity<\/strong> \u2014 every item admits of one definite correct answer; and scoring objectivity<\/strong> \u2014 the same paper fetches the same score no matter who marks it or when. Objectivity is the foundation of reliability<\/strong>: a subjectively scored test can never be highly reliable.<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0901\u0924\u093f: \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940, \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0964 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Primary<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Norms<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span> \u2014 can a raw score be given meaning?<\/span>\u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n A norm<\/strong> is the average or typical performance of a clearly defined reference group, against which an individual raw score is interpreted. Common types: age norms, grade norms, percentile norms and standard-score norms<\/strong>. Norms must be based on a large, representative sample<\/strong> and must be revised periodically<\/strong>, since a norm established a generation ago no longer describes today's pupils.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930: \u0906\u092f\u0941-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0940\u0922\u093c\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0906\u091c \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">5<\/span>Secondary<\/span>\u0917\u094c\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Usability \/ Practicability<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \/ \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n The degree to which teachers and administrators can actually use the instrument. It covers ease of administration, ease of scoring, ease of interpretation, time economy, cost, availability<\/strong> and even the get-up<\/strong> of the printed test. A technically superb test that takes three hours and costs a fortune will not be used.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u093f\u0924\u093e, \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0924, \u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u091c-\u0938\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u0932\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0901\u0917\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">6<\/span>Secondary<\/span>\u0917\u094c\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Comparability & Discriminating Power<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n Comparability<\/strong> means scores from equivalent forms or successive administrations can be placed on the same scale, which requires equivalent forms and established norms. Discriminating power<\/strong> is the ability of the test \u2014 and of each item in it \u2014 to separate the able from the less able<\/strong>. A test on which everyone scores alike discriminates nothing and yields no information.<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u092e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u092c \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The relationship in one sentence \u2014 very frequently asked.<\/strong> A test can be reliable without being valid<\/strong> (a wrongly calibrated weighing machine gives the same wrong weight every time), but it cannot be valid without being reliable<\/strong> (if the reading changes at random, it cannot be measuring anything truly). Hence: reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition of validity<\/strong>. This is developed statistically in Unit 5 \u00a72.6.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u2014 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> (\u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948), \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> (\u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u091a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e)\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u00a72.6 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Qualities of a good test<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>65<\/span>Which of the following are characteristics of a good test? 1. Reliability 2. Validity 3. Objectivity 4. Practicability (Usability)<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) All four<\/b> All four are qualities of a good measuring instrument \u2014 validity, reliability and objectivity being primary or technical, and usability the chief secondary or practical quality. Norms, comparability and discriminating power complete the list.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0917\u094c\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915, \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-3\">\n 2.2<\/span>\n <h3>Validity: Concept and Uses<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e: \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Concept<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Validity<\/strong> is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure<\/strong>, and measures nothing else. It is the truthfulness<\/strong> of the instrument, and the single most important quality<\/strong> a test can possess \u2014 for a test that measures the wrong thing perfectly consistently is still worthless.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0914\u0930 \u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n Two properties to remember.<\/strong> Validity is specific to a purpose<\/strong> \u2014 a test valid for measuring arithmetic is not thereby valid for measuring reasoning; one must always ask \"valid for what<\/em>?\" And validity is a matter of degree, not of kind<\/strong> \u2014 a test is more or less valid, never simply valid or invalid.<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \"\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f<\/em> \u0935\u0948\u0927?\" \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u092e \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Types of validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Type<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>The question it answers<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it is established<\/span>\u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Content validity<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Do the items adequately sample the whole syllabus and all the objectives<\/strong> intended?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By expert judgement against the blueprint<\/strong> of \u00a73.9 \u2014 not by any statistical coefficient. Most important for achievement tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Concurrent validity<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Do the scores agree with an outside criterion available now<\/strong>?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By correlating the test with an established test or present performance<\/strong>. Used to validate a short new test against a long accepted one.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0928\u090f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0902\u092c\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Predictive validity<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Do present scores forecast future performance<\/strong>?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By correlating test scores with a criterion obtained later<\/strong>. This is the statistical form of the prognosis function<\/strong> of \u00a71.7; essential for entrance and aptitude tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u00a71.7 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Construct validity<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Does the test really measure the psychological construct<\/strong> it names \u2014 intelligence, anxiety, attitude?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By accumulating varied evidence over time \u2014 correlations with related and unrelated measures, factor analysis, group differences. The hardest and slowest to establish.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u0940\u092e\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Face validity<\/span>\u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Does the test look<\/strong> appropriate to the person taking it?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By inspection only. The weakest form<\/strong> and not true validity at all \u2014 but it affects motivation and acceptance<\/strong>, so it cannot be ignored in practice.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>Factors affecting validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Unclear directions<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936<\/span><\/strong>If pupils misunderstand what is asked, the test measures comprehension of instructions rather than the trait.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936-\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Difficult vocabulary<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/strong>A hard word in a mathematics item turns it into a reading test \u2014 a classic threat to validity.<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0920\u0928-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0915\u091f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Inadequate sampling<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/strong>If the items miss whole units of the syllabus, content validity collapses however reliable the test is.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u0926 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0922\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Improper arrangement<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Items not in increasing order of difficulty, or a paper too long for the time, distort what is measured.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Identifiable answer patterns<\/span>\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>The verbal clues and giveaway distractors of \u00a79.1 let pupils score without knowing the content.<\/span>\u00a79.1 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0917\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Low reliability<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>A test whose scores fluctuate at random cannot be measuring anything consistently, so it cannot be valid.<\/span>\u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Faulty criterion<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/strong>The validity coefficient can be no better than the criterion it is measured against \u2014 a poor criterion makes a good test look invalid.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Nature of the group<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>A test valid for one age, class or cultural group may be quite invalid for another \u2014 the culture-fairness problem of \u00a710.2.<\/span>\u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a710.2 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Types of validity<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>55<\/span>Which one of the following is used to determine test performance in terms of certain psychological traits?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Content validity<\/li>\n <li>(b) Construct validity<\/li>\n <li>(c) Criterion validity<\/li>\n <li>(d) Predictive validity<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Construct validity<\/b> The words \"psychological traits\" point straight to construct validity \u2014 whether the test really measures the construct it names, such as intelligence, anxiety or attitude. It is established by accumulating varied evidence over time.<\/span>\"\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\" \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>99<\/span>Consider: 1. A test for recruitment to a post should have high predictive validity. 2. Predictive validity underlines the suitability of candidates to be selected for a training.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Both 1 and 2<\/b> Both are correct. Recruitment and selection for training are decisions about future<\/em> performance, and predictive validity is precisely the extent to which present scores forecast a future criterion \u2014 the statistical form of the prognosis function.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092d\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/em> \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.2 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-31\">\n 2.3<\/span>\n <h3>Determining the Validity Coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The validity coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n rxy<\/sub> = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2 ) where X = test scores and Y = criterion scores<\/span><\/span>\n rxy<\/sub> = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2 ) \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 X = \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e Y = \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n It is the product-moment r of \u00a74.7, unchanged<\/b> \u2014 only the two things being correlated are different. In reliability we correlate the test with itself<\/b>; in validity we correlate the test with an outside criterion<\/b>. The criterion<\/b> may be marks in the annual examination, teachers' ratings, performance on an established test, or later success in a course or job. Because the coefficient can never exceed the quality of the criterion, choosing a sound criterion is the whole difficulty of validation.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u00a74.7 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 r \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u090f\u0901 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0947<\/b> \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947<\/b>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/b> \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092f\u093e \u0928\u094c\u0915\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udcca<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Why validity coefficients are always lower than reliability coefficients.<\/strong> A reliability coefficient correlates a test with itself<\/em>, so agreement is naturally high \u2014 0.80 to 0.95<\/strong> is expected. A validity coefficient correlates it with something outside<\/em> itself, which is influenced by many other factors, so 0.40 to 0.60 is regarded as good<\/strong> and anything above 0.70 as excellent. Do not mistake a validity coefficient of 0.55 for a poor result \u2014 judged against the right standard it is a strong one.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0947<\/em> \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 0.80 \u0938\u0947 0.95<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0915\u0940<\/em> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 0.40 \u0938\u0947 0.60 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e 0.70 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 0.55 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0928 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-2\">\n 2.4<\/span>\n <h3>Reliability: Concept and Factors Affecting It<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e: \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Concept<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Reliability<\/strong> is the consistency, stability and dependability<\/strong> of the scores a test yields. A reliable test gives substantially the same result on repeated application<\/strong> to the same individuals under the same conditions. In the language of \u00a71.1, it is the faithfulness<\/em> of the instrument \u2014 a reliable weighing machine gives the same reading each time the same object is placed on it.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0947\u092e\u0902\u0926\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a71.1 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The theory behind reliability \u2014 the true-score model<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u2014 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Obtained Score = True Score + Error Score X = T + E<\/span><\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 = \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 + \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 X = T + E<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Every score a pupil obtains contains a true<\/b> component \u2014 his real standing on the trait \u2014 and an error<\/b> component caused by chance factors: a noisy room, a lucky guess, a headache, a lenient examiner. Reliability is the proportion of the obtained variance that is true variance.<\/b> A perfectly reliable test would have E = 0. Because no educational test achieves this, every score should be read as an estimate<\/b>, not an exact quantity \u2014 the point made in \u00a71.1 when Cohen and Swerdlik's third assumption was noted: our measurement is never perfect<\/em>.<\/span>\n \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/b> \u0905\u0902\u0936, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0936\u094b\u0930\u0917\u0941\u0932 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0938\u094c\u092d\u093e\u0917\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u093f\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0926, \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/b> \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 E = 0 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/b> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u0947\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0925\u0940: \u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Factors affecting reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Factor<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Effect on reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Length of the test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The longer the test, the higher the reliability.<\/strong> More items sample the content better and let chance errors cancel out. This is why the split-half coefficient must be corrected upward by the Spearman\u2013Brown formula \u2014 it was computed on a half-length test.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0964<\/strong> \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Range of the group<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The wider the spread of ability<\/strong>, the higher the reliability. A heterogeneous group yields a large \u03c3 and so a high r; a selected, homogeneous group depresses reliability<\/strong> \u2014 the leptokurtic distribution of \u00a74.9.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915<\/strong>, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u03c3 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a r \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u00a74.9 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Difficulty of items<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Items that are too easy or too hard<\/strong> produce little spread of scores and so lower reliability. Items of moderate difficulty (P = 40\u201360 per cent)<\/strong> discriminate best \u2014 precisely the criterion of \u00a73.9.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0926 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 (P = 40\u201360 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924)<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a73.9 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Objectivity of scoring<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The foundation of reliability<\/strong>. A subjectively scored essay paper can never be highly reliable, because the examiner's judgement itself becomes a source of error.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935<\/strong>\u0964 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Time limit<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A speeded test<\/strong> appears more reliable than it is, because unattempted items at the end are scored as wrong for everyone alike, producing an artificially consistent pattern.<\/span>\u0917\u0924\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Conditions of administration<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Noise, poor light, uncomfortable seating, unclear instructions and inconsistent invigilation all add error variance<\/strong> and lower reliability.<\/span>\u0936\u094b\u0930, \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936, \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0915, \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u092c \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Guessing<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Chance success lowers reliability. This is the deeper reason why the true\u2013false item, with its 50 per cent guess factor<\/strong>, was criticized in \u00a79.1.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u00a79.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Examinee variables<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940-\u091a\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Health, fatigue, anxiety, motivation and practice effect vary from occasion to occasion and are a major source of error \u2014 the very factors \u00a71.3 listed as affecting achievement.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930-\u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u00a71.3 \u0928\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Reliability and its factors<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>73<\/span>The consistency with which a test measures whatever it measures is best stated as its:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Validity<\/li>\n <li>(b) Reliability<\/li>\n <li>(c) Practicability<\/li>\n <li>(d) Usability<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Reliability<\/b> Note the careful wording \u2014 \"whatever it measures\". Reliability is consistency regardless of what<\/em> is being measured; validity is the separate question of whether it measures the right thing.<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \"\u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\"\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948, \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/em> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u094b; \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>76<\/span>Consider: 1. The more heterogeneous the group, the lesser is the reliability. 2. Adding equivalent items makes a test more reliable, deleting them less. 3. Too easy or too difficult tests tend to be less reliable.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) 2 and 3 only<\/b> Statement 1 is reversed \u2014 the more<\/em> heterogeneous the group, the higher<\/em> the reliability, because a wide spread of ability produces a large \u03c3. Statements 2 and 3 are correct: length raises reliability, and items of extreme difficulty produce little spread and so lower it.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 1 \u0909\u0932\u091f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/em>, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/em>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u03c3 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0925\u0928 2 \u090f\u0935\u0902 3 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>100<\/span>The reliability coefficient of a test is 0.64. What does it indicate?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) True ability to the extent of 32%<\/li>\n <li>(b) 40%<\/li>\n <li>(c) 64%<\/li>\n <li>(d) 80%<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) 64%<\/b> The reliability coefficient is<\/em> the proportion of obtained variance that is true variance, so 0.64 means 64% of the variance is true and 36% is error. Note the trap: unlike correlation generally, a reliability coefficient is not<\/strong> squared to be interpreted.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948<\/em>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 0.64 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 64% \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 36% \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964 \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-21\">\n 2.5<\/span>\n <h3>Methods of Determining the Reliability Coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n All four methods do the same thing: they obtain two sets of scores from the same individuals<\/strong> and correlate them by the product-moment formula of \u00a74.7. They differ only in how the second set is obtained<\/strong> \u2014 and that difference decides what kind of consistency each one measures.<\/span>\n \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0935\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u00a74.7 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Over time<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Test\u2013Retest Method<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span> \u2192 coefficient of stability<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The same test<\/strong> is given twice to the same group<\/strong> after a suitable interval, and the two sets of scores are correlated. It answers: does the test give the same result on a different day?<\/em><\/span>\u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">The interval problem<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>!<\/span>If the gap is too short<\/strong>, memory and practice effect<\/strong> inflate the coefficient \u2014 pupils simply repeat their earlier answers.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>If the gap is too long<\/strong>, real growth, maturation and further learning<\/strong> deflate it \u2014 the pupils are no longer the same people.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0935\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092c \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The usual compromise is two to four weeks<\/strong>. Note that this method needs two administrations<\/strong>, which is its practical drawback.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u091d\u094c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939<\/strong>\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u092e\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Across forms<\/span>\u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Parallel \/ Equivalent Forms Method<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \/ \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span> \u2192 coefficient of equivalence<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Two forms of the test<\/strong> \u2014 matched in content, difficulty, length and format but with different items \u2014 are given to the same group, usually on the same occasion, and correlated. It answers: would a different sample of items give the same result?<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908, \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0917\u093e?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Merit and difficulty<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/b>Merit:<\/strong> it eliminates the memory effect entirely, and is considered the best single index<\/strong> of reliability. Difficulty:<\/strong> constructing two genuinely equivalent forms is extremely laborious<\/strong> \u2014 and if they are not truly equivalent, the low coefficient reflects the forms rather than the test.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923:<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908:<\/strong> \u0926\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u091a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Within the test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Split-Half Method<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span> \u2192 coefficient of internal consistency<\/span>\u2192 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The test is given once<\/strong>, then split into two halves<\/strong> \u2014 normally odd-numbered items against even-numbered items<\/strong>, since splitting first-half against second-half would confound difficulty and fatigue. The two half-scores are correlated, and the result is then stepped up<\/strong>, because it was computed on a test of only half the true length.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0906\u0927\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Item by item<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u0935\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Rational Equivalence \/ Kuder\u2013Richardson Method<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \/ \u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/h5>\n Reliability is estimated from a single administration<\/strong> by examining the consistency of responses to every individual item<\/strong>, rather than to halves. The best-known formulae are K\u2013R 20<\/strong> and the simpler K\u2013R 21<\/strong>; the general form used today is Cronbach's alpha (\u03b1)<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 K\u2013R 20<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0930\u0932 K\u2013R 21<\/strong>; \u0906\u091c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e (\u03b1)<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Note on its meaning<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/b>It avoids the arbitrariness of where<\/em> to split the test, since it is in effect the average of all possible split-half coefficients<\/strong>. But it assumes the test is measuring one single trait<\/strong> \u2014 applied to a paper covering several unrelated topics, it will underestimate reliability.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0938 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/em> \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0947\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Spearman\u2013Brown Prophecy Formula \u2014 used with the split-half method<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n rtt<\/sub> = 2 rhh<\/sub> \/ ( 1 + rhh<\/sub> )<\/span>\n rtt<\/sub> = 2 rhh<\/sub> \/ ( 1 + rhh<\/sub> )<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n rhh<\/sub><\/b> = correlation between the two halves \u00b7 rtt<\/sub><\/b> = reliability of the whole test. The formula corrects for length<\/b>. Since reliability rises with the length of a test, the half-test coefficient always understates<\/b> the reliability of the full test, and must be stepped up. The name \"prophecy\" comes from its wider use: it can also predict what the reliability would become<\/b> if the test were lengthened two, three or four times.<\/span>\n rhh<\/sub><\/b> = \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u00b7 rtt<\/sub><\/b> = \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928<\/b> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/b> \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \"\u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0925\u0928\" \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u093e: \u092f\u0939 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094b, \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092f\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u0940<\/b>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Split-half reliability<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n \n A 60-item test is administered once. The odd-numbered items and the even-numbered items are scored separately and correlated, giving rhh<\/sub> = 0.75<\/strong>. Find the reliability of the whole test.<\/span>\n 60-\u092a\u0926\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b rhh<\/sub> = 0.75<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 2(0.75) \/ (1 + 0.75) = 1.50 \/ 1.75<\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 2(0.75) \/ (1 + 0.75) = 1.50 \/ 1.75<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 0.857 \u2248 0.86<\/strong><\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 0.857 \u2248 0.86<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The full 60-item test has a reliability of 0.86<\/strong> \u2014 appreciably higher than the 0.75 obtained on the 30-item halves. On the interpretation table of \u00a74.7 this is a very high<\/strong> coefficient, which is exactly what a standardized test should show.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 60-\u092a\u0926\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e 0.86<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 30-\u092a\u0926\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 0.75 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0964 \u00a74.7 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u093f \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Method<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Administrations<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Forms<\/span>\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Type of consistency measured<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Chief source of error<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Test\u2013retest<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Stability over time<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Memory and practice; real change in the pupil<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Parallel forms<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1 or 2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Equivalence of item samples<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Non-equivalence of the two forms<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Split-half<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Internal consistency<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Arbitrary choice of where to split<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Kuder\u2013Richardson<\/span>\u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Item homogeneity<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Assumes the test measures a single trait<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Methods and the Spearman\u2013Brown formula<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>40<\/span>Split-Half method is used for determining which one of the following characteristics of a test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Validity<\/li>\n <li>(b) Reliability<\/li>\n <li>(c) Usability<\/li>\n <li>(d) Objectivity<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Reliability<\/b> The split-half method correlates odd-numbered against even-numbered items from a single administration, giving the coefficient of internal consistency \u2014 one of the four methods of determining reliability.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.5 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>104<\/span>The reliability coefficient of a test is 0.6. What will it be if the test length is doubled? (Spearman\u2013Brown)<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 0.6<\/li>\n <li>(b) 0.65<\/li>\n <li>(c) 0.75<\/li>\n <li>(d) 0.9<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) 0.75<\/b> r = (n \u00d7 r)\/[1 + (n \u2212 1)r] with n = 2 gives (2 \u00d7 0.6)\/(1 + 0.6) = 1.20\/1.60 = 0.75. Lengthening a test always raises reliability, because more items sample the content better and chance errors cancel out.<\/span>r = (n \u00d7 r)\/[1 + (n \u2212 1)r] \u092e\u0947\u0902 n = 2 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 (2 \u00d7 0.6)\/(1 + 0.6) = 1.20\/1.60 = 0.75\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.5, \u00a74.15 D \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>105<\/span>A test has reliability 0.50. How much should the test length be increased to obtain reliability 0.75?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1.5 times<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 times<\/li>\n <li>(c) 2.5 times<\/li>\n <li>(d) 3 times<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 3 times<\/b> Rearranging Spearman\u2013Brown for n: n = [r\u2099(1 \u2212 r)] \/ [r(1 \u2212 r\u2099)] = [0.75(1 \u2212 0.50)] \/ [0.50(1 \u2212 0.75)] = 0.375\/0.125 = 3. The test must be made three times as long.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0915\u094b n \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930: n = [r\u2099(1 \u2212 r)] \/ [r(1 \u2212 r\u2099)] = [0.75(1 \u2212 0.50)] \/ [0.50(1 \u2212 0.75)] = 0.375\/0.125 = 3\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 D \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-32\">\n 2.6<\/span>\n <h3>Relation between Validity and Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u2696\ufe0f The rule in one sentence \u2014 the most examined statement in this unit<\/span>\u2696\ufe0f \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of validity.<\/strong> A test can be reliable without being valid<\/strong>, but it cannot be valid without being reliable<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:10px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Why reliability is necessary:<\/strong> if a test's scores fluctuate at random, it is not measuring anything consistently, and what measures nothing consistently cannot be measuring the right thing.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902:<\/strong> \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0930\u0939\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Why it is not sufficient:<\/strong> a wrongly calibrated weighing machine gives the same wrong weight every time. It is perfectly reliable and completely invalid.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902:<\/strong> \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Numerically:<\/strong> validity can never exceed the square root of reliability, so a test with reliability 0.64 can have a validity of at most 0.80. Reliability sets the ceiling on validity.<\/strong><\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947:<\/strong> \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940, \u0905\u0924\u0903 0.64 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e 0.80 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n The Target Analogy \u2014 draw this in the answer sheet<\/span>\u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0907\u090f<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Four possible tests, shown as four targets<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Pattern of shots<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Reliable?<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f?<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Valid?<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927?<\/span><\/th>\n <th>The test it represents<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Scattered all over the target<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0947<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td>\n <td>A worthless test \u2014 inconsistent and measuring nothing in particular.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Tightly grouped, but far off centre<\/span>\u0938\u0918\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0930<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Yes<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td>\n <td>The key case.<\/strong> Consistent but measuring the wrong thing \u2014 the wrongly calibrated weighing machine.<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Scattered, but averaging round the centre<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0947, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0938\u092a\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Only by accident<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Cannot be trusted for any individual pupil, however well the group average comes out.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0906\u090f, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f2fdfa;\">\n <td>Tightly grouped at the centre<\/strong><\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0918\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Yes<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Yes<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The good test<\/strong> \u2014 consistent, and consistently measuring the right thing.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n \n Notice that no row shows a test that is valid but unreliable<\/strong> \u2014 that combination is impossible, and that impossibility is<\/em> the rule.<\/span>\n \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0940<\/em> \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 The validity\u2013reliability relationship<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e\u2013\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>69<\/span>Consider: 1. A test cannot be valid unless it is reliable. 2. A test that has some validity for one purpose is always valid for another purpose. 3. A reliable test may not necessarily be valid.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(d) 2 only<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) 1 and 3<\/b> This single question tests the whole rule. Statement 1 is the \"necessary\" half and statement 3 the \"not sufficient\" half \u2014 both correct. Statement 2 is false because validity is specific to a purpose<\/em>: valid for what, and for whom?<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0925\u0928 1 \"\u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\" \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928 3 \"\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\" \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940\u0964 \u0915\u0925\u0928 2 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/em> \u0939\u0948: \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0948\u0927?<\/span>\u00a72.6 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-3\">\n 2.7<\/span>\n <h3>Education Tests<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n An educational test<\/strong> is a systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behaviour that represents an educational outcome. Tests are classified along several independent lines \u2014 by what they measure, by how they are administered, by how they are scored, by what they are referenced to, and by the medium they use<\/strong>. A single test carries a label from each line: a class arithmetic paper is an achievement, group, power, criterion-referenced, verbal, teacher-made<\/em> test.<\/span>\n \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915, \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924, \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/em> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Classification by what is measured<\/span>\u0915. \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it measures and when it is used<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">i<\/td>\n <td>Achievement test<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measures what has already been learnt<\/strong> after a period of instruction. Backward-looking. The commonest test in school. Example:<\/em> the annual mathematics examination.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092d\u0942\u0924\u094b\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">ii<\/td>\n <td>Aptitude test<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measures the capacity to acquire<\/strong> a skill with training \u2014 the potential, not the present attainment. Forward-looking. Example:<\/em> a mechanical or clerical aptitude test used in vocational guidance.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">iii<\/td>\n <td>Intelligence test<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measures general mental ability<\/strong> \u2014 reasoning, comprehension, abstract thinking \u2014 expressed as an IQ<\/strong>. Treated fully in Unit 3.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u2014 \u091c\u094b IQ<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">iv<\/td>\n <td>Diagnostic test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Locates the specific point of weakness<\/strong> in a pupil's learning so that remedial teaching can be planned. Discussed in \u00a78.2.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u0947\u0964 \u00a78.2 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">v<\/td>\n <td>Prognostic test<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Predicts the likely success<\/strong> of a pupil in a subject before he begins it \u2014 used to decide placement in a stream or course.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">vi<\/td>\n <td>Personality, interest and attitude tests<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measure non-cognitive<\/strong> traits \u2014 temperament, likes, dispositions. Inventories, rating scales and projective techniques are used. Treated in Unit 3.<\/span>\u0905-\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092d\u093e\u0935, \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2194\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Achievement vs. aptitude \u2014 the classic two-mark question.<\/strong> Both may use very similar items. The difference is one of direction and purpose<\/strong>: achievement looks backward<\/em> and asks \"how much has been learnt?\"<\/strong>; aptitude looks forward<\/em> and asks \"how much can be learnt?\"<\/strong> Achievement is tied to a specific taught syllabus; aptitude is not.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0926\u094b-\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0964<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0926 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0947-\u091c\u0941\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947<\/em> \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e?\"<\/strong>; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/em> \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0901\u0927\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Other bases of classification<\/span>\u0916. \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Individual vs. Group<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/strong>One examinee at a time (Stanford\u2013Binet) versus many at once (a class test). Individual tests give richer observation; group tests are economical.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 (\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921\u2013\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947) \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 (\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923)\u0964 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Speed vs. Power<\/span>\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>A speed<\/strong> test has easy items and a tight time limit \u2014 it measures rate of work. A power<\/strong> test has items of rising difficulty and generous time \u2014 it measures depth of ability.<\/span>\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0926\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Verbal vs. Non-verbal vs. Performance<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Language-based; picture- and figure-based; or requiring actual manipulation of objects. Non-verbal and performance tests suit the illiterate and the very young.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924; \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924; \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947\u0964 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u093f \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Oral vs. Written vs. Practical<\/span>\u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/strong>By mode of response \u2014 the viva-voce, the written paper, and the laboratory or workshop examination.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915\u0940, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0936\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Objective vs. Essay<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong>By scoring method \u2014 one definite answer versus an extended written response judged by the examiner. Compared in detail in \u00a79.1.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u00a79.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Teacher-made vs. Standardized<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/strong>By authorship and rigour of construction \u2014 the distinction developed in \u00a73.8.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u092f\u093f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u00a73.8 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u092d\u0947\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Types of educational test<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>82<\/span>The main purpose of measuring aptitude is to assess the:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Past performance only<\/li>\n <li>(b) Future performance<\/li>\n <li>(c) Present performance only<\/li>\n <li>(d) Both past and present performances<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Future performance<\/b> Aptitude looks forward and asks \"how much can be learnt?\"; achievement looks backward and asks \"how much has been learnt?\" This direction-and-purpose distinction is the whole answer.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"; \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e?\" \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.7 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>57<\/span>Match List I (General test) with List II (Learning measured): A. Content-oriented achievement test B. School-oriented aptitude test C. Culture-oriented verbal aptitude test D. Culture-oriented non-verbal aptitude test \u2014 1. Verbal, numerical and general problem solving abilities derived from culture 2. Knowledge of school subjects 3. Abstract reasoning based on picture classification 4. Arithmetic reasoning<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 2 1 4 3<\/li>\n <li>(b) 3 4 1 2<\/li>\n <li>(c) 3 1 4 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) 2 4 1 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3<\/b> An achievement test measures knowledge of school subjects (2). A school-oriented aptitude test predicts through school-type work such as arithmetic reasoning (4). A culture-oriented verbal aptitude test draws on verbal and numerical abilities acquired from the culture (1). A non-verbal one uses picture classification and abstract reasoning (3).<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (2)\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (4)\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 (1)\u0964 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (3)\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.7, \u00a710.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-31\">\n 2.8<\/span>\n <h3>Other Tools and Techniques of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The test is only one instrument among many, and it reaches only what a pupil can write down<\/em>. The affective and psychomotor domains of \u00a73.1, and everything CCE calls \"non-scholastic\", need the tools and techniques set out below. Recall the distinction from \u00a73.0: a tool<\/strong> is the instrument, a technique<\/strong> is the manner of using it.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916<\/em> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a73.1 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092c \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 CCE \"\u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915\" \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u00a73.0 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f: \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Observation<\/span>\u0915. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Observation<\/strong> is the technique of studying behaviour as it occurs<\/strong>, without asking the subject anything. It is the only way to reach habits, skills, social behaviour and attitudes that a pupil either cannot report or would not report honestly.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092f\u093e \u0924\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Participant vs. non-participant<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/span><\/strong>In participant<\/strong> observation the observer joins the group and shares its life; in non-participant<\/strong> he stays outside and watches. Participation gives depth but risks losing objectivity.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0916\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094b\u0916\u093f\u092e \u092d\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Structured vs. unstructured<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong>Structured<\/strong> observation uses a prepared schedule listing exactly which behaviours to record; unstructured<\/strong> records whatever appears significant.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0902; \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Records natural behaviour<\/strong>; needs no language, so it suits young children and the illiterate; reaches the affective and psychomotor domains; can be used where the subject is unwilling or unable to speak.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092c\u094b\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0941\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u094b \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Limitations<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong>Subjective<\/strong> \u2014 two observers may record the same episode differently; time-consuming<\/strong>; the observer sees only a small sample of behaviour; and pupils who know they are watched behave differently<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u2014 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong>; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Rating scales<\/span>\u0916. \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/h4>\n \n A rating scale<\/strong> records a judge's estimate of the degree<\/strong> to which a trait is present. Where a checklist asks only \"present or absent?\", a rating scale asks \"how much?<\/strong>\"<\/span>\n \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/strong> \u0907\u0938 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \"\u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924?\" \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e?<\/strong>\"<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Type<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it works<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Numerical<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The judge assigns a number on a fixed range \u2014 \"rate punctuality from 1 to 5\". Simple and easily scored, but the numbers mean different things to different judges.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \"\u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u0915\u094b 1 \u0938\u0947 5 \u0924\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093f\u090f\"\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Graphic<\/span>\u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A printed line runs from one extreme to the other with descriptive cues along it, and the judge marks a point anywhere on the line. The commonest form.<\/strong><\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0924\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Descriptive<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Each point on the scale is a full sentence describing the behaviour<\/strong> at that level, which greatly improves objectivity. This is the parent of the modern rubric<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Ranking<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Pupils are placed in order on the trait rather than rated individually. Easy for small groups, impossible for large ones, and it yields only ordinal data.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0932\u0917-\u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u0932, \u092c\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f The six errors of rating \u2014 every one is examinable<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0939 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Halo effect.<\/strong> A general impression of the pupil colours the rating of every separate trait \u2014 a well-behaved child is rated high in intelligence too. The commonest and most serious error.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0964<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u0930\u0902\u0917 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0941\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Error of central tendency.<\/strong> The judge avoids the extremes and puts nearly everyone in the middle categories, so the scale loses its power to discriminate.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0915\u0930 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u094b \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Generosity or leniency error.<\/strong> The judge rates everyone higher than they deserve, usually from goodwill or from unwillingness to record anything adverse. Its opposite is the severity error<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0926\u094d\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0938\u0947\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0932\u094b\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Logical error.<\/strong> Two traits that seem<\/em> related are rated alike although they are not \u2014 intelligence and industriousness, for instance.<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092a\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Proximity error.<\/strong> Traits printed next to each other<\/em> on the form receive similar ratings simply because of their position.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0940\u092a\u094d\u092f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u093e\u0938<\/em> \u091b\u092a\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092e\u093f\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>Contrast error.<\/strong> The judge rates others by contrast with himself<\/strong> \u2014 a very punctual teacher rates all pupils low on punctuality.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n Remedies:<\/strong> define each trait in behavioural terms; use descriptive<\/strong> rather than numerical points; train the raters; use several independent judges<\/strong> and average their ratings; and rate trait-wise across all pupils<\/strong> rather than pupil-wise across all traits \u2014 the same principle as question-wise marking in \u00a79.1.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f; \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0930\u0916\u093f\u090f; \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f; \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915<\/strong> \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0932\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0935\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u00a79.1 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. The remaining tools at a glance<\/span>\u0917. \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Tool<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it is and what it is for<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Checklist<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A list of behaviours or steps against which the observer records only presence or absence<\/strong> \u2014 yes\/no, done\/not done. Ideal for process assessment<\/strong> of a psychomotor skill, where the order of steps matters.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0939\u093e\u0901\/\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\/\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Questionnaire<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A set of written questions answered by the respondent in the investigator's absence<\/strong>. Economical and able to reach many people over a wide area, but useless for the illiterate and subject to a poor return rate.<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0932\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u0926\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Anecdotal record<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A short, dated, factual description of a single significant incident<\/strong>, written soon after it happens. The golden rule: record the behaviour, not the observer\u2019s interpretation of it<\/strong> \u2014 \"pushed two boys aside in the queue\", not \"is aggressive\".<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0924, \u0926\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924, \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0918\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0930\u0902\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e: \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0939\u094b, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0927\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093e\", \u0928 \u0915\u093f \"\u0906\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\"\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Rubric<\/span>\u0930\u0942\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A scoring guide that sets out the criteria<\/strong> of a task and, for each criterion, a description of every level of quality<\/strong>. It is a descriptive rating scale made public in advance, and it is what makes performance assessment<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 C) objective. Holistic<\/strong> rubrics give one overall judgement; analytic<\/strong> rubrics score each criterion separately.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 \u0917) \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Portfolio<\/span>\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A purposeful collection of a pupil's work over time<\/strong>, chosen to show effort, progress and achievement \u2014 with the pupil's own reflection on each piece. It assesses growth rather than a single moment<\/strong>, and is the tool behind NEP 2020's holistic progress card.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Sociometry<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Mapping who chooses whom<\/strong> within a group to reveal leaders, isolates, rejects and cliques; displayed as a sociogram<\/strong>. Treated in \u00a710.3.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e, \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0915\u0940, \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0902; \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u00a710.3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Case study<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>An intensive, all-round study of one pupil<\/strong>, drawing on every source \u2014 tests, observation, interview, anecdotal records, health and home data \u2014 to understand and help a problem case. It is the culmination of all the other tools.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0939\u0928, \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0923 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0943\u0939-\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"3\" id=\"c3\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 3<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 3<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Test Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Test Construction; Test Standardization; Item Analysis \u2014 Item Difficulty, Discrimination Index, Effectiveness of Distractors; Development of Norms<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923; \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u0926-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908, \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \u2696\ufe0f<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Core Pair<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:13px;\">Teacher-made vs Standardized<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Local and flexible vs. norm-backed and rigorous<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \u2705<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">Qualities of a Good Test<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\">7<\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Validity \u00b7 Reliability \u00b7 Objectivity \u00b7 Usability \u00b7 Norms \u00b7 Comparability \u00b7 Discrimination<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u00b7 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-0\">\n 3.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Unit 1 established why<\/strong> we measure and evaluate. This unit takes up the instruments<\/strong> through which it is actually done \u2014 the tools<\/strong> (tests, inventories, scales, schedules) and the techniques<\/strong> (observation, interview, self-reporting) of educational evaluation.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0928\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0939\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> (\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u0925\u0928)\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n A tool<\/strong> is the instrument<\/em> that collects the evidence; a technique<\/strong> is the method or manner<\/em> in which the evidence is collected. A rating scale is a tool; observation is a technique that may use that tool.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n The achievement test<\/strong> is the single most used tool in the school system, and the diagnostic test<\/strong> is the tool that follows it when achievement is poor. Both are treated in detail here.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n No tool is useful unless it possesses certain essential qualities<\/strong>. The reliability and validity introduced briefly in Unit 1 \u00a71.1 are taken up again here as criteria for judging an instrument<\/strong>, and their statistical computation follows in Unit 5.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u090f\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-6\">\n 3.1<\/span>\n <h3>Taxonomy of Educational Objectives<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Taxonomy<\/strong> is the study of classification. Education has objectives related to personal, social, community, national and global needs, and to various aspects of personality.<\/span>\u091f\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0938\u094b\u0928\u0949\u092e\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915, \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The first and most successful effort<\/strong> was made by the American educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom<\/strong> and co-workers, who began work in 1948<\/strong> while Bloom was teaching educational psychology at the University of Chicago<\/strong>. He proposed the classification in 1956<\/strong> \u2014 Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0947\u0902\u091c\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0928 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 1948<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u092c \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0917\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 1956<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It classifies the aims and objectives to be achieved through the curriculum of any course \u2014 knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and abilities<\/strong> that a teacher, teacher-educator or curriculum developer sets for students. It fits all subjects and courses<\/strong>, academic or technical.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udd4a\ufe0f Bloom and Mahatma Gandhi \u2014 the same insight<\/span>\ud83d\udd4a\ufe0f \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e \u0917\u093e\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/div>\n Gandhi defined education as \"the all-round drawing out of the best in child and man \u2014 body, mind and soul.\"<\/strong> This maps exactly onto Bloom's three domains: mind \u2192 intellectual (cognitive)<\/strong>; soul \u2192 emotional, spiritual and moral (affective)<\/strong>; body \u2192 skills using fingers, hands, legs, eyes, vocal cords (psychomotor)<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0917\u093e\u0902\u0927\u0940\u091c\u0940 \u0928\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \"\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u0941\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930, \u092e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0923 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0940\u0932\u0928\u0964\"<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u092e\u0928 \u2192 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 (\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915)<\/strong>; \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e \u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0906\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u0948\u0924\u093f\u0915 (\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915)<\/strong>; \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930 \u2192 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u0941\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0939\u093e\u0925\u094b\u0902, \u092a\u0948\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0928\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930-\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915)<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"domain-grid\">\n <div class=\"domain-card cog\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\ud83e\udde0<\/div>\n Mind<\/span>\u092e\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Cognitive Domain<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h5>\n About knowing<\/strong> \u2014 the intellectual aspects of personality.<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">6 levels \u00b7 Bloom et al., 1956<\/span>6 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u00b7 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0906\u0926\u093f, 1956<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"domain-card aff\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\u2764\ufe0f<\/div>\n Soul<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Affective Domain<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h5>\n About attitudes, feelings, interests, values and beliefs<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">5 levels \u00b7 Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1964<\/span>5 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u00b7 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u092f\u093e, 1964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"domain-card psy\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\u270b<\/div>\n Body<\/span>\u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Psychomotor Domain<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h5>\n About doing<\/strong> \u2014 the skill aspects of personality.<\/span>\u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">5 levels \u00b7 R. H. Dave, 1969 (adapted)<\/span>5 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u00b7 \u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947, 1969 (\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924)<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Two properties to remember.<\/strong> (a) Not watertight:<\/strong> the three are interrelated<\/em> and achievement in one influences achievement in another. (b) Hierarchical:<\/strong> within each domain levels run in order of increasing complexity<\/em>, and learning at a higher level depends entirely on having acquired the prerequisite knowledge and skills at the lower level. If one domain stays underdeveloped, the person has not nurtured a groomed personality. Higher-level outcomes demand more effective teaching and more sophisticated classroom techniques<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0964<\/strong> (\u0915) \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902:<\/strong> \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 (\u0916) \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915:<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0924\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Dimensions of learning \u2014 three purposes of the framework<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e \u2014 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\">\n <li>Provides a process for planning and delivering curriculum and instruction<\/strong> that integrates much of the research on effective teaching and learning.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0936\u094b\u0927 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Offers a way of integrating the major instructional models<\/strong> by showing how they connect and where the overlaps occur.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Provides a framework for organizing, describing and developing research-based teaching strategies<\/strong> that engage students in thinking leading to meaningful learning.<\/span>\u0936\u094b\u0927-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Five aspects of learning to consider while finalizing curriculum, instruction and assessment<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Attitudes and perceptions<\/strong> about learning.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Using knowledge meaningfully.<\/strong><\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Identifying productive habits of the mind<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0915 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Acquiring and integrating<\/strong> knowledge.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Extending and refining<\/strong> knowledge.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-6a\">\n 3.2<\/span>\n <h3>The Cognitive Domain<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The cognitive domain covers objectives that develop mental faculties or intellectual abilities<\/strong> \u2014 knowing, understanding, thinking and problem solving. It develops factual knowledge, conceptual understanding and all levels of thinking<\/strong>, covering the whole of mental abilities and operations. Bloom classified it in 1956<\/strong> into six categories<\/strong> arranged from simple to complex<\/strong> and concrete to abstract<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e, \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0928\u0947 1956<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u0939 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Lowest<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Knowledge<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span> \u2192 revised: Remembering<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Represents memory<\/strong> \u2014 recall and recognition of facts, concepts, principles, theories and laws. No addition or deletion<\/strong> is done; we simply recall and recognize.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092d\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c-\u0918\u091f\u093e\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e; \u0939\u092e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples from the text<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The symbol of iron is Fe \u00b7 The chemical formula of sulphuric acid is H\u2082SO\u2084 \u00b7 The laws of motion were given by Isaac Newton \u00b7 A magnet has two poles, N and S.<\/span>\u0932\u094b\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 Fe \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0917\u0902\u0927\u0915\u093e\u092e\u094d\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 H\u2082SO\u2084 \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0906\u0907\u091c\u093c\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u091a\u0941\u0902\u092c\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0927\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0935 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, N \u090f\u0935\u0902 S\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Grasp<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Understanding (Comprehension)<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span> \u2192 revised: Understanding<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Develops only after<\/em> knowledge. Learners go beyond recall and recognition<\/strong> and can then:<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/em> \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092d\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u092c:<\/span><\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-bottom:4px;\">\n <li>i<\/span>Translate, summarize or define acquired knowledge in their own words<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>ii<\/span>Describe, elaborate, extrapolate and explain phenomena, events, processes or methods.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928, \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930, \u092c\u0939\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>iii<\/span>Interpret information in their own way, give their own examples, discriminate<\/strong> between objects or concepts, classify and categorize<\/strong> on the basis of criteria, and verify and generalize<\/strong> facts.<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902\/\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/strong>, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Having understood atomic structure, the learner not only recalls protons, electrons and neutrons but can describe<\/strong> the structure and explain why an atom is neutral<\/strong> using the charges and numbers of the three fundamental particles.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0941-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u091f\u0949\u0928, \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0941 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0938\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Use<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Application<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span> \u2192 revised: Applying<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Learners apply<\/strong> a fact, concept, principle, theory or law in daily life and solve problems of varied nature under concrete and abstract situations<\/strong>. Application is impossible without knowledge and understanding \u2014 and if the learner cannot<\/strong> apply what has been acquired, it has no meaning at all<\/strong>, indicating the content was not properly understood.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0948\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0924\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>If learners know and understand the importance of natural resources, the underground water crisis and the electricity supply\u2013demand relationship, they will minimize wastage of water and electricity<\/strong> at home, in school and in society through proper and judicious use.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u092d\u0942\u091c\u0932-\u0938\u0902\u0915\u091f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u2013\u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947-\u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0947 \u0918\u0930, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091c\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0917\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Break down<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span> \u2192 revised: Analysing<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Learners develop the potential to break the whole into its components<\/strong> and detect the relationship and organization<\/strong> among them \u2014 for instance breaking a law or theory into the facts, concepts and principles on which it was built. One can analyse only with knowledge, understanding and the ability to apply<\/strong>. Three tasks are performed:<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902:<\/span><\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-bottom:4px;\">\n <li>a<\/span>Analysis of the elements<\/em> making up the whole.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Analysis of the relationships<\/em> among the constituents.<\/span>\u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Analysis of the organizational patterns<\/em> of the constituents.<\/span>\u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Newton's third law \u2014 \"to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.\" With analytical ability developed, learners can analyse the law in likely situations<\/strong> and describe each of its concepts<\/strong>, action and reaction, separately.<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u2014 \"\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0930\u093e\u092c\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">5<\/span>Build<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Synthesis<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span> \u2192 revised: Creating<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The process of putting constituents together to make a whole<\/strong> \u2014 a higher-level, complex thinking ability involving the creation of a new pattern or structure<\/strong> by manipulating constituents. It carries elements of creativity<\/strong>; developing a creative personality requires this level, and all creative people share this ability. Synthesis involves three kinds of development:<\/span>\u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f, \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948:<\/span><\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-bottom:4px;\">\n <li>a<\/span>Development of a unique communication<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Development of a plan, procedure or proposed set of operations<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Development of a set of abstract relations<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">6<\/span>Highest<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span> \u2192 revised: Evaluating<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The process of judgement about the worth or value of a process or a product<\/strong>, covering all content \u2014 facts, concepts, principles, theories and laws. It is the highest and most complex<\/strong> level and involves all five earlier categories<\/strong>. It is quantitative as well as qualitative<\/strong>, leads to decision-making ability<\/strong>, and involves judgement in terms of internal as well as external criteria<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Assessment of Cognitive Learning<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Cognitive learning<\/strong> is the acquisition of knowledge and skills by the mental process<\/strong>. Cognition includes representation of physical objects and events and other information processing.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It results from listening, watching, touching or experiencing<\/strong>, and is mainly awareness towards the environment<\/strong> \u2014 the environment that gives meaning to acquired knowledge. No motor movement is needed<\/strong>; the learner is active only in a cognitive way. It includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947, \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u0942\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0947\u0936\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT)<\/strong> explains mental processes as influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors<\/strong>. With effective<\/strong> cognitive processes learning is easier and information is stored longer; with ineffective<\/strong> ones, learning difficulties result that can appear anytime during life.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 (CLT)<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf Insight and motivation (CLT view)<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e (CLT \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f)<\/span><\/div>\n In CLT, motivation and purpose are much the same<\/strong>. The learner's goal is the end result he anticipates and desires, and the goal controls the learner's behaviour<\/strong>. The teacher's most important responsibility is to help the learner find worthwhile goals<\/strong> that are clear and realistic, recognizing and using the prominence of social and achievement motives<\/strong> in school learning. The teacher must know what is familiar<\/strong> to students and then introduce elements of novelty \u2014 but not too rapidly<\/strong>, pacing the presentation to maintain interest and attention. The teacher's management of conflicting motives<\/strong> may be an important factor in student success.<\/span>\n CLT \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0936\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u092e\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0935\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83e\udded Guiding exploration and action<\/span>\ud83e\udded \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n Cognitive theorists begin with thoughts interesting and understandable to the learner<\/strong>; in every type of instruction we start with meaningful wholes<\/strong>. Further: attention is focused on the elements and relationships that determine the correct response<\/strong>; the teacher's guidance must match the student's level of thought<\/strong> \u2014 if a student has not advanced beyond concrete thinking<\/strong>, information presented symbolically will not help<\/strong>; and the teacher helps students find purpose or order<\/strong> in learning. Concept formation may be regarded as the organization of experience<\/strong>, and the teacher's role is to clarify the critical features of both old and new experiences<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0930\u094b\u091a\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927\u0917\u092e\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u092e \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0906\u0917\u0947: \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u0928 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0917\u0940; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u090f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <h4>Five thinking skills required in cognitive learning<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n The five at a glance \u2014 each is treated in the same order below: what it is, who named it, and how it is developed or assessed.<\/span>\n \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092f\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"skill-map\">\n <a class=\"skill-chip s1\" href=\"#skill-1\">\n Skill 1<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 1<\/span><\/span>\n \ud83c\udfaf<\/span>\n <h6>Convergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n One correct answer, reached by logic<\/span>\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <a class=\"skill-chip s2\" href=\"#skill-2\">\n Skill 2<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 2<\/span><\/span>\n \ud83d\udca1<\/span>\n <h6>Divergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n Many original ideas, freely generated<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <a class=\"skill-chip s3\" href=\"#skill-3\">\n Skill 3<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 3<\/span><\/span>\n \ud83d\udd0d<\/span>\n <h6>Critical Thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n Judging what to believe and what not to<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <a class=\"skill-chip s4\" href=\"#skill-4\">\n Skill 4<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 4<\/span><\/span>\n \ud83e\udde9<\/span>\n <h6>Problem Solving<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n Overcoming obstacles to reach a solution<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u0915<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <a class=\"skill-chip s5\" href=\"#skill-5\">\n Skill 5<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 5<\/span><\/span>\n \u2696\ufe0f<\/span>\n <h6>Decision Making<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/h6>\n Selecting one course from many<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s1\" id=\"skill-1\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Convergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Narrowing many facts down to the one correct answer \u2014 J. P. Guilford<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0947\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u2014 \u091c\u0947.\u092a\u0940. \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The term was introduced by the American psychologist J. P. Guilford<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0947.\u092a\u0940. \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is the ability to give the \"correct\" answer<\/strong> to standard questions that do not require much creative faculty.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \"\u0938\u0939\u0940\" \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It works by bringing facts and data together from various sources<\/strong> and then applying logic and knowledge to solve the problem.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0930, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Assessed by:<\/strong> standard IQ tests \u00b7 recognition and knowledge tests \u00b7 logical discussions \u00b7 giving problems to students.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928:<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 IQ \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092d\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u00b7 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s2\" id=\"skill-2\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Divergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Opening one topic out into many original ideas \u2014 the opposite direction to Skill 1<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u2014 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 1 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It means thinking outwardly instead of inwardly<\/strong> \u2014 the ability to develop original and unique ideas<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930<\/strong> \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u2014 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Its goal is to generate many different ideas about a topic in a short period<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It involves breaking a topic into its components to gain insight into its various aspects.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It occurs in a spontaneous, free-flowing<\/strong> manner \u2014 ideas are generated in a random, unorganized<\/strong> fashion.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939\u0940<\/strong> \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915, \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2194\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The contrast in one line.<\/strong> Convergent<\/strong> thinking moves inward<\/em> \u2014 many facts converge on one correct answer<\/strong>, and it is measured by IQ-type tests. Divergent<\/strong> thinking moves outward<\/em> \u2014 one topic opens into many possible ideas<\/strong>, and it is measured by creativity and fluency of response. A well-taught classroom needs both.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/strong> \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930<\/em> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 IQ-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930<\/em> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0941\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udd0e Two probing tools for divergent thinking<\/span>\ud83d\udd0e \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n Self-analysis<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 What are my activities during a normal day? What do I know about? How do I spend my time? What are my areas of expertise? What would I like to change in my world or life? What are my strongest beliefs and values? What am I studying in school? What bothers me? What do I like \u2014 my hobbies, my interests?<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901? \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901? \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u0917\u0924\u094d \u092f\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0942\u0901\u0917\u093e? \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901? \u092e\u0941\u091d\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0947\u0936\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092e\u0941\u091d\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0947 \u0936\u094c\u0915, \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901?<\/span><\/p>\n Topic analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 What are the most important aspects of the thing? What are its effects? How has it changed and why are those changes important? What are its different aspects? What smaller parts comprise it? What do I know about it? What suggestions or recommendations can be made? Is it good or bad \u2014 and why?<\/span>\u0909\u0938 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0940 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901? \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0935 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u093e \u092c\u0941\u0930\u0940 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902?<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 2 \u00b7 Four techniques to stimulate divergent thinking<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 2 \u00b7 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Brainstorming<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u0902\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Generating a list of ideas in a creative but unstructured<\/strong> manner \u2014 as many as possible in a short period; all<\/strong> ideas are recorded.<\/span>\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u2014 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915; \u0938\u092d\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Recording ideas<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Creates a collection of thoughts on various subjects that later becomes a source book of ideas<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u091c\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Free writing<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Writing whatever comes to mind about the topic without stopping<\/strong> \u2014 generates a variety of thoughts quickly.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u090f \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0930\u0941\u0915\u0947<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Mind \/ subject mapping<\/span>\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915 \/ \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Translating brainstormed ideas into a visual map or picture<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u0902\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u091c\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s3\" id=\"skill-3\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Critical Thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Reasonable reflective thinking about what to believe \u2014 Scriven & Paul<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0949\u0932<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n \n Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking focused on what to believe and what not to believe<\/strong> \u2014 the mode of thinking about any subject, content or problem in which the thinker improves the quality of his own thinking<\/strong> by skilfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. Michael Scriven<\/strong> and Richard Paul<\/strong> hold it to be the intellectually disciplined process<\/strong> of: analysing the situation \u00b7 synthesizing two or more pieces of information \u00b7 applying knowledge \u00b7 active and skilful conceptualization \u00b7 evaluating gathered information on certain universal intellectual values.<\/span>\n \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0941\u0936\u0932\u0924\u093e\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0907\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0928<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u092a\u0949\u0932<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0926\u094b \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u00b7 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092d\u094c\u092e \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">Four characteristics of critical thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>It is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking<\/strong> that attempts to reason at the highest level of quality.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It is never universal in any individual<\/strong> \u2014 everyone is subject to episodes of irrational thought.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092d\u094c\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u092d\u0940-\u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It is affected by motivation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It has two components<\/strong>: (a) a set of information- and belief-generating and processing skills<\/strong>; (b) the habit<\/strong>, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behaviour.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902: (\u0915) \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e- \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938-\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f; (\u0916) \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0939 \u0906\u0926\u0924<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"kv-block\" style=\"margin-bottom:20px;\">\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Modes<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span>\n Scientific \u00b7 Mathematical \u00b7 Historical \u00b7 Anthropological \u00b7 Economic \u00b7 Moral \u00b7 Philosophical thinking<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u00b7 \u0910\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u00b7 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u0928\u0948\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Core skills<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/span>\n Observation \u00b7 Interpretation \u00b7 Analysis \u00b7 Inference \u00b7 Evaluation \u00b7 Explanation \u00b7 Meta-cognition<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u00b7 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u0905\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Importance<\/span>\u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/span>\n \n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:0;\">\n <li>\u203a<\/span>To learn how to approach problems logically and confidently<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u203a<\/span>To balance both sides of the brain<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u203a<\/span>To make wise decisions<\/strong> in life.<\/span>\u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u203a<\/span>To put oneself on the path to knowledge<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 3 \u00b7 Critical thinking calls for the ability to \u2014<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 3 \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0907\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Recognize problems.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Find workable means to solve them.<\/span>\u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Comprehend and use text with accuracy and clarity.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Interpret data to evaluate arguments.<\/span>\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Recognize unsaid assumptions.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0915\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Understand the importance of steps in problem solving.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Collect relevant information.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Recognize existence or non-existence of logical relationships between propositions.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">9<\/span>Draw conclusions and cross-check them.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f-\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s4\" id=\"skill-4\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Problem Solving<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Discovering, analysing and resolving problems \u2014 K\u00f6hler, S\u2013R theorists and Harlow<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u0932\u0930, S\u2013R \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n \n A mental process involving discovering, analysing and solving problems<\/strong>. Its ultimate goal is to overcome obstacles and find the solution that best resolves the issue<\/strong>. Formalized learning theory developed in the late 1930s<\/strong>, when proponents of various approaches attempted to build their own theories to explain the problems of learning.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0947<\/strong>\u0964 \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 1930 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0936\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Approach<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Proponent & experiment<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Core claim<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Cognitive Field Theory<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Wolfgang K\u00f6hler<\/strong> (German psychologist and phenomenologist) \u2014 classical experiments on the chimpanzee Sultan<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u094b\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u0917\u0948\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u0932\u0930<\/strong> (\u091c\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940) \u2014 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u092a\u0948\u0902\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0932\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Emphasizes perception of the total situation<\/strong>, relationships among its components, and restructuring the cognitive field<\/strong>. The solution arrives all of a sudden \u2014 by insight<\/strong> \u2014 after some initial effort. Confirmed by many studies on children and adults.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong>, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932\u0964 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0915\u0938\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Stimulus\u2013Response Theory<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915\u2013\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>S\u2013R theorists.<\/span>S\u2013R \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Emphasizes trial and error<\/strong> \u2014 a problem is solved through a gradual process of eliminating errors<\/strong> and putting together correct responses.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0942\u0932<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Learning Set<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Harry Harlow (1959)<\/strong> \u2014 experiments on monkeys and human subjects of low mental ability, using simple discrimination problems.<\/span>\u0939\u0948\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b (1959)<\/strong> \u2014 \u092c\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>More realistic and rational.<\/strong> Subjects first showed trial-and-error behaviour; but when similar problems were presented later for the first time, they made correct discrimination straight away<\/strong> \u2014 apparently insightful. In the earlier trial-and-error learning they had \"learned how to learn\"<\/strong> \u2014 acquiring a learning set<\/strong> that transferred positively<\/strong> to similar problems. Harlow: original learning within an area is difficult and frustrating, but after mastery of the basic facts, learning within the same area becomes simple and effortless<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0928-\u092d\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u092f\u093e; \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0928-\u092d\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 \"\u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\"<\/strong> \u0925\u093e \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964 \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b: \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u0902\u0920\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc Note on the controversy<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/div>\n There has been considerable controversy over the superiority of one approach over the other. Some psychologists hold that the cognitive field approach is most effective for problems requiring higher mental processes<\/strong>, while the stimulus\u2013response approach is effective for simple problems<\/strong>. Harlow's learning-set explanation was proposed precisely to do away with this controversy<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915\u2013\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 4 \u00b7 Five steps in problem solving (the problem-solving cycle)<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 4 \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u0930\u0923 (\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930)<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83d\udd01 It is called a cycle<\/strong> because a wrong turn at any step sends the solver back to the beginning \u2014 most often to step 1, where the reason was misidentified.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udd01 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u092e\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u091a\u0930\u0923 1 \u092a\u0930, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Identifying the problem<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n It sounds simplest but is not \u2014 it is very common for people to identify the reason incorrectly<\/strong>, which renders all following efforts useless.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0948 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0932\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Defining the problem<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong>\n Careful definition itself offers solutions and insights<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Forming a strategy<\/span>\u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Devised as per the individual's mindset, attitude, experience and available resources<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Organizing information<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Information must be organized coherently<\/strong> so that it leads naturally to the best possible solution.<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Allocating resources<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Allocate more resources<\/strong> so that available resources can be used to find a solution.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 4 \u00b7 Problem-solving strategies<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 4 \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Brainstorming<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u0902\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Suggesting a large number of solutions and combining\/developing them until an effective one is found.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e\/\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Abstraction<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Solving the problem in a model<\/strong> of the system before applying it to the real system.<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>System assessment<\/span>\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Assessing the output and interactions of an entire system.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Lateral thinking<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094d\u0935 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Approaching solutions indirectly and creatively<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Divide and conquer<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u092f<\/span><\/strong>Breaking a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems.<\/span>\u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940, \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940, \u0939\u0932-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Analogy<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong>Using a solution that solved an analogous<\/strong> problem; adapting existing solutions to similar problems.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0940; \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Hypothesis testing<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Assuming a possible explanation and trying to prove one's perspective.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Synthesis & transformation<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics into something new; transforming the problem into another for which solutions exist; eliminating the cause; testing possible solutions until the right one is found.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e; \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0902; \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923; \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s5\" id=\"skill-5\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Decision Making<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n Selecting one course of action among alternatives \u2014 B. Aubrey Fisher<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u2014 \u092c\u0940. \u0911\u092c\u094d\u0930\u0947 \u092b\u093c\u093f\u0936\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n \n The mental processes resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios<\/strong>. The end result of every decision-making process is a final selection<\/strong>; the output can be an action or a suggestion<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Objectives<\/strong> are to be established first.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Objectives must be classified and placed in order of importance<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Alternative actions<\/strong> must be developed.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">The alternatives must be evaluated<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">A tentative decision<\/strong> can be made.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 6<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">The tentative decision is evaluated and analysed<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 7<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">A few steps are followed that result in a decision model<\/strong>, used to determine an optimal plan<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u092e \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 8<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">In a situation of conflict<\/strong>, role-playing<\/strong> can be used.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0918\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0939<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83e\udde9 Establishing good decision making<\/span>\ud83e\udde9 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Each step may involve social, cognitive and cultural problems<\/strong>; becoming more aware of these obstacles allows one to better anticipate and overcome them. Five helpful steps:<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0907\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u091c\u0917 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923:<\/strong><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Creating and nurturing the relationships, norms and procedures<\/strong> that influence how problems are understood and communicated.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Recognizing that a problem exists.<\/strong><\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Identifying an explanation<\/strong> for the problem and evaluating it.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0922\u0942\u0901\u0922\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Finding more suitable justice<\/strong> among many responses.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f<\/strong> \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Following through with action that supports the more justified decision<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n Integrity<\/strong> is supported by the ability to overcome distractions and obstacles, by developing implementing skills, and by ego strength<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0939\u0902-\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0932 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 5 \u00b7 Fisher's four stages of group decision making<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 5 \u00b7 \u092b\u093c\u093f\u0936\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n \n Developed by communication researcher B. Aubrey Fisher<\/strong>; these four stages (or phases) are important for the decision-making process to begin.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923-\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0940. \u0911\u092c\u094d\u0930\u0947 \u092b\u093c\u093f\u0936\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <h6>Orientation<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/h6>\n The introductory stage \u2014 members meet for the first time and get to know each other.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <h6>Conflict<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0918\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h6>\n Once familiar, disputes, little fights and arguments take place \u2014 but members eventually work it out.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926, \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u091d\u0917\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0932\u091d\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <h6>Emergence<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u092d\u0935<\/span><\/h6>\n The group begins to clear up vague opinions<\/strong> by talking about them.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <h6>Reinforcement<\/span>\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n Members finally make a decision, while justifying to themselves<\/strong> that it was the right one.<\/span>\u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n Revision Recap<\/span>\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5 class=\"sub\">The five skills \u2014 consolidated recap<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/h5>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Skill<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it does<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Names to cite<\/span>\u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Convergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Brings facts from many sources together to reach the one correct answer<\/strong>; assessed by IQ and knowledge tests.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 IQ \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>J. P. Guilford<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Divergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Generates many original ideas<\/strong> from one topic, spontaneously and without structure; stimulated by brainstorming, recording ideas, free writing and mind mapping.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947; \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u0902\u0925\u0928, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>J. P. Guilford<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Critical Thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Self-guided, self-disciplined judgement of what to believe and what not to believe<\/strong>; has a skills component and a habit component.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0918\u091f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0926\u0924-\u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Michael Scriven, Richard Paul<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Problem Solving<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Discovers, analyses and resolves problems through a five-step cycle<\/strong>; explained by insight, trial-and-error and learning-set theories.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u091a\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928; \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0928-\u092d\u0942\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>K\u00f6hler \u00b7 S\u2013R theorists \u00b7 Harlow (1959)<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Decision Making<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Selects one course of action<\/strong> from alternatives, ending in a final selection; in groups it passes through four stages.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924; \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u091c\u093c\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>B. Aubrey Fisher<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc Read the five together: skills 1 and 2 supply the raw thought, skill 3 tests it, skills 4 and 5 put it to work.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093f\u090f: \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 1 \u090f\u0935\u0902 2 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 3 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Levels of the cognitive domain<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>44<\/span>Which one of the following categories in the taxonomy of educational objectives indicates the highest level of learning?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Analysis<\/li>\n <li>(b) Application<\/li>\n <li>(c) Synthesis<\/li>\n <li>(d) Comprehension<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Synthesis<\/b> Among the four given, Synthesis is highest in Bloom\u2019s original order (Knowledge \u2192 Comprehension \u2192 Application \u2192 Analysis \u2192 Synthesis \u2192 Evaluation). Evaluation is higher still but is not offered as an option. In the revised 2001 taxonomy, Synthesis becomes \"Creating\" and moves to the very top.<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0939\u0948 (\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u2192 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u2192 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u2192 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u2192 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928)\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 2001 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \"\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\" \u092c\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.1 A, \u00a73.5 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-6b\">\n 3.3<\/span>\n <h3>The Affective Domain<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The affective domain relates to the development of emotions, values, attitudes<\/strong> and those aspects of personality more influenced by the heart than the mind<\/strong>. It also includes the development of interests, appreciation, feelings, likes and dislikes<\/strong>. It was classified by the American educational psychologists D. R. Krathwohl, B. S. Bloom and B. B. Masia in 1964<\/strong> into five categories arranged hierarchically from lowest to highest complexity.<\/span>\n \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0943\u0926\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093e\u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0921\u0940.\u0906\u0930. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u092c\u0940.\u090f\u0938. \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940.\u092c\u0940. \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e 1964<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Attend<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Receiving<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n The ability, inclination and readiness of learners to receive information<\/strong>. It requires attention, awareness, listening, seeing and willingness<\/strong>. These are the preconditions of learning, personality development, and imbibing culture and values<\/strong>. It needs sensitization of learners to stimuli, phenomena or environment<\/strong> \u2014 learners should be made receptive in habit and attitude towards whatever they are to learn.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928, \u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u0942\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923, \u0905\u0935\u0932\u094b\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0907\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Reading newspapers, magazines, journals, books and reports of interest \u00b7 Watching news, shows, reports and programmes as per interest \u00b7 Listening patiently and attentively to teachers, parents, seniors, friends and more experienced persons \u00b7 Having curiosity to learn from various sources.<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u091c\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0932, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093f\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093f\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0927\u0948\u0930\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0938\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>React<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Responding<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n Learners must be responsive as well as receptive<\/strong>, otherwise the purpose is not served. Responding behaviour reflects that the learner is receiving<\/strong>. Continuity in attention and motivation (receiving) leads to<\/strong> responding behaviour. This category is represented by interest<\/strong> \u2014 the tendency to respond to a particular object, event or situation. It creates the way for two-way communication<\/strong> and facilitates teaching and learning: students listen<\/em> attentively and respond<\/em> to share their reflections and experiences.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0936\u0940\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u0915\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e (\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923) \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Response of students in class \u00b7 Interaction with teachers, friends and seniors on various issues \u00b7 Visits to clubs, libraries, museums and other knowledge-resource centres \u00b7 Participation in activities, competitions, seminars, conferences and crossword-type programmes.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u00b7 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u092c, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u093e\u0932\u092f, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u093e\u0932\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0923 \u00b7 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094b\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u0947\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Prefer<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Valuing<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \/ \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n During the cyclic process of receiving and responding, learners are automatically inclined towards taking value judgements<\/strong> about the things concerned \u2014 an object, event, idea, rule, ritual, set norm, or any traditional or modern aspect of culture. Through valuing, individuals set guidelines for regulating their own behaviour<\/strong>. Character formation or value inculcation happens through three sequential steps<\/strong>: (a) value acceptance \u2192 (b) value preference \u2192 (c) value commitment.<\/strong><\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e, \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0921, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: (\u0915) \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u2192 (\u0916) \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u2192 (\u0917) \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>A class is taught by several teachers, all practising various values \u2014 some common, some unique to individual teachers. Students attend classes, interact, observe and analyse<\/strong> the values being practised, and through regular observation and analysis develop their own values<\/strong> based on preference, acceptance and commitment.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f, \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0906\u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Systematize<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Organization<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Students absorb various values<\/strong> from teachers, parents and society, analyse<\/strong> them, and finally construct a relatively enduring value system<\/strong> through synthesis and organization<\/strong> for a balanced conduct and behaviour pattern. This leads to a set value structure or philosophy of life<\/strong>, which assists in decision-making about conduct<\/strong> in real-life situations and in forming opinions on major issues<\/strong> of social and personal concern.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928-\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0924-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">5<\/span>Highest<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Characterization of Values \/ Value Complex<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \/ \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0941\u0932<\/span><\/h5>\n The highest level<\/strong>. Individuals develop a set of values, attitudes and beliefs<\/strong> that build their character<\/strong> and give shape to their philosophy and personality<\/strong>. This process goes on continuously throughout life<\/strong>, resulting in shifts of preference among values depending upon situation, age and experience<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0917\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928-\u092d\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Table 1.2 \u2014 Five categories of the affective domain with key verbs<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e 1.2 \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n \n The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally \u2014 feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations and attitudes. Listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex.<\/span>\n \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u092e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Category<\/span>\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Key Words (Verbs)<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926)<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Receiving phenomena<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e-\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923<\/span><\/strong> Awareness, willingness to hear<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u0942\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0907\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Asks \u00b7 choose \u00b7 describe \u00b7 follow \u00b7 give \u00b7 identify \u00b7 locate \u00b7 name<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Responding to phenomena<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong> Active participation; attends and reacts to a phenomenon<\/span>\u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e; \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Answer \u00b7 assist \u00b7 aid \u00b7 comply \u00b7 conform \u00b7 discuss \u00b7 greet \u00b7 help \u00b7 perform \u00b7 practice \u00b7 present \u00b7 read \u00b7 recite \u00b7 report \u00b7 select \u00b7 tell \u00b7 write<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Valuing<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong> Based on internalization of specified values; clues expressed in overt behaviour and often identifiable<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924; \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Complete \u00b7 demonstrate \u00b7 differentiate \u00b7 explain \u00b7 follow \u00b7 form \u00b7 initiate \u00b7 invite \u00b7 propose \u00b7 read \u00b7 report \u00b7 select \u00b7 share \u00b7 study \u00b7 work<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Organization<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong> Organizes values into priorities by contrasting them, resolving conflicts and creating a unique value system<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u0902\u0918\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Adhere \u00b7 alter \u00b7 arrange \u00b7 combine \u00b7 compare \u00b7 complete \u00b7 defend \u00b7 explain \u00b7 formulate \u00b7 generalize \u00b7 identify \u00b7 integrate \u00b7 modify \u00b7 order<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Internalizing values (characterization)<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 (\u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923)<\/span><\/strong> Has a value system that controls behaviour<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Act \u00b7 discriminate \u00b7 display \u00b7 influence \u00b7 listen \u00b7 modify \u00b7 perform \u00b7 practice \u00b7 solve<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>Attitude, Values, Interest and Self-concept<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Philip George Zimbardo, 1999Attitude<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation<\/strong> of people, objects, events, activities, ideas, or virtually anything in the environment.<\/span>\n \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Read BainSociologist's view<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Attitude is the relatively stable overt behaviour of a person which affects his status<\/strong>. It is a state of mind, a feeling or a disposition<\/strong> \u2014 and it is important to have a positive attitude about work.<\/span>\n \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Values:<\/strong> affective learning also involves internalizing a set of values expressed in behaviour<\/strong>. Teachers affect students' values and behaviour by setting examples through their own behaviour<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f:<\/strong> \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Attitude formation:<\/strong> attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience, environment and education<\/strong>. The American psychologist Abraham Tesser<\/strong> has argued that hereditary variables<\/strong> may also affect attitudes.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923:<\/strong> \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092b\u0932\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u0942\u092a \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0939\u092e \u091f\u0947\u0938\u0930<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0917\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Measurement of attitude<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n \n A number of techniques are in use, but all suffer from different kinds of limitations<\/strong>. Largely they focus on the three components of attitude \u2014 the cognitive, the affective and the behavioural<\/strong>. Methods divide into two basic categories<\/strong>: (1) direct measurement<\/strong>, such as the Likert scale, and (2) indirect measurement<\/strong>, such as projective techniques.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928-\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902: (1) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e (2) \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Technique<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it works<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Limitation<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Direct observation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A simple and logical method that records the behaviour patterns<\/strong> of people under study; widely used for various purposes.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0927\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Even if individuals are easily accessible, observing the behaviour of a large sample is not practically feasible<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092d\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Direct questioning<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Asking pre-set questions<\/strong> on topics on which the individual's behaviours are to be evaluated \u2014 seemingly the most straightforward approach.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Results may not be accurate because an individual may try to hide his real opinions and attitudes<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Projective techniques<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Attitude-gauging objects are hidden<\/strong> and results interpreted on the basis of pre-set criteria<\/strong>. Overcomes some limitations of direct observation.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u090f\u0901 \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Falls short in objective and reliable interpretation of data<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092e\u091c\u093c\u094b\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Thurstone scale (1928)<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1928)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The first official method<\/strong> for measuring attitude, formulated by Louis Leon Thurstone<\/strong>, a US pioneer in psychometrics and psychophysics<\/strong>; his objective was to measure attitudes regarding religion<\/strong>. The scale contains statements<\/strong> on the issue, each assigned a numerical value<\/strong> based on the value the evaluator considers it to have. Selected statement values are added up and averaged<\/strong>, and the average corresponds to a particular attitude.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0942\u0924 \u0932\u0941\u0908 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0928 \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e; \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Assignment of values depends on evaluator judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcca The Likert Scale \u2014 most examined item in this section<\/span>\ud83d\udcca \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/span><\/div>\n Introduced by Likert<\/strong> in A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes<\/em>. It covers a range from extremely positive \u2192 neutral \u2192 extremely negative<\/strong>. It consists of statements<\/strong>; subjects express opinion on a 0\u20135 point scale<\/strong>. Once each statement has a numerical value, the values are added and the mean calculated<\/strong>. It is often used in career assessment programmes<\/strong> to gauge a learner's interests and tendencies so they can select the right career path. It is applied in the form of questionnaires<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes<\/em> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2192 \u0924\u091f\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u2192 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f 0\u20135 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n The five standard responses (a Likert item):<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 (\u090f\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0926):<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n <ol class=\"num-stack alpha\" style=\"margin-bottom:10px;\">\n <li>Strongly disagree<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Disagree<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Neither disagree nor agree<\/span>\u0928 \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924 \u0928 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Agree<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Strongly agree<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n The individual ticks one response for each statement. Each statement plus its possible responses is a Likert item<\/strong>; a Likert scale<\/strong> is the sum of responses to multiple Likert items<\/em>. It is considered a \"balanced\"<\/strong> form of attitude testing because it contains an equal number of positive and negative options<\/strong>. It is also sometimes known as the Summative Scale<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \"\u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924\"<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940-\u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Forced choice method & three biases that make Likert scales unreliable<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u091c\u094b \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n In some questionnaires the neutral response is removed<\/strong>. This is the forced choice method<\/strong> \u2014 the individual cannot remain neutral. It is used when it is thought the individual might select the neutral response to avoid controversy or hide ignorance<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u091f\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0940<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0924\u091f\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0924\u092c \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u091f\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u091a\u0941\u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\" style=\"margin-top:10px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>Central tendency bias<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 especially in a professional setting, the individual may be reluctant to admit strong feelings<\/strong> about an issue.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u093f\u091a\u0915\u093f\u091a\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Acquiescence bias<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the individual may feel obliged to agree<\/strong> with the presented statement.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Social desirability bias<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the individual may select an option to preserve self-image or to be popular<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u091b\u0935\u093f \u092c\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u094b\u0915\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u091a\u0941\u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n Once the completed questionnaire is returned, responses may be evaluated individually or in a grouped form<\/strong> depending on the pattern being studied. When studied in grouped form, the items provide a score<\/strong> that can be categorized and evaluated.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930, \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0927\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Interest and its measurement<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The reason for finding out students' interest is to help them get their dream careers<\/strong>. An interest inventory<\/strong> tells teachers the interest areas of their students so they can encourage them and open opportunities<\/strong> in a particular field.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092a\u094d\u0928-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f \u0926\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is one of the most popular career assessment tools<\/strong> and is also frequently used for educational guidance<\/strong>. The test was developed in 1927 by psychologist E. K. Strong<\/strong> to help people quitting military jobs<\/strong> find suitable work.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 1927 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0908.\u0915\u0947. \u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0948\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u094c\u0915\u0930\u0940 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0926\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Supporting students:<\/strong> before selecting a career, students need to identify the right path through an assessment giving insight into their own interests, preferences and personal styles<\/strong>. Analysing these directs them to the right courses, jobs, internships and activities<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917:<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0948\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902, \u0928\u094c\u0915\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0936\u093f\u092a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Self-concept and its assessment<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n \n Self-concept<\/strong> defines how we assess ourselves as individuals \u2014 what we think of ourselves<\/strong>. Its development has two aspects:<\/span>\n \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0939\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0939\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094b\u091a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0902:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Aspect 1<\/span>\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>The Existential Self<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>\"The sense of being separate and distinct from others<\/strong> and the awareness of the constancy of the self<\/strong>.\" (Bee, 1992)<\/em><\/span>\"\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u0942\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964\" (\u092c\u0940, 1992)<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">\u2192<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Aspect 2<\/span>\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>The Categorical Self<\/span>\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Once a child realizes he has a distinct identity<\/strong>, he gradually becomes aware of the world around him and his own place in it<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u092c \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0936\u0903 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091c\u0917\u0924\u094d \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u091c\u0917 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>He starts thinking of himself as more than his physical characteristics<\/strong> \u2014 hair colour, height, etc.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0930\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u0926 \u0907\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Finally he becomes aware that others perceive him in a certain way<\/strong>, which may or may not match how he perceives himself.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092d\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83e\ude9e Carl Rogers \u2014 three components of self-concept<\/span>\ud83e\ude9e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932 \u0930\u094b\u091c\u0930\u094d\u0938 \u2014 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>The view the individual has of himself<\/strong> \u2014 self-image<\/em>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The value the individual places on himself<\/strong> \u2014 self-esteem or self-worth<\/em>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What the individual wishes he were really like<\/strong> \u2014 ideal self<\/em>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u094d\u0935<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Four factors affecting self-concept<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>How others react to us<\/span>\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong>People's approval, recognition and affection<\/strong> help develop a positive self-image.<\/span>\u0932\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0928\u0947\u0939<\/strong> \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Comparison with others<\/span>\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Comparing with those doing better financially or socially leads to a negative<\/strong> self-image; comparing with the less successful leads to a positive<\/strong> one.<\/span>\u0906\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e; \u0915\u092e \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Social roles<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong>Some roles carry prestige and a positive self-image<\/strong> \u2014 such as that of a doctor.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Identification<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0926\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Self-concept is influenced by the role we play in the group we belong to<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0909\u0938 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0939\u092e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 The affective domain<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>41<\/span>Which of the following categories in the taxonomy are parts of the Affective Domain? 1. Application 2. Valuing 3. Organization 4. Adaptation 5. Comprehension<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 5<\/li>\n <li>(d) 4 and 5<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) 2 and 3<\/b> The five affective levels are Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organization and Characterization. Application and Comprehension are cognitive; Adaptation belongs to psychomotor classifications.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0917 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.1 B \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>75<\/span>Which one of the following illustrative statements of objectives does not fall under the Affective Domain?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) The pupil appreciates a given piece of literature<\/li>\n <li>(b) The pupil expresses ideas in writing with good speed and correct punctuation<\/li>\n <li>(c) The pupil develops scientific attitude<\/li>\n <li>(d) The pupil develops an interest in reading autobiographies of scientists<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> Appreciating, developing an attitude and developing an interest are all affective. Writing with good speed and correct punctuation is a skill of execution \u2014 a psychomotor objective.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.1 B, \u00a73.1 C \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-6c\">\n 3.4<\/span>\n <h3>The Psychomotor Domain<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The psychomotor domain is concerned with skill objectives<\/strong> \u2014 the development of manipulative and motor skills<\/strong>. It covers activities such as typing, painting, drawing, dissecting, food preparation, beautification, carpentry, book binding, sculpture, photography, operating computers and machines<\/strong>, and all other manipulative skills. Psychological readiness of the learner is essential<\/strong> before any such skill can be acquired.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0939\u0938\u094d\u0924-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0947\u0936\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091f\u0902\u0915\u0923, \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0932\u093e, \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926\u0928, \u092d\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923, \u0938\u094c\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928, \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0908\u0917\u0940\u0930\u0940, \u091c\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0926\u0938\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940, \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093e, \u091b\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0936\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0938\u094d\u0924-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udc65 Who classified this domain<\/span>\ud83d\udc65 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Unlike the cognitive and affective domains, the psychomotor domain has several competing classifications<\/strong>. The scholars who attempted it include Ragole (1950), J. P. Guilford (1958), E. J. Simpson (1966), R. H. Dave (1969), A. J. Harrow (1972)<\/strong> and Allyn & Bacon (1994)<\/strong>. The classification followed in this text is the adapted version of R. H. Dave (1969)<\/strong>, which has five categories<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0948\u0917\u094b\u0932 (1950), \u091c\u0947.\u092a\u0940. \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 (1958), \u0908.\u091c\u0947. \u0938\u093f\u092e\u094d\u092a\u0938\u0928 (1966), \u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947 (1969), \u090f.\u091c\u0947. \u0939\u0948\u0930\u094b (1972)<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0932\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0915\u0928 (1994)<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947 (1969) \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Watch<\/span>\u0905\u0935\u0932\u094b\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Initiation \/ Observation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0928 \/ \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n The first and lowest<\/strong> category. The learner observes<\/strong> the skill being performed by an expert or model and initiates<\/strong> an attempt to imitate it. Observation of the complete act, its sequence and the tools involved forms the base for all later stages.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Practise<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Manipulation<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n The learner performs selected steps<\/strong> of the skill, follows directions<\/strong> given by the teacher or the manual, and fixes the performance through repeated practice<\/strong>. Performance at this stage is still guided and not yet independent.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Refine<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Precision<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n The learner begins controlling faults and eliminating errors<\/strong>, and can reproduce the act with precision<\/strong> and accuracy. Speed and exactness both improve; the performance becomes independent of the model<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Innovate<\/span>\u0928\u0935\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Articulation<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n The learner not only performs the skill accurately but adds novel attributes<\/strong> to it \u2014 coordinating several skills in harmony, modifying the sequence, and adapting the act to new situations. Originality enters the performance<\/strong> at this level.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0902\u091c\u0938\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0928\u094d\u0935\u092f, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0906 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">5<\/span>Highest<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Naturalization<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n The highest and rarest<\/strong> level. The performance becomes automatic, natural and effortless<\/strong> \u2014 it requires almost no conscious attention. Very few learners reach this level<\/strong>; it marks the mastery associated with experts and professionals.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0932\u092d\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u091a\u0947\u0924 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u092e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Performance Assessment (Psychomotor Assessment)<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928)<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Performance assessment<\/strong> is a form of testing that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer<\/strong> from a ready-made list. It measures what students can do<\/strong> with what they know, and is therefore the natural mode of assessment for the psychomotor domain.<\/span>\n \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u0928\u0940-\u092c\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfcf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The cricket-coach analogy.<\/strong> A cricket coach does not judge a player only by a written quiz on the rules of the game. The real test is \"playing the game\"<\/strong> \u2014 how the player bats, bowls and fields in an actual match. In exactly the same way, performance assessment asks the student to do<\/em> the thing rather than describe<\/em> it.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0947\u091f-\u0915\u094b\u091a \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0947\u091f \u0915\u094b\u091a \u0916\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0916\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0948 \"\u0916\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u0947\u0932\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0948\u091a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940, \u0917\u0947\u0902\u0926\u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/em> \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three methods of performance assessment<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack roman\">\n <li>Open-ended answers<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the student supplies a written or oral answer, a mathematical solution, a drawing, a diagram or an exhibit, rather than choosing from options.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930, \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0932, \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Extended tasks<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 assignments requiring sustained work over a longer period \u2014 experiments, projects, field investigations, presentations.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0924\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Portfolios<\/span>\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 a selected collection of a student's work assembled over time, showing growth and progress<\/strong> rather than a single snapshot.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939, \u091c\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three main purposes of performance assessment<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Diagnostic<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong>To identify the specific difficulties and weaknesses a learner faces in performing the skill.<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Instructional<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong>To guide and shape further teaching, so instruction is adjusted to what the learner actually needs.<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Monitoring<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong>To track the learner's progress in the skill continuously over time.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Four skills exercised in a performance task<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack alpha\">\n <li>Obtaining information<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 gathering the data, materials and instructions the task requires.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Employing the information<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 organizing and processing what has been gathered.<\/span>\u091c\u094b \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Using the information<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 applying it to actually carry out the task.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Communication<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 presenting the process and the result clearly to others.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three key benefits<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0932\u093e\u092d<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>A variety of tasks<\/strong> can be set, so different learning styles<\/strong> are accommodated \u2014 a student who cannot show ability on a written paper may show it through a model, a demonstration or a performance.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0936\u0948\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>It encourages teamwork<\/strong>, since many performance tasks are carried out in groups.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>It focuses attention on the learner's personal habits and attitudes<\/strong> \u2014 punctuality, neatness, perseverance, safety consciousness \u2014 which written tests cannot capture.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0924\u093e, \u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u0921\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Three conditions for fair performance assessment<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>The criteria must be predetermined<\/strong> and made known, so that both teacher and learner know exactly what a successful performance looks like.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Students are not scored against their classmates<\/strong> \u2014 each performance is judged against the stated criteria alone.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The feedback reflects competency<\/strong> attained, not a comparative score \u2014 it tells the learner what has been mastered and what still needs work.<\/span>\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-61\">\n 3.5<\/span>\n <h3>Specification of Objectives & Steps in the Evaluation Process<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. The Revised Taxonomy (2001)<\/span>\u0915. \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 (2001)<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n In 2001<\/strong>, Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy was revised in a volume titled A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing<\/strong><\/em>, prepared by Lorin W. Anderson, David R. Krathwohl, Kathleen A. Cruikshank<\/strong> and others. The most visible change was that the six categories, which were nouns in the original, were converted into verbs<\/strong>.<\/span>\n 2001<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing<\/strong><\/em> \u0928\u093e\u092e\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0902\u0925 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0941\u0906, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u094b\u0930\u093f\u0928 \u0921\u092c\u094d\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0942. \u090f\u0902\u0921\u0930\u0938\u0928, \u0921\u0947\u0935\u093f\u0921 \u0906\u0930. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u0915\u0948\u0925\u0932\u0940\u0928 \u090f. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0907\u0915\u0936\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u092f\u0939 \u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e-\u0930\u0942\u092a \u091b\u0939 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Original (1956) \u2014 nouns<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 (1956) \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Revised (2001) \u2014 verbs<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 (2001) \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td>Knowledge<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>Remembering<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td>Comprehension<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/td><td>Understanding<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td>Application<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/td><td>Applying<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td>Analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Analysing<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td>Synthesis<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Creating<\/span>\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td>Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>Evaluating<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd04<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Why the change was made \u2014 the reasoning to write in the exam.<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0964<\/strong><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Thinking is an active process<\/em>, so verbs describe it more accurately than nouns<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>\"Knowledge\" was a product of thinking, not a category of thinking<\/strong>, and was therefore replaced by \"Remembering\"<\/strong> \u2014 because a learner can cram, recall and recognize without understanding<\/strong>, and remembering is the mental act<\/em> involved.<\/span>\"\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\" \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0925\u093e, \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \"\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\"<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u0930\u091f, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>In the revised order Synthesis becomes \"Creating\" and moves to the top<\/strong>, above \"Evaluating\".<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \"\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\" \u092c\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u091a\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\" \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Functions of Educational Objectives \u2014 usefulness of taxonomical classification<\/span>\u0916. \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>It helps teachers and curriculum framers focus on all three domains<\/strong> instead of attending only to the cognitive.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>It makes education holistic<\/strong> rather than one-sided.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>It supports whole-personality development<\/strong> so that the individual becomes useful to himself and to society<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>It helps in selecting appropriate classroom assessment techniques<\/strong> \u2014 the objective determines whether a written test, an observation schedule or a performance task is right.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0940 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>It helps develop teacher competencies<\/strong> for designing effective learning experiences.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>It guides the devising of co-curricular activities<\/strong> aligned with stated objectives.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>7<\/span>It promotes the all-round development<\/strong> of the learner.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>8<\/span>It enables teachers to frame instructional objectives in behavioural terms<\/strong>, which is the precondition of any measurable evaluation.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>C. Guidance Functions of Evaluation<\/span>\u0917. \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n Because of rising stress levels and cases of student suicide, counsellors are now appointed in schools<\/strong>. Evaluation results are the raw material on which their guidance work rests.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u092c \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <ol class=\"num-stack\">\n <li>Results of evaluation are useful for guidance and counselling<\/strong> of students.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Educational and vocational guidance<\/strong> is given on the basis of the student's abilities, interests, skills, attitudes, aptitude and values<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Results of anxiety and stress tests<\/strong> lead to guidance aimed at reducing stress<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935-\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Personality disorders<\/strong> can be diagnosed and the student guided accordingly.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It helps the student in choosing the right vocation, profession or career<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f, \u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0930\u093f\u092f\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It helps in choosing suitable courses<\/strong> of study.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It assists in nurturing life skills<\/strong> in learners.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-62\">\n 3.6<\/span>\n <h3>The Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a73.5 described how Anderson and Krathwohl turned Bloom's six nouns into verbs. That is only half<\/strong> of what the 2001 revision did. Bloom's original was one-dimensional<\/strong> \u2014 it asked only what the pupil does<\/em>. The revision added a second dimension<\/strong> asking what the pupil does it to<\/em>, and the two together form a grid<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u00a73.5 \u0928\u0947 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u090f\u0902\u0921\u0930\u0938\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932 \u0928\u0947 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093e\u0964 2001 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0906\u0927\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0915-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940<\/strong> \u0925\u093e \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e<\/strong> \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>, \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0932<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Facts<\/span>\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Factual knowledge<\/span>\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n The isolated bits and pieces<\/strong> a pupil must know to be acquainted with a discipline \u2014 terminology<\/strong> and specific details and elements<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u091f\u0941\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The symbol \u03c3 stands for standard deviation; the normal curve was developed by De Moivre, Laplace and Gauss.<\/span>\u03c3 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u0915 \u0939\u0948; \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0921\u0940 \u092e\u0949\u092f\u0935\u0930, \u0932\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0932\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0949\u0938 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Concepts<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Conceptual knowledge<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n The interrelationships among the basic elements<\/strong> \u2014 classifications and categories, principles and generalizations, theories, models and structures. This is knowledge organized into a whole<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>That reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition of validity; that the four scales form a hierarchy of increasing information.<\/span>\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948; \u0915\u093f \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Methods<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Procedural knowledge<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n How to do something<\/strong> \u2014 subject-specific skills and algorithms, techniques and methods, and the criteria for deciding when to use which procedure<\/strong>. That last part is what separates a technician from a statistician.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0932\u0928\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u092c \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0939\u094b<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0936\u093f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Computing a standard deviation; and knowing that a skewed distribution calls for the median rather than the mean.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Self<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Metacognitive knowledge<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span> \u2192 entirely new in 2001<\/span>\u2192 2001 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Knowledge of cognition itself, and awareness of one's own thinking<\/strong> \u2014 strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge<\/strong> of one's strengths and weaknesses as a learner. Bloom's original had no place for this at all<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u091c\u0917\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/strong>\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0925\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>A pupil who knows he confuses biserial with point-biserial and therefore rechecks that decision every time. This is the cognitive basis of assessment AS learning<\/strong> and of the self-assessment NEP 2020 requires.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941-\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0939\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u229e<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The taxonomy table and its bearing on the blueprint.<\/strong> The two dimensions cross to form a 4 \u00d7 6 grid of twenty-four cells<\/strong>: four kinds of knowledge down the side, six cognitive processes across the top. Every objective occupies one cell. \"The pupil applies<\/em> (process 3) the standard deviation formula<\/em> (procedural knowledge)\" sits at the cell Procedural \u00d7 Apply<\/strong>. This is the same logic as the blueprint of \u00a73.9<\/strong>, one level deeper: the blueprint crosses objectives \u00d7 content<\/em>, while the taxonomy table crosses process \u00d7 knowledge type<\/em>. A paper that fills only the Factual \u00d7 Remember<\/strong> cell is precisely the memory-based paper \u00a77.1 criticized.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0964<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 4 \u00d7 6 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u094c\u092c\u0940\u0938 \u0916\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0932<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0915\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u091b\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/em> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928) \u0915\u094b \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e 3)\" \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u00d7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e: \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u00d7 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941<\/em> \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u00d7 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/em> \u0915\u094b\u0964 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u00d7 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0916\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u00a77.1 \u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-51\">\n 3.7<\/span>\n <h3>Writing Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a71.8 established that the educational process begins with objectives, and step 3 of the evaluation hierarchy required \"specification of desired student behaviour\"<\/strong>. This section shows how that specification is actually written \u2014 because an objective that cannot be observed cannot be evaluated.<\/span>\n \u00a71.8 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923 3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \"\u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928\"<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc General objective, specific objective and specification<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>General objective<\/strong> \u2014 broad and long-term: \"The pupil develops an understanding of the concept of measurement.\"<\/em> Not directly observable.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915: \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Specific objective<\/strong> \u2014 the general one broken down unit by unit: \"understands the four scales of measurement.\"<\/em><\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928: \"\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Specification<\/strong> \u2014 the observable act that proves it: \"The pupil identifies<\/strong> the scale to which a given example belongs and justifies<\/strong> his choice.\"<\/em> This is what the test item measures.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0947: \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The four parts of a well-written behavioural objective<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n WHO + ACTION VERB + CONDITION + STANDARD<\/span>\n \u0915\u094c\u0928 + \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926 + \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f + \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Example:<\/b> \"The Class IX pupil<\/b> (who) will compute<\/b> (action verb) the standard deviation of ten ungrouped scores<\/b> (condition) correct to two decimal places, in 10 minutes<\/b> (standard).\" Note that the action verb<\/b> is the heart of it. \"Knows\", \"understands\" and \"appreciates\" name states of mind that cannot be seen; \"computes\", \"identifies\", \"classifies\" and \"demonstrates\" name acts that can. This is exactly why the revised taxonomy of \u00a73.5 changed the nouns into verbs<\/b>.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/b> \"\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e IX \u0915\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/b> (\u0915\u094c\u0928) \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/b> (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926) \u0926\u0938 \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/b> (\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f) \u0926\u094b \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927, 10 \u092e\u093f\u0928\u091f \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/b> (\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915)\u0964\" \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926<\/b> \u0939\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0943\u0926\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964 \"\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u0938\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0902; \"\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u00a73.5 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093e<\/b>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Action verbs by domain and level<\/span>\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n \n This table should be kept at hand when framing a blueprint (\u00a73.9): the verb chosen fixes the level of the objective, and therefore the kind of item that must be written.<\/span>\n \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f (\u00a73.9) \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0930\u0939\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f: \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Domain \/ level<\/span>\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \/ \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Action verbs to use<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Knowledge<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>define \u00b7 list \u00b7 name \u00b7 state \u00b7 recall \u00b7 recognize \u00b7 label \u00b7 match<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u00b7 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Understanding<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>explain \u00b7 describe \u00b7 summarize \u00b7 translate \u00b7 interpret \u00b7 illustrate \u00b7 classify \u00b7 give examples<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u00b7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u00b7 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u00b7 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Application<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>compute \u00b7 solve \u00b7 apply \u00b7 demonstrate \u00b7 use \u00b7 predict \u00b7 construct \u00b7 show<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u00b7 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u00b7 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Analysis<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>analyse \u00b7 differentiate \u00b7 distinguish \u00b7 compare \u00b7 contrast \u00b7 break down \u00b7 infer<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u00b7 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u00b7 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0947\u0915 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Synthesis \/ Creating<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \/ \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>design \u00b7 compose \u00b7 formulate \u00b7 organize \u00b7 plan \u00b7 propose \u00b7 devise \u00b7 generate<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u00b7 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Evaluation<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>judge \u00b7 appraise \u00b7 justify \u00b7 criticize \u00b7 defend \u00b7 assess \u00b7 argue \u00b7 conclude<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u00b7 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928 \u00b7 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u00b7 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#fdf4f8;\"><td>Affective<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>listens \u00b7 attends \u00b7 responds \u00b7 complies \u00b7 volunteers \u00b7 values \u00b7 appreciates \u00b7 accepts \u00b7 defends a belief \u00b7 displays \u00b7 practises consistently<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0947\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0938\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928 \u00b7 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f0fdf8;\"><td>Psychomotor<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>imitates \u00b7 manipulates \u00b7 assembles \u00b7 operates \u00b7 measures \u00b7 draws \u00b7 dissects \u00b7 performs with precision \u00b7 performs automatically<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u091a\u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u00b7 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u270d\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The four rules examiners look for.<\/strong> A well-written objective is (1) stated in terms of the pupil's behaviour, not the teacher's activity<\/strong> \u2014 \"the pupil computes\", never \"to teach computation\"; (2) observable and measurable<\/strong>, so the verb must name an act; (3) single<\/strong> \u2014 one objective, one behaviour, never \"understands and applies\"; and (4) attainable<\/strong> at the pupil's level within the time available. Objectives written this way are what make a blueprint<\/strong> possible at all, since the grid can only be filled once each objective names a testable act.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f (1) \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \u0915\u092d\u0940 \"\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0923\u0928 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0928\u093e\" \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; (2) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947; (3) \u090f\u0915\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930, \u0915\u092d\u0940 \"\u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u0924\u0925\u093e (4) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0930\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-2\">\n 3.8<\/span>\n <h3>Teacher-made and Standardized Tests<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Working definitions<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/div>\n A teacher-made test<\/strong> is constructed by the classroom teacher for her own pupils, to measure the outcomes of the particular content she has taught. A standardized test<\/strong> is constructed by subject experts and test specialists<\/strong>, is tried out on a large representative sample, and is supplied with uniform directions for administration and scoring, established norms, and known reliability and validity coefficients<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Teacher-made Test<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Prepared by the class teacher<\/strong>, often single-handedly and in a short time.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Covers a limited, locally taught<\/strong> portion of content.<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>No try-out, no item analysis<\/strong> and usually no established norms.<\/span>\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0928 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reliability and validity are not computed<\/strong> \u2014 they are assumed.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Interpretation is local<\/strong> \u2014 a score means something only within that class.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Cheap, quick and flexible<\/strong>; can be revised for tomorrow's lesson.<\/span>\u0938\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e, \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e<\/strong>; \u0915\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Best for formative and internal<\/strong> classroom evaluation.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Standardized Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Prepared by a team of subject and measurement experts<\/strong> over months or years.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Covers content common to many schools<\/strong> \u2014 a whole course or grade level.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are tried out and analysed<\/strong> for difficulty and discrimination; weak items are rejected.<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>; \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reliability and validity are computed and reported<\/strong> in a manual.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Interpretation is against published norms<\/strong> \u2014 a score is comparable across schools and states.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093e\u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Costly, time-consuming and rigid<\/strong>; cannot be altered by the user.<\/span>\u092e\u0939\u0901\u0917\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u092e\u094d\u092f<\/strong>; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Best for selection, placement, research and comparison<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091a\u092f\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udca1<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The one-line discriminator.<\/strong> Ask: \"Does the test come with a manual of norms?\"<\/em> If yes, it is standardized<\/strong>; if no, it is teacher-made<\/strong>. Everything else \u2014 expert authorship, try-out, item analysis, reported reliability \u2014 is a consequence of that single fact. Note also that a teacher-made test can be more valid<\/strong> than a standardized one for a particular class, because it matches exactly what was taught.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915-\u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0915\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093f\u090f: \"\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?\"<\/em> \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0939\u093e\u0901, \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0924\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong>\u0964 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u092c \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e-\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Merits and limitations of each<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Limitations<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Teacher-made<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Matches the actual syllabus taught<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/li><li>Economical and quickly prepared<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/li><li>Can be repeated as often as needed<\/span>\u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/li><li>Gives immediate feedback for remedial work<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/li><li>Reflects the teacher's own objectives.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Low objectivity and reliability<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>No norms, so no outside comparison<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Items often untested for difficulty<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/li><li>Prone to the teacher's personal bias<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>Coverage may be unbalanced.<\/span>\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Standardized<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>High objectivity, reliability and validity<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>Norms permit comparison across groups<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Items refined by analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/li><li>Uniform administration removes examiner variation<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Useful for selection and research.<\/span>\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Expensive and slow to construct<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0901\u0917\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>May not fit a particular school's syllabus<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0928 \u0916\u093e\u090f<\/span><\/li><li>Cannot be modified by the teacher<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935<\/span><\/li><li>Norms become outdated<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0921\u093c \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Encourages comparison rather than individual growth.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Standardized tests<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>74<\/span>Which of the following are characteristics of a Standardized Achievement test? 1. Reliability 2. Validity 3. Norm<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/b> A standardized test is supplied with computed reliability and validity coefficients and with established norms. The presence of a manual of norms is the single surest mark of standardization.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.8, \u00a72.1 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-41\">\n 3.9<\/span>\n <h3>Construction of Achievement Tests and Standardization<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Test construction proceeds through four broad stages<\/strong> \u2014 planning, preparing, trying out and evaluating<\/strong>. The first two produce a draft<\/em>; the last two turn that draft into a standardized instrument<\/strong>. A teacher-made test normally stops after stage 2.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e, \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/em> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0926\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u091a\u0930\u0923 2 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0930\u0941\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83c\udfd7\ufe0f Read the chain downward. Stages 1\u20132<\/strong> give a usable classroom test; stages 3\u20134<\/strong> are what make it standardized<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \ud83c\udfd7\ufe0f \u0936\u0943\u0902\u0916\u0932\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u091a\u0930\u0923 1\u20132<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u091a\u0930\u0923 3\u20134<\/strong> \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Planning \u2014 deciding what to measure<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>\n Fix the purpose<\/strong> of the test; state the instructional objectives in behavioural terms<\/strong>; delimit the content<\/strong>; decide the types of items<\/strong>, the length<\/strong>, the time limit<\/strong> and the weightage<\/strong> to be given to each objective, each content unit and each item type. The product of this stage is the blueprint<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941<\/strong> \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902; \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908<\/strong>, \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0939\u0948 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Preparing \u2014 writing and assembling the items<\/span>\u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u2014 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Write two to three times as many items as finally needed<\/strong>, since many will be rejected. Get them reviewed by subject experts<\/strong> for accuracy and language. Then arrange<\/strong> them \u2014 grouped by item type, and within each type in increasing order of difficulty<\/strong> \u2014 and write the directions and the scoring key<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b-\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0917\u0947\u0964 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0915\u0941\u0902\u091c\u0940<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Trying out \u2014 the preliminary and final try-out<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong>\n Administer the draft to a sample similar to the intended group<\/strong>. The preliminary try-out<\/strong> (about 100 pupils) removes ambiguous wording and impractical directions. The final try-out<\/strong> (a larger sample, often 300\u2013400) supplies the data for item analysis<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> (\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 100 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930) \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> (\u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 300\u2013400) \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Evaluating \u2014 reliability, validity and norms<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span><\/strong>\n Compute the reliability coefficient<\/strong> and establish validity<\/strong> against a criterion; then administer the final form to a large representative sample<\/strong> to prepare norms<\/strong>, and publish everything in a test manual<\/strong> with the directions, key, norm tables and coefficients.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902; \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u092c \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u0941\u0902\u091c\u0940, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Exam Add-on \u2014 The Blueprint<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0928 \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>What a blueprint (table of specifications) looks like<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f (\u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e) \u0915\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/h4>\n \n The blueprint is a two-way grid<\/strong> \u2014 objectives across the top, content units down the side \u2014 with marks entered in each cell. It is the single device that guarantees content validity<\/strong>, and questions on it are almost certain in the paper.<\/span>\n \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u092c\u0917\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u0930\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Content unit \u2193 \/ Objective \u2192<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u2193 \/ \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u2192<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Know.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Under.<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Appl.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930.<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Skill<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Total<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Unit A<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">15<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Unit B<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0916<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Unit C<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0917<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">15<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Total marks<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">13<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n \n Reading the grid: the paper carries 50 marks<\/strong>; Unit B<\/strong> is the most heavily weighted at 20 marks; and Understanding<\/strong> receives the largest share of objectives at 20 marks. A blank cell would mean an objective is not being tested at all in that unit \u2014 the blueprint makes such gaps visible before<\/em> the paper is set.<\/span>\n \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 50 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0916<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0930 20 \u0905\u0902\u0915; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 20 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0964 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094b\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/em> \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Item analysis \u2014 difficulty value and discrimination index<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n \n After the final try-out, each item is examined on two indices<\/strong>. The scripts are arranged from highest to lowest score and the top 27%<\/strong> and bottom 27%<\/strong> are taken as the upper and lower groups.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0915\u0930 \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0940 27%<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0947 27%<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The two item-analysis formulae<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Difficulty Value P<\/em> = ( R<\/em>U<\/sub> + R<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \/ ( N<\/em>U<\/sub> + N<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \u00d7 100 Discrimination Index D<\/em> = ( R<\/em>U<\/sub> \u2212 R<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \/ N<\/em>U<\/sub><\/span>\n \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 P<\/em> = ( R<\/em>U<\/sub> + R<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \/ ( N<\/em>U<\/sub> + N<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \u00d7 100 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 D<\/em> = ( R<\/em>U<\/sub> \u2212 R<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \/ N<\/em>U<\/sub><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n R<\/b>U<\/sub> = correct responses in the upper group \u00b7 R<\/b>L<\/sub> = correct responses in the lower group \u00b7 N<\/b>U<\/sub>, N<\/b>L<\/sub> = number of pupils in each group. A higher P means an easier item<\/b>. Items with P between 40% and 60%<\/b> and D of 0.30 or above<\/b> are accepted; a negative D<\/b> means the weaker pupils did better than the abler ones, and such an item is rejected outright<\/b>.<\/span>\n R<\/b>U<\/sub> = \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u00b7 R<\/b>L<\/sub> = \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u00b7 N<\/b>U<\/sub>, N<\/b>L<\/sub> = \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 P \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/b>\u0964 P 40% \u0938\u0947 60%<\/b> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0924\u0925\u093e D 0.30 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/b> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 D<\/b> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924<\/b> \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Computing P and D for one item<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 P \u090f\u0935\u0902 D \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n \n In the try-out of a science test, the upper group and lower group each contained 40 pupils<\/strong>. On item 12, 30 pupils in the upper group<\/strong> and 10 in the lower group<\/strong> answered correctly. Find the difficulty value and the discrimination index, and decide whether to retain the item.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 40 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u092a\u0926 12 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 30 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 10 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Given:<\/strong> RU<\/sub> = 30, RL<\/sub> = 10, NU<\/sub> = NL<\/sub> = 40.<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948:<\/strong> RU<\/sub> = 30, RL<\/sub> = 10, NU<\/sub> = NL<\/sub> = 40\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>P<\/strong> = (30 + 10) \/ (40 + 40) \u00d7 100 = 40\/80 \u00d7 100 = 50%<\/strong>.<\/span>P<\/strong> = (30 + 10) \/ (40 + 40) \u00d7 100 = 40\/80 \u00d7 100 = 50%<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>D<\/strong> = (30 \u2212 10) \/ 40 = 20\/40 = 0.50<\/strong>.<\/span>D<\/strong> = (30 \u2212 10) \/ 40 = 20\/40 = 0.50<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Decision:<\/strong> P = 50% lies in the ideal 40\u201360% band and D = 0.50 is well above 0.30. The item is of moderate difficulty with high discriminating power<\/strong> and is retained<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f:<\/strong> P = 50% \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 40\u201360% \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e D = 0.50 0.30 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u092b\u093c\u0940 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0926 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Blueprint and item analysis<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>43<\/span>Which one of the following is the main advantage of using a table of specifications when preparing an achievement test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) It reduces the amount of time required<\/li>\n <li>(b) It makes the construction of test items easier<\/li>\n <li>(c) It decreases the objectivity of the test<\/li>\n <li>(d) It improves the sampling of content<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d)<\/b> The table of specifications \u2014 the blueprint \u2014 is a two-way grid of objectives against content units. Its chief purpose is to guarantee that every unit and every objective is sampled in proportion, which is precisely content validity.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>77<\/span>Consider: 1. Items of the same difficulty level do not always discriminate between students of different achievement levels. 2. If the difficulty level is exactly 0.50, then the discrimination index has its maximum range.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Both 1 and 2<\/b> Difficulty and discrimination are independent indices \u2014 two items with P = 0.50 can have quite different D values, even a negative one. And at P = 0.50 the possible spread of D is widest, which is why items of moderate difficulty are preferred.<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 P = 0.50 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 D \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928, \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093f \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0924\u0925\u093e P = 0.50 \u092a\u0930 D \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>88<\/span>Consider: 1. Items with difficulty level 0 have discrimination index 0. 2. Items with difficulty level 1 have discrimination index 1.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1 only<\/b> If nobody answers an item correctly (P = 0), then R\u2081 = R\u2082 = 0 and D = 0. But if everybody answers it correctly (P = 1), then R\u2081 = R\u2082 = N and D = 0 as well \u2014 not 1. An item everyone passes or everyone fails discriminates nothing.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 (P = 0) \u0924\u094b R\u2081 = R\u2082 = 0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 D = 0\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 (P = 1) \u0924\u094b R\u2081 = R\u2082 = N \u090f\u0935\u0902 D \u092d\u0940 0 \u2014 1 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930 \u0932\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947, \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>91<\/span>What is the difficulty index of the item? (from the data table in the original paper)<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 0.5<\/li>\n <li>(b) 0.65<\/li>\n <li>(c) 0.75<\/li>\n <li>(d) 0.9<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">Apply P = (R\u1d64 + R\u2097) \/ (N\u1d64 + N\u2097)<\/b> Whatever the figures, the method is fixed: add the correct responses of the upper and lower groups and divide by the total number in both groups. Remember that a higher P means an easier item.<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948: \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f P \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>92<\/span>An item of that difficulty level would be a good one to place:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) anywhere on a test<\/li>\n <li>(b) in the midst of a test<\/li>\n <li>(c) near the end of a test<\/li>\n <li>(d) near the beginning of a test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">Depends on P \u2014 easy items go first<\/b> Items are arranged in increasing order of difficulty. A very easy item (high P) belongs near the beginning to build confidence; an item of moderate difficulty belongs in the middle; a hard item (low P) near the end.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926 (\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a P) \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0926 (\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 P) \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9, \u00a79.1 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>93<\/span>What is the discriminating index?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 0.1<\/li>\n <li>(b) 0.2<\/li>\n <li>(c) 0.3<\/li>\n <li>(d) 0.4<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">Apply D = (R\u1d64 \u2212 R\u2097) \/ N\u1d64<\/b> Subtract the lower group\u2019s correct responses from the upper group\u2019s and divide by the number in one group. D of 0.30 or above is acceptable; a negative D means the weaker pupils did better and the item must be rejected outright.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 0.30 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e D \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 D \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0926 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"4\" id=\"c4\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 4<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 4<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Scores and Their Interpretation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Conversion of Raw Scores into Standard Scores, T-scores, C-scores, Z-scores, Stanine Scores and Percentiles; Interpretation of Test Scores \u2014 Qualitative and Quantitative<\/span>\n \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902, T-, C-, Z- \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u2014 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \ud83d\udcd0<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Three Questions Statistics Answers<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:13px;\">Where is the centre? \u00b7 How spread out? \u00b7 How related?<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901? \u00b7 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935? \u00b7 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927?<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Central tendency \u00b7 Variability \u00b7 Correlation<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \ud83d\udd14<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Normal Curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">68 \u00b7 95 \u00b7 99.7<\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Per cent of cases within \u00b11\u03c3, \u00b12\u03c3 and \u00b13\u03c3 of the mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u00b11\u03c3, \u00b12\u03c3 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u00b13\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-0\">\n 4.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Units 1 to 3 dealt with collecting<\/strong> educational data. This unit deals with what happens next \u2014 organizing, describing and interpreting<\/strong> those data so that they yield meaning.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0938\u0947 3 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0908\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0928 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Recall from \u00a71.1 that measurement produces a score<\/strong> and evaluation adds a judgement<\/strong>. Statistics stands between<\/em> the two \u2014 it is the machinery that turns a heap of raw scores into statements on which a judgement can rest.<\/span>\n \u00a71.1 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a<\/em> \u0916\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0922\u0947\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u091f\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Statistics<\/strong> here means \"the science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analysing and interpreting numerical data for the purpose of drawing valid conclusions and making reasonable decisions\"<\/strong>. The word carries two senses \u2014 the science<\/strong> itself, and the numerical facts<\/strong> it works upon.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f \u0939\u0948 \"\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\"<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n This unit covers the descriptive<\/strong> half of educational statistics. Unit 5 applies the same tools to reliability and validity<\/strong>, so every formula learnt here is used again there.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-2\">\n 4.1<\/span>\n <h3>Statistical Treatment of Data<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Why a teacher needs statistics<\/span>\u0915. \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>To condense<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>A hundred scattered scores mean nothing; a mean and a standard deviation describe them in two numbers.<\/span>\u0938\u094c \u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>To compare<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>Marks in Hindi and in Mathematics cannot be compared directly \u2014 but their Z-scores can (\u00a74.12).<\/span>\u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948 (\u00a74.12)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>To find relationship<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>Does attendance go with achievement? Only correlation can say, and how strongly.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948? \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>To locate an individual<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>A percentile rank tells a pupil exactly where he stands in his group (\u00a74.11).<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0948 (\u00a74.11)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>To predict<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>The prognosis function of \u00a71.7 rests on statistical prediction from present scores to future performance.<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>To judge a test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>Reliability and validity coefficients (Unit 5) are correlations; item analysis (\u00a73.9) is statistics too.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 (\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5) \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 (\u00a73.9) \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Two branches of statistics<\/span>\u0916. \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094b \u0936\u093e\u0916\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Branch 1<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u0916\u093e 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Descriptive Statistics<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Describes the group actually measured<\/strong> and claims nothing beyond it.<\/span>\u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Includes frequency distributions, graphs, central tendency, variability and correlation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923, \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Example:<\/em> \"The mean score of my class of 50 pupils is 54.1.\"<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \"\u092e\u0947\u0930\u0940 50 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 54.1 \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/span><\/li>\n <li>This unit is entirely descriptive.<\/strong><\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Branch 2<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u0916\u093e 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Inferential Statistics<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Generalizes from a sample to the population<\/strong> from which it was drawn.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Includes tests of significance, the t-test, chi-square and the analysis of variance (ANOVA)<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 (ANOVA)<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Example:<\/em> \"The new method is significantly better for Class IX pupils in general<\/em>.\"<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \"\u0928\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903<\/em> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e IX \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Serves the research function<\/strong> of measurement described in \u00a71.7.<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. From raw scores to interpretation<\/span>\u0917. \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83d\udcca Statistical treatment always follows this order. Skipping a step \u2014 computing a mean, for instance, before checking the shape of the distribution \u2014 is the commonest source of wrong interpretation.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udcca \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Collection<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Raw scores are obtained through the tools and techniques of Units 2 and 3.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 2 \u090f\u0935\u0902 3 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Organization<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Scores are arrayed and grouped into a frequency distribution<\/strong> (\u00a74.3).<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u00a74.3)\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Presentation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Tables and graphs \u2014 histogram, frequency polygon, ogive \u2014 make the shape visible at a glance.<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u2014 \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c, \u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Central tendency, variability, correlation, percentiles and derived scores are computed.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Interpretation<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong>\n The numbers are given educational meaning<\/strong> \u2014 and only at this point does measurement become evaluation.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Statistics and research methodology<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>46<\/span>Which one of the following is a parametric test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Sign test<\/li>\n <li>(b) t-test<\/li>\n <li>(c) Median test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Chi-square test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) t-test<\/b> The t-test assumes a normally distributed population and interval data, so it is parametric. Sign, median and chi-square tests make no assumption about the shape of the population and are non-parametric or distribution-free.<\/span>t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923-\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 A \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>47<\/span>Which one of the following is not an assumption of a parametric test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Normal distribution<\/li>\n <li>(b) Randomization<\/li>\n <li>(c) Homogeneity<\/li>\n <li>(d) Discontinuity<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) Discontinuity<\/b> Parametric tests assume normality, random sampling, homogeneity of variance \u2014 and a continuous<\/em> variable measured on an interval or ratio scale. Discontinuity is the opposite of what is required.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/em> \u091a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 A \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>49<\/span>Which one of the following does not belong to the category of probability sample?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Random sample<\/li>\n <li>(b) Stratified sample<\/li>\n <li>(c) Purposive sample<\/li>\n <li>(d) Systematic sample<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Purposive sample<\/b> In a probability sample every member has a known, equal chance of selection. In purposive (judgement) sampling the researcher deliberately picks the cases he considers typical, so selection depends on his judgement \u2014 it is non-probability.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924, \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 (\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u094b\u0927\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0905-\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 B \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>59<\/span>Which of the following are the major methodological approaches in qualitative research? 1. Post-positivist 2. Critical 3. Causal-comparative 4. Interpretive<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 3 and 4 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1, 2 and 4<\/b> Post-positivist, critical and interpretive are the three major qualitative approaches. Causal-comparative (ex post facto) research is quantitative and is the standard distractor in this question.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940, \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f) \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 C \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-21\">\n 4.2<\/span>\n <h3>The Vocabulary of Inferential Statistics<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a74.1 drew the line between descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive work occupies the rest of this unit, but the vocabulary of the inferential half is assumed everywhere it is discussed, and \u00a74.15 A cannot be read without it. Nothing here needs computation \u2014 only the meaning of the terms.<\/span>\n \u00a74.1 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0916\u0940\u0902\u091a\u0940\u0964 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u00a74.15 \u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Hypothesis<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>A tentative statement<\/strong> about a relationship, framed so that it can be tested and possibly disproved. A directional<\/strong> hypothesis states which way the difference will go; a non-directional<\/strong> one states only that there will be a difference.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong>, \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0924\u0903 \u0916\u0902\u0921\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0913\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e; \u0905\u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Null hypothesis (H\u2080)<\/span>\u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e (H\u2080)<\/span><\/strong>The statement that there is no difference and no relationship<\/strong> \u2014 any difference observed is due to chance. It is the hypothesis actually tested<\/strong>, because a claim can be disproved but never finally proved. Rejecting H\u2080 is what \"significant\" means.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0916\u0902\u0921\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 H\u2080 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \"\u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\" \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Level of significance (\u03b1)<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 (\u03b1)<\/span><\/strong>The risk of being wrong<\/strong> that the researcher is willing to accept when rejecting H\u2080. Conventionally 0.05 (5%)<\/strong> or the stricter 0.01 (1%)<\/strong>. At 0.05 a 5-in-100 chance is accepted that the difference observed was mere chance.<\/span>H\u2080 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0936\u094b\u0927\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094b\u0916\u093f\u092e<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 0.05 (5%)<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 0.01 (1%)<\/strong>\u0964 0.05 \u092a\u0930 100 \u092e\u0947\u0902 5 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Type I and Type II errors<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Type I (\u03b1)<\/strong> \u2014 rejecting a null hypothesis that was actually true: finding a difference that is not there<\/em>. Type II (\u03b2)<\/strong> \u2014 accepting a null hypothesis that was actually false: missing a difference that is there<\/em>. Lowering one raises the other.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e (\u03b1)<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e: \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e<\/em>\u0964 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f (\u03b2)<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e: \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0942\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e<\/em>\u0964 \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>One-tailed and two-tailed tests<\/span>\u090f\u0915-\u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>A one-tailed<\/strong> test places the whole risk at one end of the curve and is used with a directional hypothesis; a two-tailed<\/strong> test splits it between both ends and is used with a non-directional one. Recall from \u00a74.10 that \u00b11.96\u03c3 marks the exact 95% limits.<\/span>\u090f\u0915-\u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091c\u094b\u0916\u093f\u092e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0964 \u00a74.10 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u00b11.96\u03c3 \u0920\u0940\u0915 95% \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Degrees of freedom (df)<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f (df)<\/span><\/strong>The number of values in a calculation that are free to vary<\/strong>. For a single sample, df = N \u2212 1: once the mean is fixed, the last score is determined by the rest. The df decides which row of the significance table is to be read.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 df = N \u2212 1: \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 df \u0939\u0940 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Standard Error of the Mean \u2014 do not confuse it with SEm<\/sub><\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 SEm<\/sub> \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n SEM<\/sub> = \u03c3 \/ \u221aN<\/span>\n SEM<\/sub> = \u03c3 \/ \u221aN<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Two different standard errors carry similar names, and the examiner relies on the confusion. Standard error of measurement, SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3\u221a(1 \u2212 r)<\/b> \u2014 \u00a74.15 F \u2014 is about one pupil's score<\/b> and how far it may stray from his true score. Standard error of the mean, SEM<\/sub> = \u03c3\/\u221aN<\/b> \u2014 here \u2014 is about a whole sample's mean<\/b> and how far it may stray from the population mean. Note the practical consequence of the \u221aN: to halve<\/b> the standard error of the mean the sample must be made four times<\/b> as large.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0947-\u091c\u0941\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f, SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3\u221a(1 \u2212 r)<\/b> \u2014 \u00a74.15 \u091a \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/b> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f, SEM<\/sub> = \u03c3\/\u221aN<\/b> \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u221aN \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f: \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0906\u0927\u0940<\/b> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/b> \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Used to find out<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>t-test<\/span>t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Whether the means of two<\/strong> groups differ significantly \u2014 small samples. Independent<\/em> t-test for two separate groups, paired<\/em> t-test for the same group tested twice.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094b<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/em> t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/em> t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>z-test<\/span>z-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The same question with large samples<\/strong> (N above about 30), where the population SD is known.<\/span>\u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (N \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 30 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915) \u092a\u0930, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e SD \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>F-test \/ ANOVA<\/span>F-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \/ ANOVA<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Whether the means of three or more<\/strong> groups differ \u2014 analysis of variance. Using repeated t-tests instead would inflate the Type I error.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092c\u0922\u093c \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Chi-square (\u03c7\u00b2)<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 (\u03c7\u00b2)<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Whether observed frequencies<\/strong> differ significantly from expected frequencies<\/strong> \u2014 the test for nominal, categorical<\/strong> data. Non-parametric.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The one sentence to carry away.<\/strong> \"Statistically significant\" does not<\/strong> mean \"large\" or \"educationally important\" \u2014 it means only that the result is unlikely to be due to chance<\/strong>. With a very large sample even a trivial difference becomes significant. This is why a significance test should always be read alongside a measure of the size<\/strong> of the effect, such as r<\/em>\u00b2 from \u00a74.8.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \"\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\" \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \"\u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e\" \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \"\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\" \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u00a74.8 \u0915\u0947 r<\/em>\u00b2, \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-3\">\n 4.3<\/span>\n <h3>Frequency Distribution and Graphical Representation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition and vocabulary<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/div>\n A frequency distribution<\/strong> is a tabular arrangement of scores into class intervals<\/strong>, showing how many cases (the frequency<\/strong>) fall in each. Four terms are needed throughout: the class interval (i)<\/strong> \u2014 the width of each class; the range<\/strong> \u2014 highest score minus lowest; the midpoint<\/strong> \u2014 the centre of a class, which represents every score in it; and the exact or real limits<\/strong> \u2014 the true boundaries, which for a class written 50\u201359 are 49.5 to 59.5<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 (\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong>) \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 (i)<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u094c\u0921\u093c\u093e\u0908; \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u091c\u094b 50\u201359 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 49.5 \u0938\u0947 59.5<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Steps in constructing a frequency distribution<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Find the range<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/strong>\n Range = highest score \u2212 lowest score. In our data, 88 \u2212 21 = 67<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 = \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u2212 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964 \u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 88 \u2212 21 = 67<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Decide the class interval<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/strong>\n Aim at 10 to 20 classes<\/strong>. Divide the range by the desired number: 67 \u00f7 7 \u2248 10, so take i = 10<\/strong>. Prefer 3, 5 or 10 as the interval.<\/span>10 \u0938\u0947 20 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0947\u0902: 67 \u00f7 7 \u2248 10, \u0905\u0924\u0903 i = 10<\/strong> \u0932\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 3, 5 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e 10 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Write the classes<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/strong>\n Start from a convenient multiple of i<\/em> below the lowest score, and write classes downward or upward consistently.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 i<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u091c \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Tally and total<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong>\n Place a tally against the class each score falls in; count the tallies to get f<\/em>. Check that \u03a3f = N<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u090f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0907\u090f; \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0930 f<\/em> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u03a3f = N<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n The Running Example \u2014 used throughout this unit<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Achievement scores of 50 pupils in Class IX Mathematics<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e IX \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Every worked example in \u00a74.4 to \u00a74.11 uses this one distribution, so the figures can be checked against each other. This table should be kept open for reference throughout.<\/span>\n \u00a74.4 \u0938\u0947 \u00a74.11 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Class interval<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Exact limits<\/span>\u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Midpoint (X)<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 (X)<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">f<\/span>f<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">cf<\/span>cf<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">fX<\/span>fX<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>80 \u2013 89<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">79.5 \u2013 89.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">84.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">338<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>70 \u2013 79<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">69.5 \u2013 79.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">74.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">46<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">447<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>60 \u2013 69<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">59.5 \u2013 69.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">64.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">516<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td>50 \u2013 59<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">49.5 \u2013 59.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">54.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">32<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">654<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>40 \u2013 49<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">39.5 \u2013 49.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">44.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">445<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>30 \u2013 39<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">29.5 \u2013 39.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">34.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">207<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>20 \u2013 29<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">19.5 \u2013 29.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">98<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Total<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">N = 50<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2705<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n \n Reading the table: i = 10<\/strong>; the modal class<\/strong> is 50\u201359 (highest f = 12); cf<\/strong> is cumulated from the bottom upward; and the exact limits extend half a unit on either side because the scores are whole numbers.<\/span>\n \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e: i = 10<\/strong>; \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> 50\u201359 \u0939\u0948 (\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e f = 12); cf<\/strong> \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Graphical representation<\/span>\u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n A graph shows at a glance what a table shows only on study. Four forms are used with a frequency distribution, and two more with categorical data.<\/span>\n \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0926\u094b \u0914\u0930\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"thumb-cell\">Model<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Graph<\/span>\u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it is drawn<\/span>\u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it is used for<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <rect x=\"15\" y=\"56.7\" width=\"15\" height=\"18.3\" fill=\"var(--sky)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"30\" y=\"47.5\" width=\"15\" height=\"27.5\" fill=\"var(--sky)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"45\" y=\"29.2\" width=\"15\" height=\"45.8\" fill=\"var(--blue)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"60\" y=\"20\" width=\"15\" height=\"55\" fill=\"var(--navy)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"75\" y=\"38.3\" width=\"15\" height=\"36.7\" fill=\"var(--blue)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"90\" y=\"47.5\" width=\"15\" height=\"27.5\" fill=\"var(--sky)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"105\" y=\"56.7\" width=\"15\" height=\"18.3\" fill=\"var(--sky)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"2\" y=\"20\">f<\/text><text x=\"118\" y=\"85\">scores<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Histogram<\/span>\u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Adjacent bars with no gaps<\/strong>, each standing on the exact limits<\/strong> of its class, with height equal to the frequency.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u091f\u0940 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902<\/strong>, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0916\u0921\u093c\u0940, \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0930\u093e\u092c\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Showing the shape and area<\/strong> of the distribution; the area of each bar is proportional to its frequency.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0928\u093e; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u0921\u093c \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <polyline points=\"7.5,75 22.5,56.7 37.5,47.5 52.5,29.2 67.5,20 82.5,38.3 97.5,47.5 112.5,56.7 127.5,75\"\n fill=\"none\" stroke=\"var(--blue)\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/>\n <g fill=\"var(--navy)\">\n <circle cx=\"22.5\" cy=\"56.7\" r=\"2\"\/><circle cx=\"37.5\" cy=\"47.5\" r=\"2\"\/><circle cx=\"52.5\" cy=\"29.2\" r=\"2\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"67.5\" cy=\"20\" r=\"2\"\/><circle cx=\"82.5\" cy=\"38.3\" r=\"2\"\/><circle cx=\"97.5\" cy=\"47.5\" r=\"2\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"112.5\" cy=\"56.7\" r=\"2\"\/>\n <\/g>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"2\" y=\"20\">f<\/text><text x=\"100\" y=\"85\">midpoints<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Frequency polygon<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Points plotted at the midpoint<\/strong> of each class at a height equal to f<\/em>, joined by straight lines and brought down to the base at both ends.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 f<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0930\u093e\u092c\u0930 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0940 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Comparing two or more distributions<\/strong> on the same axes \u2014 impossible with histograms.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <polyline points=\"15,75 30,70.6 45,64 60,53 75,39.8 90,31 105,24.4 120,20\"\n fill=\"none\" stroke=\"var(--teal)\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/>\n <g fill=\"var(--teal)\">\n <circle cx=\"30\" cy=\"70.6\" r=\"1.8\"\/><circle cx=\"45\" cy=\"64\" r=\"1.8\"\/><circle cx=\"60\" cy=\"53\" r=\"1.8\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"75\" cy=\"39.8\" r=\"1.8\"\/><circle cx=\"90\" cy=\"31\" r=\"1.8\"\/><circle cx=\"105\" cy=\"24.4\" r=\"1.8\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"120\" cy=\"20\" r=\"1.8\"\/>\n <\/g>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"47.5\" x2=\"120\" y2=\"47.5\" stroke=\"var(--amber)\" stroke-width=\"0.8\" stroke-dasharray=\"2 2\"\/>\n <text x=\"122\" y=\"50\" style=\"fill:var(--amber)\">Md<\/text>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"1\" y=\"20\">cf<\/text><text x=\"102\" y=\"85\">upper limits<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Cumulative frequency graph (ogive)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 (\u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Cumulative frequencies plotted against the upper exact limit<\/strong> of each class and joined; produces a characteristic S-shaped curve<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f S-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Reading off medians, quartiles and percentiles<\/strong> graphically (\u00a74.11).<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e (\u00a74.11)\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <polyline points=\"15,75 30,70.6 45,64 60,53 75,39.8 90,31 105,24.4 120,20\"\n fill=\"none\" stroke=\"var(--purple)\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"20\" x2=\"120\" y2=\"20\" stroke=\"var(--border)\" stroke-width=\"0.8\" stroke-dasharray=\"2 2\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"47.5\" x2=\"120\" y2=\"47.5\" stroke=\"var(--border)\" stroke-width=\"0.8\" stroke-dasharray=\"2 2\"\/>\n <text x=\"0\" y=\"22\">100<\/text><text x=\"2\" y=\"50\">50<\/text><text x=\"4\" y=\"77\">0<\/text>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"100\" y=\"85\">scores<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Cumulative percentage curve<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The same as the ogive, but the vertical axis is scaled 0 to 100 per cent<\/strong> instead of 0 to N.<\/span>\u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0939\u0940, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u090a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094d\u0935 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937 0 \u0938\u0947 N \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f 0 \u0938\u0947 100 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Reading percentile ranks<\/strong> directly off the curve.<\/span>\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <rect x=\"20\" y=\"35\" width=\"14\" height=\"40\" fill=\"var(--blue)\"\/>\n <rect x=\"44\" y=\"25\" width=\"14\" height=\"50\" fill=\"var(--teal)\"\/>\n <rect x=\"68\" y=\"48\" width=\"14\" height=\"27\" fill=\"var(--amber)\"\/>\n <rect x=\"92\" y=\"40\" width=\"14\" height=\"35\" fill=\"var(--plum)\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"2\" y=\"20\">N<\/text>\n <text x=\"22\" y=\"85\">Arts<\/text><text x=\"46\" y=\"85\">Sci<\/text><text x=\"70\" y=\"85\">Com<\/text><text x=\"93\" y=\"85\">Voc<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Bar diagram<\/span>\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Bars separated by gaps<\/strong>, since the categories are discrete and have no real numerical order.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915<\/strong> \u091b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Nominal or categorical<\/strong> data \u2014 number of pupils by stream, by district, by year.<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0935\u093e\u0930, \u091c\u093c\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0935\u093e\u0930, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <path d=\"M70,45 L70,17 A28,28 0 0,1 86.5,67.7 Z\" fill=\"var(--blue)\"\/>\n <path d=\"M70,45 L86.5,67.7 A28,28 0 0,1 42,45 Z\" fill=\"var(--teal)\"\/>\n <path d=\"M70,45 L42,45 A28,28 0 0,1 70,17 Z\" fill=\"var(--amber)\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"70\" cy=\"45\" r=\"28\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"96\" y=\"30\">40%<\/text><text x=\"96\" y=\"60\">35%<\/text><text x=\"18\" y=\"35\">25%<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Pie diagram<\/span>\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A circle divided into sectors, each sector's angle being (component \u00f7 total) \u00d7 360\u00b0<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0916\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0923 (\u0918\u091f\u0915 \u00f7 \u092f\u094b\u0917) \u00d7 360\u00b0<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Showing the proportion of parts to a whole<\/strong> \u2014 a budget, a time allocation.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u091c\u091f, \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udccf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Two distinctions examiners test.<\/strong> (1) Histogram vs. bar diagram:<\/strong> a histogram has no gaps<\/strong> because the variable is continuous; a bar diagram has gaps because the categories are discrete. (2) Histogram vs. frequency polygon:<\/strong> the histogram is plotted on exact limits<\/strong>, the polygon on midpoints<\/strong>; and only the polygon allows two distributions to be compared on one graph. Remember also the 75 per cent rule<\/strong> \u2014 the vertical axis should be about three-quarters of the horizontal, or the shape of the curve is misleading.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0926\u094b \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> (1) \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916:<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091a\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948; \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 (2) \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c:<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 75 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u090a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094d\u0935 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0948\u0924\u093f\u091c \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0924\u0940\u0928-\u091a\u094c\u0925\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-4\">\n 4.4<\/span>\n <h3>Measures of Central Tendency<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n A measure of central tendency<\/strong> is a single value that represents the whole distribution \u2014 the point round which the scores cluster. It answers the question \"what is typical here?\"<\/strong> There are three, and they coincide only in a perfectly symmetrical distribution.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \"\u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. The Mean<\/span>\u0915. \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Arithmetic mean \u2014 ungrouped and grouped<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Ungrouped: M = \u03a3X \/ N Grouped: M = \u03a3f<\/em>X \/ N<\/span>\n \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924: M = \u03a3X \/ N \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924: M = \u03a3f<\/em>X \/ N<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n \u03a3X<\/b> = sum of all scores \u00b7 X<\/b> = midpoint of a class \u00b7 f<\/b> = frequency of that class \u00b7 N<\/b> = total number of cases. The mean is the balance point<\/b> of the distribution: the sum of deviations from the mean is always exactly zero<\/b>. This property is what makes it the basis of the standard deviation and of correlation.<\/span>\n \u03a3X<\/b> = \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u00b7 X<\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u00b7 f<\/b> = \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 N<\/b> = \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/b> \u0939\u0948: \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Mean<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>From the running distribution, the f<\/em>X column has already been computed: 338 + 447 + 516 + 654 + 445 + 207 + 98.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 f<\/em>X \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948: 338 + 447 + 516 + 654 + 445 + 207 + 98\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>\u03a3f<\/em>X = 2705<\/strong> and N = 50<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03a3f<\/em>X = 2705<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e N = 50<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>M = 2705 \/ 50 = 54.1<\/strong><\/span>M = 2705 \/ 50 = 54.1<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The mean score of the class is 54.1<\/strong>, which falls inside the modal class 50\u201359 \u2014 a first sign that the distribution is roughly symmetrical.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 54.1<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 50\u201359 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. The Median<\/span>\u0916. \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Median \u2014 the positional average<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Md = L + [ ( N\/2 \u2212 cf<\/em> ) \/ f<\/em> ] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/span>\n Md = L + [ ( N\/2 \u2212 cf<\/em> ) \/ f<\/em> ] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n L<\/b> = exact lower limit of the median class \u00b7 cf<\/b> = cumulative frequency below<\/em> the median class \u00b7 f<\/b> = frequency of the median class \u00b7 i<\/b> = class interval. For ungrouped<\/b> data, arrange the scores in order: with odd N<\/b> the median is the middle score; with even N<\/b> it is the average of the two middle scores.<\/span>\n L<\/b> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u00b7 cf<\/b> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 f<\/b> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 i<\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u0964 \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/b> \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902: \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e N<\/b> \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0938\u092e N<\/b> \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Median<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>N\/2 = 50\/2 = 25.<\/strong> Find the class in which the 25th case falls.<\/span>N\/2 = 50\/2 = 25\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 25\u0935\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Cumulative frequency reaches 20<\/strong> at the end of 40\u201349 and 32<\/strong> at the end of 50\u201359. So the 25th case lies in 50\u201359 \u2014 the median class<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e 40\u201349 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 20<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e 50\u201359 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 32<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 25\u0935\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 50\u201359 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Therefore L = 49.5, cf = 20, f = 12, i = 10<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u0903 L = 49.5, cf = 20, f = 12, i = 10<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Md = 49.5 + [(25 \u2212 20)\/12] \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + (5\/12) \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + 4.17 = 53.67<\/strong><\/span>Md = 49.5 + [(25 \u2212 20)\/12] \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + (5\/12) \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + 4.17 = 53.67<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Half the class scored below 53.67<\/strong> and half above it.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0928\u0947 53.67<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0928\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. The Mode<\/span>\u0917. \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Mode \u2014 the most frequent score<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Mo = L + [ ( f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> ) \/ ( 2f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>2<\/sub> ) ] \u00d7 i<\/em> Empirical relation: Mo = 3 Md \u2212 2 M<\/span><\/span>\n Mo = L + [ ( f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> ) \/ ( 2f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>2<\/sub> ) ] \u00d7 i<\/em> \u0906\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927: Mo = 3 Md \u2212 2 M<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n L<\/b> = exact lower limit of the modal class \u00b7 f1<\/sub><\/b> = frequency of the modal class \u00b7 f0<\/sub><\/b> = frequency of the class below<\/em> it \u00b7 f2<\/sub><\/b> = frequency of the class above<\/em> it. A distribution may have no mode<\/b>, one mode (unimodal<\/b>), two (bimodal<\/b>) or more. A bimodal distribution usually means two different groups have been mixed together<\/b> \u2014 a fact worth reporting in itself.<\/span>\n L<\/b> = \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u00b7 f1<\/sub><\/b> = \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 f0<\/sub><\/b> = \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 f2<\/sub><\/b> = \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0928 \u0939\u094b<\/b>, \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u094b (\u090f\u0915\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940<\/b>), \u0926\u094b \u0939\u094b\u0902 (\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940<\/b>) \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0964 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u094b \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/b> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Mode<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>The highest frequency is 12<\/strong>, so the modal class is 50\u201359<\/strong>. Hence L = 49.5, f1<\/sub> = 12, f0<\/sub> = 10<\/strong> (class 40\u201349) and f2<\/sub> = 8<\/strong> (class 60\u201369).<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e 12<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 50\u201359<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f L = 49.5, f1<\/sub> = 12, f0<\/sub> = 10<\/strong> (\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 40\u201349) \u0924\u0925\u093e f2<\/sub> = 8<\/strong> (\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 60\u201369)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Mo = 49.5 + [(12 \u2212 10) \/ (24 \u2212 10 \u2212 8)] \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + (2\/6) \u00d7 10<\/span>Mo = 49.5 + [(12 \u2212 10) \/ (24 \u2212 10 \u2212 8)] \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + (2\/6) \u00d7 10<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>= 49.5 + 3.33 = 52.83<\/strong><\/span>= 49.5 + 3.33 = 52.83<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Cross-check by the empirical relation:<\/strong> Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M = 3(53.67) \u2212 2(54.1) = 161.01 \u2212 108.2 = 52.81<\/strong> \u2014 agreeing with 52.83 to within rounding. The two methods confirm each other.<\/span>\u0906\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a:<\/strong> Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M = 3(53.67) \u2212 2(54.1) = 161.01 \u2212 108.2 = 52.81<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b 52.83 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>D. Choosing between the three<\/span>\u0918. \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Median<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Mode<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Based on<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>All scores<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Position only<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Frequency only<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Effect of extreme scores<\/span>\u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Strongly affected<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td><td>Unaffected<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Unaffected<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Algebraic use<\/span>\u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Basis of SD, correlation, all further statistics<\/span>SD, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Limited<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Almost none<\/span>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Stability across samples<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Most stable<\/strong><\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/strong><\/span><\/td><td>Moderately stable<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Least stable<\/strong><\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Use it when<\/span>\u0915\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The distribution is symmetrical<\/strong> and further computation is needed<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/td><td>The distribution is skewed<\/strong> or has open-ended classes<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/td><td>The most typical or popular<\/strong> value is needed quickly<\/span>\u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u094b\u0915\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Can be found graphically<\/span>\u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td><td>Yes \u2014 from the ogive<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/td><td>Yes \u2014 from the histogram<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u26a0\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The classic illustration of why the mean can mislead.<\/strong> Nine pupils score around 40 and one scores 100. The mean<\/strong> is dragged upward by that single case and describes nobody; the median<\/strong> stays near 40 and describes the group honestly. This is exactly why income, and any markedly skewed distribution, is reported by median rather than mean<\/strong>. In our running distribution M = 54.1, Md = 53.67 and Mo = 52.83 lie close together, so the distribution is only slightly positively skewed<\/strong> and the mean is safe to use.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u092c \u092d\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u094c \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 40 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u090f\u0915 100\u0964 \u0909\u0938 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0916\u093f\u0902\u091a \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> 40 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0930\u0939\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0906\u092f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 M = 54.1, Md = 53.67 \u090f\u0935\u0902 Mo = 52.83 \u092a\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Central tendency<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>58<\/span>Which one of the following measures is used to determine the greatest stability of the scores?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Mean<\/li>\n <li>(b) Median<\/li>\n <li>(c) Mode<\/li>\n <li>(d) Range<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) Mean<\/b> The mean is the most stable measure across repeated samples from the same population because it is computed from every score. The mode is the least stable and the range depends on only two scores.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>86<\/span>Statement-I: Each individual score contributes to the calculation of the \"Mean\". Statement-II: \"Mean\" is a measure of Central Tendency.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Both correct and II explains I<\/li>\n <li>(b) Both correct but II does not explain I<\/li>\n <li>(c) I correct, II incorrect<\/li>\n <li>(d) I incorrect, II correct<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Both correct, II does not explain I<\/b> Both statements are true, but II does not explain I. Being a measure of central tendency is not the reason every score enters the calculation \u2014 the median and mode are also measures of central tendency, and they do not use every score.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 II, I \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>89<\/span>In which cases is median preferred to mean? 1. When distribution is skewed 2. When dealing with ordinal data 3. When data distribution is continuous 4. When data is normally distributed<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 2 and 4 only<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1 and 2 only<\/b> The median is preferred when extreme scores would drag the mean (skewed data) and when the data are only ordinal, since ordinal intervals are unequal and a mean is not legitimate. For continuous and normally distributed data the mean is preferred.<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0924\u092c \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0916\u0940\u0902\u091a \u0932\u0947\u0902 (\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091c\u092c \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4, \u00a71.7 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>107<\/span>When variables are measured on a nominal scale, the best measure of Central Tendency is:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Arithmetic Mean<\/li>\n <li>(b) Mode<\/li>\n <li>(c) Median<\/li>\n <li>(d) Harmonic Mean<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Mode<\/b> Nominal data are only labels \u2014 they cannot be ordered or added, so neither median nor mean is computable. Only the most frequently occurring category, the mode, is meaningful. The rule: nominal \u2192 mode, ordinal \u2192 median, interval and ratio \u2192 mean.<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0928 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940, \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e: \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u2192 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4, \u00a71.7, \u00a74.15 F \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>87<\/span>The median and standard deviation of a distribution are 25 and 2.5. If each item is increased by 10, how are they affected?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Median becomes 35, SD remains unchanged<\/li>\n <li>(b) Both remain unchanged<\/li>\n <li>(c) Median becomes 35, SD becomes 12.5<\/li>\n <li>(d) Median unchanged, SD becomes 12.5<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a)<\/b> Adding a constant shifts the whole distribution: every measure of position (mean, median, mode) rises by that constant, but every measure of spread (SD, range, QD) is unchanged, because deviations are taken from the mean and both rise together.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0916\u093f\u0938\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915) \u0909\u0938 \u0905\u091a\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a (SD, \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938, QD) \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 E \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>96<\/span>The mean of four numbers is 17.5. The mean of the smaller three is 15. If the range is 15, what is the mean of the larger three?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 27.5<\/li>\n <li>(b) 25<\/li>\n <li>(c) 22.5<\/li>\n <li>(d) 20<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 20<\/b> Total of all four = 4 \u00d7 17.5 = 70. Total of smaller three = 3 \u00d7 15 = 45, so the largest = 25. Range 15 means the smallest = 25 \u2212 15 = 10. Total of larger three = 70 \u2212 10 = 60, so their mean = 60 \u00f7 3 = 20.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 = 4 \u00d7 17.5 = 70\u0964 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 = 3 \u00d7 15 = 45, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e = 25\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 15 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 = 25 \u2212 15 = 10\u0964 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 = 70 \u2212 10 = 60, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f = 60 \u00f7 3 = 20\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-44\">\n 4.5<\/span>\n <h3>Measures of Variability (Dispersion)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e (\u0905\u092a\u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923) \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf Why a mean alone is never enough<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n Two classes both have a mean of 50. In Class A the scores run 48, 49, 50, 51, 52<\/strong>; in Class B they run 20, 35, 50, 65, 80<\/strong>. The mean describes A perfectly and B not at all. Central tendency locates the middle; variability shows how far the scores stray from it.<\/strong> A complete description of any distribution needs both<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e A \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 48, 49, 50, 51, 52<\/strong>; \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e B \u0915\u0947 20, 35, 50, 65, 80<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f A \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 B \u0915\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u092d\u091f\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Range<\/span>\u0915. \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Range \u2014 the crudest measure<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932\u0924\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n R = H \u2212 L<\/span>\n R = H \u2212 L<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n H<\/b> = highest score \u00b7 L<\/b> = lowest score. Merit:<\/b> instantly computed and understood. Demerit:<\/b> it uses only two<\/b> scores and ignores everything between them, so a single extreme case can treble it. Use it only for a rough first impression.<\/span>\n H<\/b> = \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u00b7 L<\/b> = \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964 \u0917\u0941\u0923:<\/b> \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927\u0917\u092e\u094d\u092f\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0937:<\/b> \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b<\/b> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092c \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0924\u093f\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Quartile Deviation (Semi-Interquartile Range)<\/span>\u0916. \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938)<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Quartile deviation \u2014 the partner of the median<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0940<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Q = ( Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub> ) \/ 2<\/span>\n Q = ( Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub> ) \/ 2<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Q1<\/sub><\/b> = first quartile, the point below which 25 per cent<\/b> of cases lie \u00b7 Q3<\/sub><\/b> = third quartile, below which 75 per cent<\/b> lie. Both are found by the percentile formula of \u00a74.11, using N\/4 and 3N\/4 in place of N\/2. Q is the measure that goes with the median<\/b>, exactly as the SD goes with the mean. Use it when the distribution is skewed<\/b> or has open-ended classes<\/b>, because like the median it is unaffected by extreme scores.<\/span>\n Q1<\/sub><\/b> = \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915, \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 25 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/b> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u00b7 Q3<\/sub><\/b> = \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 75 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u00a74.11 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 N\/2 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 N\/4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 3N\/4 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 Q \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/b> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 SD \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u092c \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/b> \u0939\u094b \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0901\u0924\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. Average Deviation (Mean Deviation)<\/span>\u0917. \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928)<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Average deviation<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n AD = \u03a3 | x | \/ N where x = X \u2212 M<\/span>\n AD = \u03a3 | x | \/ N \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 x = X \u2212 M<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n The mean of the deviations from the mean, signs ignored<\/b>. The signs must be ignored because, as noted above, the sum of the actual deviations from the mean is always zero. Merit:<\/b> it uses every score and is easy to understand. Demerit:<\/b> discarding the signs is algebraically awkward, so AD cannot be used in further computation \u2014 which is why the SD replaced it.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f<\/b>\u0964 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0917\u0941\u0923:<\/b> \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0937:<\/b> \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 AD \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f SD \u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>D. Standard Deviation \u2014 the most important measure<\/span>\u0918. \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Standard deviation (\u03c3 or SD) \u2014 memorize both forms<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u03c3 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e SD) \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Ungrouped: \u03c3 = \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \/ N ) where x = X \u2212 M Grouped: \u03c3 = \u221a ( \u03a3f<\/em>x\u00b2 \/ N ) Variance = \u03c3\u00b2<\/span><\/span>\n \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924: \u03c3 = \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \/ N ) \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 x = X \u2212 M \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924: \u03c3 = \u221a ( \u03a3f<\/em>x\u00b2 \/ N ) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 = \u03c3\u00b2<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n The square root of the mean of the squared deviations from the mean<\/b>. Squaring solves the problem the AD dodged: it removes the signs algebraically<\/b> rather than by fiat, so the SD can be carried into every later formula \u2014 correlation, Z-scores, T-scores, reliability and validity all rest on it. The variance<\/b> is simply \u03c3\u00b2 \u2014 the SD before the square root is taken.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e\u0942\u0932<\/b>\u0964 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 AD \u092c\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e: \u092f\u0939 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/b> \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 SD \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923<\/b> \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u03c3\u00b2 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e SD\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Standard Deviation (ungrouped)<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924)<\/span><\/span>\n \n Ten pupils score: 20, 22, 25, 25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 45<\/strong>. Find the mean and the standard deviation.<\/span>\n \u0926\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915: 20, 22, 25, 25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 45<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">X<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">20<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">22<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">25<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">25<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">28<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">30<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">32<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">35<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">38<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">45<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">\u03a3<\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">x = X \u2212 30<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u221210<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22128<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22125<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22125<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">15<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">x\u00b2<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">100<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">64<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">64<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">225<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">536<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>\u03a3X = 300, N = 10<\/strong>, so M = 300\/10 = 30<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03a3X = 300, N = 10<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 M = 300\/10 = 30<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Note the check: \u03a3x = 0<\/strong>, confirming the mean is correct. This check should always be made.<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902: \u03a3x = 0<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>\u03a3x\u00b2 = 536<\/strong>, so variance \u03c3\u00b2 = 536\/10 = 53.6<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03a3x\u00b2 = 536<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u03c3\u00b2 = 536\/10 = 53.6<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>\u03c3 = \u221a53.6 = 7.32<\/strong><\/span>\u03c3 = \u221a53.6 = 7.32<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The scores cluster round 30, straying on average about 7.3 marks<\/strong> either side. Roughly two-thirds of a normal group would lie between 22.7 and 37.3<\/strong> (M \u00b1 1\u03c3).<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 30 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0928 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 7.3 \u0905\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092d\u091f\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0926\u094b-\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0908 22.7 \u090f\u0935\u0902 37.3<\/strong> (M \u00b1 1\u03c3) \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0917\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Measure<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Range<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Quickest to compute; easily understood; useful for quality-control style checks.<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930; \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u094b\u0927\u0917\u092e\u094d\u092f; \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Uses only two scores; wholly at the mercy of one extreme case; cannot be used further.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930; \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Quartile deviation<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Unaffected by extreme scores; usable with open-ended classes; the natural partner of the median.<\/span>\u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924; \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Ignores the extreme 50 per cent of cases entirely; not suited to algebraic treatment.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0940 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e; \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Average deviation<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Uses every score; simple in meaning; less affected by extremes than the SD.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932; SD \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Signs are discarded arbitrarily, so it is algebraically unusable in later formulae.<\/span>\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Standard deviation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The most reliable and most widely used;<\/strong> uses every score; algebraically sound; the basis of correlation, Z- and T-scores, the normal curve, reliability and validity.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924;<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c; \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, Z- \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Hardest to compute by hand; and because deviations are squared, it is the most affected by extreme scores<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Variability<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>106<\/span>What is the standard deviation of the data 15, 12, 6, 14, 18?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 6<\/li>\n <li>(c) 8<\/li>\n <li>(d) 16<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 4<\/b> \u03a3X = 65, N = 5, so M = 13. Deviations: 2, \u22121, \u22127, 1, 5 (\u03a3x = 0, check passes). Squares: 4, 1, 49, 1, 25, so \u03a3x\u00b2 = 80. Variance = 80\/5 = 16, and \u03c3 = \u221a16 = 4.<\/span>\u03a3X = 65, N = 5, \u0905\u0924\u0903 M = 13\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928: 2, \u22121, \u22127, 1, 5 (\u03a3x = 0, \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u092b\u0932)\u0964 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917: 4, 1, 49, 1, 25, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u03a3x\u00b2 = 80\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 = 80\/5 = 16, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u03c3 = \u221a16 = 4\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4.1 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>108<\/span>Four sections have mean marks 30, 40, 36, 25 and standard deviations 6, 12, 9, 8. Which shows the lowest variability?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Section A<\/li>\n <li>(b) Section B<\/li>\n <li>(c) Section C<\/li>\n <li>(d) Section D<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) Section A<\/b> SD alone cannot compare groups with different means \u2014 use the coefficient of variation, CV = (\u03c3\/M) \u00d7 100. A: 6\/30 = 20%; B: 12\/40 = 30%; C: 9\/36 = 25%; D: 8\/25 = 32%. Section A has the lowest CV and therefore the lowest variability.<\/span>\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 SD \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 CV = (\u03c3\/M) \u00d7 100 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 A: 6\/30 = 20%; B: 12\/40 = 30%; C: 9\/36 = 25%; D: 8\/25 = 32%\u0964 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 A \u0915\u093e CV \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 D \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-45\">\n 4.6<\/span>\n <h3>Short-Cut Methods and the Combined Mean<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. The assumed mean (short-cut) method<\/span>\u0915. \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f (\u0932\u0918\u0941) \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Mean and SD by the step-deviation method<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n M = A + ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032 \/ N ) \u00d7 i<\/em> \u03c3 = i<\/em> \u221a [ ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032\u00b2 \/ N ) \u2212 ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032 \/ N )\u00b2 ]<\/span>\n M = A + ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032 \/ N ) \u00d7 i<\/em> \u03c3 = i<\/em> \u221a [ ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032\u00b2 \/ N ) \u2212 ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032 \/ N )\u00b2 ]<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n A<\/b> = assumed mean, the midpoint of any convenient class (usually the one with the highest frequency) \u00b7 d\u2032<\/b> = (X \u2212 A)\/i<\/em>, the step deviation of each class from A, expressed in whole steps \u00b7 i<\/b> = class interval. The direct method of \u00a74.4 requires large midpoints to be multiplied by frequencies. The short-cut method replaces those midpoints with the small whole numbers \u2026 \u22123, \u22122, \u22121, 0, +1, +2, +3 \u2026<\/b>, which can be handled mentally. The answer is identical<\/b>; only the arithmetic is lighter. This is why the method survives in examination halls where calculators are not allowed.<\/span>\n A<\/b> = \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e) \u00b7 d\u2032<\/b> = (X \u2212 A)\/i<\/em>, A \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u00b7 i<\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u0964 \u00a74.4 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2026 \u22123, \u22122, \u22121, 0, +1, +2, +3 \u2026<\/b> \u0930\u0916 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/b>; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0932\u094d\u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0948\u0932\u0915\u0941\u0932\u0947\u091f\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 the running distribution again<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n Take A = 54.5<\/strong> (midpoint of the modal class 50\u201359) and i<\/em> = 10.<\/span>A = 54.5<\/strong> (\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 50\u201359 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941) \u0924\u0925\u093e i<\/em> = 10 \u0932\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr><th class=\"narrow\">Class<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/span><\/th><th class=\"narrow\">X<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">f<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">d\u2032<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">fd\u2032<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">fd\u2032\u00b2<\/th><\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">80\u201389<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">84.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">70\u201379<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">74.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">60\u201369<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">64.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">50\u201359<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">54.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">40\u201349<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">44.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u221210<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">30\u201339<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">34.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u221212<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">20\u201329<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22123<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u221212<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u03a3<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">138<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>M = 54.5 + (\u22122\/50) \u00d7 10 = 54.5 \u2212 0.4 = 54.1<\/strong> \u2014 exactly the value obtained by the direct method in \u00a74.4.<\/span>M = 54.5 + (\u22122\/50) \u00d7 10 = 54.5 \u2212 0.4 = 54.1<\/strong> \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u00a74.4 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>\u03c3 = 10 \u221a[(138\/50) \u2212 (\u22122\/50)\u00b2] = 10 \u221a(2.76 \u2212 0.0016) = 10 \u221a2.7584 = 10 \u00d7 1.661 = 16.61<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03c3 = 10 \u221a[(138\/50) \u2212 (\u22122\/50)\u00b2] = 10 \u221a(2.76 \u2212 0.0016) = 10 \u221a2.7584 = 10 \u00d7 1.661 = 16.61<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Notice that no number larger than 36 was ever handled, against midpoints running to 84.5 in the direct method. Same answer, far less arithmetic.<\/strong><\/span>\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f 36 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0932\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0940, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 84.5 \u0924\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930, \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. The combined mean of two or more groups<\/span>\u0916. \u0926\u094b \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Pooling groups \u2014 a weighted mean again<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u2014 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Mc<\/sub> = ( N1<\/sub>M1<\/sub> + N2<\/sub>M2<\/sub> ) \/ ( N1<\/sub> + N2<\/sub> )<\/span>\n Mc<\/sub> = ( N1<\/sub>M1<\/sub> + N2<\/sub>M2<\/sub> ) \/ ( N1<\/sub> + N2<\/sub> )<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Each group's mean is weighted by its own size<\/b> before pooling. This is the same weighted mean that gives the Semester Grade Point Average (SGPA) in \u00a76.3, with N in place of credits. The error to avoid:<\/b> simply averaging the two means. That is correct only<\/em> when the two groups are of equal size. Worked:<\/b> Section A, N = 40, M = 60; Section B, N = 60, M = 50. Mc<\/sub> = (40\u00d760 + 60\u00d750)\/100 = (2400 + 3000)\/100 = 54<\/b>. The naive average would have given 55 \u2014 wrong, because the weaker section is the larger one.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u00a76.3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924 (SGPA) \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 N \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f:<\/b> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0927\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u0924\u092d\u0940<\/em> \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u0939\u0932:<\/b> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 A, N = 40, M = 60; \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 B, N = 60, M = 50\u0964 Mc<\/sub> = (40\u00d760 + 60\u00d750)\/100 = (2400 + 3000)\/100 = 54<\/b>\u0964 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 55 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u0940 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-5\">\n 4.7<\/span>\n <h3>Coefficient of Correlation<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Correlation<\/strong> is the relationship or correspondence between two sets of scores<\/strong> obtained from the same group of individuals. The coefficient of correlation (r)<\/strong> expresses that relationship as a single number lying between \u22121.00 and +1.00<\/strong>. Its sign<\/strong> shows the direction<\/em> of the relationship and its size<\/strong> shows the strength<\/em>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 (r)<\/strong> \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u094b \u22121.00 \u0938\u0947 +1.00<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e<\/em> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n +1<\/span>\n <h6>Perfect positive<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n Both scores rise and fall together, without exception.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947-\u0918\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n +<\/span>\n <h6>Positive<\/span>\u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n High with high, low with low \u2014 e.g. study hours and marks.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a, \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928-\u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 0<\/span>\n <h6>Zero<\/span>\u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h6>\n No relationship whatever \u2014 e.g. shoe size and intelligence.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0942\u0924\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u22121<\/span>\n <h6>Negative<\/span>\u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n One rises as the other falls \u2014 e.g. absence from school and achievement.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Product-Moment Method (Karl Pearson's r)<\/span>\u0915. \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f (\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r)<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Pearson's coefficient of correlation \u2014 deviation form<\/span>\u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n r = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2 ) where x = X \u2212 Mx<\/sub> and y = Y \u2212 My<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n r = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2 ) \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 x = X \u2212 Mx<\/sub> \u0924\u0925\u093e y = Y \u2212 My<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Used when both variables are measured on an interval or ratio<\/b> scale, the relationship is linear<\/b>, and N is reasonably large. It is the most reliable and most widely used<\/b> method \u2014 and note that it is built entirely out of deviations from the mean<\/b>, which is why the mean and SD had to be learnt first. Every reliability and validity coefficient in Unit 5 is a Pearson r.<\/span>\n \u0924\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091c\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/b> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915<\/b> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u0925\u093e N \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/b> \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Pearson's r<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/span><\/span>\n \n Five pupils obtain the following marks in a test of reasoning (X) and in Mathematics (Y). Compute the coefficient of correlation.<\/span>\n \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (X) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 (Y) \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Pupil<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">X<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">Y<\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">x = X \u2212 6<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">y = Y \u2212 8<\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">x\u00b2<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">y\u00b2<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">xy<\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">A<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22124<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22125<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">16<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">B<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">C<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22123<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">D<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">11<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">E<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">14<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">16<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u03a3<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">30<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">80<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">52<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Mx<\/sub> = 30\/5 = 6<\/strong> and My<\/sub> = 40\/5 = 8<\/strong>. Both \u03a3x and \u03a3y come to zero \u2014 the check passes.<\/span>Mx<\/sub> = 30\/5 = 6<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e My<\/sub> = 40\/5 = 8<\/strong>\u0964 \u03a3x \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u03a3y \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>\u03a3xy = 52, \u03a3x\u00b2 = 40, \u03a3y\u00b2 = 80.<\/strong><\/span>\u03a3xy = 52, \u03a3x\u00b2 = 40, \u03a3y\u00b2 = 80\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>r = 52 \/ \u221a(40 \u00d7 80) = 52 \/ \u221a3200 = 52 \/ 56.57<\/span>r = 52 \/ \u221a(40 \u00d7 80) = 52 \/ \u221a3200 = 52 \/ 56.57<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>r = + 0.92<\/strong><\/span>r = + 0.92<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>A high positive correlation<\/strong>: pupils who reason well also tend to do well in Mathematics. It does not<\/strong> follow that reasoning ability causes<\/em> the mathematics marks.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong>: \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0935\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Rank-Difference Method (Spearman's rho)<\/span>\u0916. \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f (\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e rho)<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Spearman's rank-order correlation<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n \u03c1 = 1 \u2212 [ 6 \u03a3D\u00b2 \/ N ( N\u00b2 \u2212 1 ) ]<\/span>\n \u03c1 = 1 \u2212 [ 6 \u03a3D\u00b2 \/ N ( N\u00b2 \u2212 1 ) ]<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n D<\/b> = difference between the two ranks given to the same individual \u00b7 N<\/b> = number of individuals. Used when the data are ordinal<\/b> \u2014 ranks, merit positions, judges' orders \u2014 or when N is small<\/b> (usually under 30), or when the raw scores are not available. Recall from \u00a71.7 that ordinal data have unequal intervals<\/b>, which is exactly why the product-moment method cannot be applied to them.<\/span>\n D<\/b> = \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0926\u094b \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u00b7 N<\/b> = \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0924\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091c\u092c \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u2014 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e N \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e<\/b> \u0939\u094b (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 30 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e), \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u00a71.7 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Spearman's rho<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e rho<\/span><\/span>\n \n Two judges rank five candidates in a debate. Find the agreement between them.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Candidate<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">A<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">B<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">C<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">D<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">E<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">\u03a3<\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Judge 1<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 1<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Judge 2<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 2<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">D<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">D\u00b2<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>\u03a3D\u00b2 = 4<\/strong> and N = 5<\/strong>. (Note that \u03a3D must always be 0 \u2014 a useful check.)<\/span>\u03a3D\u00b2 = 4<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e N = 5<\/strong>\u0964 (\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u03a3D \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 0 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0939\u0948\u0964)<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>N(N\u00b2 \u2212 1) = 5 \u00d7 (25 \u2212 1) = 5 \u00d7 24 = 120<\/strong>.<\/span>N(N\u00b2 \u2212 1) = 5 \u00d7 (25 \u2212 1) = 5 \u00d7 24 = 120<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>\u03c1 = 1 \u2212 (6 \u00d7 4)\/120 = 1 \u2212 24\/120 = 1 \u2212 0.20<\/span>\u03c1 = 1 \u2212 (6 \u00d7 4)\/120 = 1 \u2212 24\/120 = 1 \u2212 0.20<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>\u03c1 = + 0.80<\/strong><\/span>\u03c1 = + 0.80<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The two judges show high agreement<\/strong>. This is exactly how the objectivity of scoring<\/strong> discussed in \u00a72.1 is actually measured \u2014 by correlating two independent examiners' marks.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a72.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. Interpreting the coefficient<\/span>\u0917. \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Value of r<\/span>r \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Degree of relationship<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Typical educational use<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.00 \u2013 0.20<\/td><td>Negligible or indifferent<\/span>\u0928\u0917\u0923\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0938\u0940\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>Effectively no relationship worth acting on.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.20 \u2013 0.40<\/td><td>Low or slight<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/td><td>Present but too weak for individual prediction.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.40 \u2013 0.60<\/td><td>Substantial or marked<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/td><td>Acceptable for a validity<\/strong> coefficient (Unit 5).<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5)\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.60 \u2013 0.80<\/td><td>High<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/span><\/td><td>Good group prediction; a fair reliability coefficient.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928; \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.80 \u2013 1.00<\/td><td>Very high to perfect<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u093f \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Expected of a reliability<\/strong> coefficient for a standardized test.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Four cautions \u2014 every one of them is an examination point<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Correlation is not causation.<\/strong> Ice-cream sales and drowning deaths correlate strongly \u2014 because both rise in summer. A third variable often explains both.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0906\u0907\u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092e-\u092c\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0921\u0942\u092c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0943\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0941 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0937\u094d\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0938\u0930\u093e \u091a\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>r is not a percentage.<\/strong> An r of 0.60 does not mean 60 per cent agreement. To speak of shared variation, square it: r\u00b2 = 0.36<\/strong>, i.e. 36 per cent of the variance is common.<\/span>r \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> 0.60 \u0915\u093e r 60 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f: r\u00b2 = 0.36<\/strong>, \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d 36 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0909\u092d\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>A negative r is not a weak r.<\/strong> \u22120.85 is a stronger<\/em> relationship than +0.40; only the direction differs.<\/span>\u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 r \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 r \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u22120.85, +0.40 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932<\/em> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Pearson's r assumes linearity.<\/strong> If the relationship is curved \u2014 as between anxiety and performance, which rises then falls \u2014 r will understate it badly and may even come out near zero.<\/span>\u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0924\u094b r \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u092d\u0940 \u0906 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-51\">\n 4.8<\/span>\n <h3>Choosing the Right Coefficient, and Prediction from Correlation<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Pearson's r<\/em> and Spearman's \u03c1<\/em> are the two ordinarily computed, but they are not the only coefficients. Which one is correct depends entirely on the level of measurement of the two variables<\/strong> \u2014 the scales of \u00a71.7 decide the statistic, exactly as they decided the measure of central tendency.<\/span>\n \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1<\/em> \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u00a71.7 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0924\u092f \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Coefficient<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Use it when the two variables are<\/span>\u0924\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Educational example<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\">\n <td>Product-moment r<\/em><\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 r<\/em><\/span><\/strong> Karl Pearson<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Both continuous<\/strong>, on an interval or ratio scale, and the relationship linear<\/strong><\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong>, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Marks in Mathematics against marks in Science<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\">\n <td>Rank-difference \u03c1<\/em><\/span>\u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u03c1<\/em><\/span><\/strong> Spearman<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Both ordinal<\/strong> (ranks), or N is small<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/strong> (\u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901), \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e N \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Two judges' rank orders of the same candidates<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Biserial r<\/em>bis<\/sub><\/span>\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 r<\/em>bis<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>One continuous<\/strong>, one artificially dichotomized<\/strong> \u2014 a continuous trait forced into two categories<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong>, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094b \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Total test score against pass\/fail, where pass\/fail was cut from a continuous mark<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u091f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Point-biserial r<\/em>pbis<\/sub><\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941-\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 r<\/em>pbis<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>One continuous<\/strong>, one genuinely dichotomous<\/strong> \u2014 a true two-category variable<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong>, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0926\u094b-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Item analysis:<\/strong> total test score against right\/wrong on a single item \u2014 the modern index of item discrimination<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923:<\/strong> \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0940\/\u0917\u0932\u0924 \u2014 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Phi coefficient \u03c6<\/em><\/span>\u092b\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u03c6<\/em><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Both genuinely dichotomous<\/strong><\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Right\/wrong on item 5 against right\/wrong on item 12<\/span>\u092a\u0926 5 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0940\/\u0917\u0932\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092a\u0926 12 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0940\/\u0917\u0932\u0924<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Tetrachoric r<\/em>t<\/sub><\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0937\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0930\u093f\u0915 r<\/em>t<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Both artificially dichotomized<\/strong> from underlying continuous traits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Pass\/fail in English against pass\/fail in Hindi<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Contingency coefficient C<\/em><\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0938\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 C<\/em><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Both nominal<\/strong>, in categories; computed from chi-square<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/strong>, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Stream chosen (Arts\/Science\/Commerce) against gender<\/span>\u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 (\u0915\u0932\u093e\/\u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\/\u0935\u093e\u0923\u093f\u091c\u094d\u092f) \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Correlation ratio \u03b7<\/em> (eta)<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u03b7<\/em> (\u0908\u091f\u093e)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Both continuous but the relationship is non-linear (curved)<\/strong><\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0905\u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915 (\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0915\u093e\u0930)<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Anxiety against performance, which rises and then falls<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The distinction that decides most questions: genuine versus artificial dichotomy.<\/strong> A genuine<\/strong> dichotomy has only two states in nature \u2014 right\/wrong, present\/absent, alive\/dead. An artificial<\/strong> dichotomy is a continuous trait cut<\/em> into two \u2014 pass\/fail from marks, tall\/short from height. Match them: genuine + continuous \u2192 point-biserial; artificial + continuous \u2192 biserial; genuine + genuine \u2192 phi; artificial + artificial \u2192 tetrachoric.<\/strong> Note also that the point-biserial correlation is what a computer reports as the discrimination index<\/strong> in \u00a73.9, in place of the hand-computed D.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0939 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u0940\/\u0917\u0932\u0924, \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u0940\u0935\u093f\u0924\/\u092e\u0943\u0924\u0964 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u091f\u093e<\/em> \u0917\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\/\u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f: \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 + \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u2192 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941-\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915; \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e + \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u2192 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915; \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 + \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092b\u093e\u0908; \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e + \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u2192 \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0937\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u00a73.9 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 D \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941-\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Prediction: regression and the coefficient of determination<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928: \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">From correlation to prediction<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0924\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Regression equation: Y = r<\/em> ( \u03c3y<\/sub> \/ \u03c3x<\/sub> ) ( X \u2212 Mx<\/sub> ) + My<\/sub> Coefficient of determination = r<\/em>\u00b2<\/span><\/span>\n \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923: Y = r<\/em> ( \u03c3y<\/sub> \/ \u03c3x<\/sub> ) ( X \u2212 Mx<\/sub> ) + My<\/sub> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 = r<\/em>\u00b2<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Correlation only describes<\/b> a relationship; regression predicts<\/b> one variable from the other, and it is the statistical machinery behind the predictive validity<\/b> of \u00a72.2 and the prognosis function of \u00a71.7. The coefficient of determination r\u00b2<\/b> states what proportion of the variance in Y is accounted for<\/b> by X. If r = 0.60, then r\u00b2 = 0.36 \u2014 36 per cent<\/b> of the variation is shared and 64 per cent is not<\/b>. This is the correct way to state the strength of a correlation in words, and it is why \"an r of 0.60 means 60 per cent agreement\" is wrong.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/b> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0923<\/b> \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/b> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a72.2 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/b> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u00a71.7 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 r\u00b2<\/b> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f Y \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 X \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f r = 0.60 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b r\u00b2 = 0.36 \u2014 36 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/b> \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e 64 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/b>\u0964 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \"0.60 \u0915\u093e r 60 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-61\">\n 4.9<\/span>\n <h3>Skewness and Kurtosis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Central tendency describes the centre<\/strong>, variability the spread<\/strong>. Two measures remain, and together they describe the shape<\/strong>: skewness<\/strong> is the departure from symmetry, kurtosis<\/strong> the degree of peakedness.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Skewness<\/span>\u0915. \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Coefficient of skewness<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Sk = 3 ( M \u2212 Md ) \/ \u03c3 Percentile method: Sk = [ ( P90<\/sub> + P10<\/sub> ) \/ 2 ] \u2212 P50<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n Sk = 3 ( M \u2212 Md ) \/ \u03c3 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f: Sk = [ ( P90<\/sub> + P10<\/sub> ) \/ 2 ] \u2212 P50<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Sk = 0<\/b> \u2192 the distribution is symmetrical<\/b> and M = Md = Mo. Sk positive<\/b> \u2192 the tail runs to the right<\/b>; the mean is pulled above the median; most scores are low<\/b>, so the test was too difficult<\/b>. Sk negative<\/b> \u2192 the tail runs to the left<\/b>; the mean falls below the median; most scores are high<\/b>, so the test was too easy<\/b>.<\/span>\n Sk = 0<\/b> \u2192 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e M = Md = Mo\u0964 Sk \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/b> \u2192 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940<\/b> \u0913\u0930; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0916\u093f\u0902\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928<\/b>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/b> \u0925\u093e\u0964 Sk \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/b> \u2192 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u092c\u093e\u0908\u0902<\/b> \u0913\u0930; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/b>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/b> \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Skewness of the running distribution<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>From \u00a74.4: M = 54.1<\/strong> and Md = 53.67<\/strong>. Take \u03c3 \u2248 15.5 for this distribution.<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u0938\u0947: M = 54.1<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e Md = 53.67<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u03c3 \u2248 15.5 \u0932\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Sk = 3(54.1 \u2212 53.67)\/15.5 = 3(0.43)\/15.5 = 1.29\/15.5<\/span>Sk = 3(54.1 \u2212 53.67)\/15.5 = 3(0.43)\/15.5 = 1.29\/15.5<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Sk = + 0.08<\/strong><\/span>Sk = + 0.08<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Very slightly positively skewed<\/strong> \u2014 near enough to zero that the distribution may be treated as symmetrical. The order Mo (52.83) < Md (53.67) < M (54.1)<\/strong> is itself the signature of positive skew.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 Mo (52.83) < Md (53.67) < M (54.1)<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n How to read skewness as a teacher.<\/strong> A positively skewed<\/strong> set of class results means the paper was too hard \u2014 a heap of low scores with a few high ones trailing to the right. A negatively skewed<\/strong> set means it was too easy. A well-constructed test on an unselected group should produce a near-symmetrical<\/strong> distribution \u2014 which is precisely why item analysis (\u00a73.9) keeps items with difficulty values between 40 and 60 per cent.<\/span>\n \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0947\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0925\u093e \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0922\u0947\u0930 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u0905\u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 (\u00a73.9) 40 \u0938\u0947 60 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Kurtosis<\/span>\u0916. \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Coefficient of kurtosis (percentile method)<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 (\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f)<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Ku = Q \/ ( P90<\/sub> \u2212 P10<\/sub> ) where Q = ( Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub> ) \/ 2<\/span>\n Ku = Q \/ ( P90<\/sub> \u2212 P10<\/sub> ) \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 Q = ( Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub> ) \/ 2<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n For a normal curve, Ku = 0.263<\/b> \u2014 this figure must be memorized, since every interpretation is made against it. Ku > 0.263<\/b> \u2192 platykurtic<\/b>: flatter and more spread out than normal. Ku < 0.263<\/b> \u2192 leptokurtic<\/b>: more sharply peaked, scores crowded near the mean. Ku = 0.263<\/b> \u2192 mesokurtic<\/b>: normal.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 Ku = 0.263<\/b> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 Ku > 0.263<\/b> \u2192 \u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/b>: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964 Ku < 0.263<\/b> \u2192 \u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/b>: \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923 \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0938\u0918\u0928\u0964 Ku = 0.263<\/b> \u2192 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/b>: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Leptokurtic<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Tall and narrow.<\/strong> Scores crowd close to the mean, so variability is low<\/strong> \u2014 typical of a homogeneous<\/strong> group, such as a selected section.<\/span>\u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0938\u0918\u0928, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Mesokurtic<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Normal.<\/strong> The bell curve of \u00a74.10 exactly; Ku = 0.263.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a74.10 \u0915\u093e \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930; Ku = 0.263\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Platykurtic<\/span>\u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Flat and wide.<\/strong> Scores spread far from the mean, so variability is high<\/strong> \u2014 typical of a heterogeneous<\/strong> group of mixed ability.<\/span>\u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u094c\u0921\u093c\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Skewness and test interpretation<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>95<\/span>Consider: 1. In a positively skewed distribution, the mean falls to the left of the median. 2. In a negatively skewed distribution, the mean falls to the right of the median.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) Neither is correct<\/b> Both statements are reversed. In positive skew the tail runs right and the mean is pulled above<\/em> (to the right of) the median; in negative skew the mean falls below<\/em> (to the left of) it. Remember the order: positive skew gives Mo < Md < M.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0909\u0932\u091f\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930<\/em> (\u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940 \u0913\u0930) \u0916\u093f\u0902\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947<\/em> (\u092c\u093e\u0908\u0902 \u0913\u0930) \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902: \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 Mo < Md < M\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>102<\/span>Consider: 1. If median and mode of marks are low, the test is very hard. 2. If the spread of marks is large and reliability is low, then standard error is also low.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1 only<\/b> Statement 1 is correct \u2014 low central tendency means most pupils scored low, so the paper was too difficult (positive skew). Statement 2 is wrong: SE\u2098 = \u03c3\u221a(1 \u2212 r), so a large spread and low reliability both make the standard error large<\/em>, not low.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 1 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u092e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 (\u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e)\u0964 \u0915\u0925\u0928 2 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0939\u0948: SE\u2098 = \u03c3\u221a(1 \u2212 r), \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.9, \u00a74.15 D \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-7\">\n 4.10<\/span>\n <h3>Normal Probability Curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What it is<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n The normal probability curve (NPC)<\/strong> is a bell-shaped, perfectly symmetrical<\/strong> curve that describes how most human traits are distributed when a large, unselected population is measured. It was developed from the work of De Moivre, Laplace and Karl Gauss<\/strong> \u2014 hence its other name, the Gaussian curve<\/strong>. It is called a probability<\/em> curve because the area under any portion of it gives the probability of a case falling in that range<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 (NPC)<\/strong> \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940, \u0905\u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0921\u0940 \u092e\u0949\u092f\u0935\u0930, \u0932\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0932\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932 \u0917\u0949\u0938<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0917\u0949\u0938\u0940\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Characteristics of the normal curve<\/span>\u0915. \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>It is bell-shaped and perfectly symmetrical<\/strong> about a vertical line through the centre \u2014 the left half is the mirror image of the right.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u091c\u093c\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u090a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094d\u0935 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0927\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u092a\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>The mean, median and mode all coincide<\/strong> at the centre. This follows from the symmetry and is the surest test of normality.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0938\u094c\u091f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>It is unimodal<\/strong> \u2014 it has only one peak, at the mean.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>It is asymptotic<\/strong>: the tails approach the base line but never touch it, since theoretically the curve extends to infinity in both directions<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930-\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915<\/strong> \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Its skewness is zero and its kurtosis is 0.263<\/strong> \u2014 it is mesokurtic by definition.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e 0.263<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>The total area under the curve is taken as 1.00, or 100 per cent<\/strong>, and is divided by the standard deviation into fixed, known proportions.<\/span>\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 1.00 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e 100 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>7<\/span>The maximum ordinate<\/strong> stands at the mean, and the curve has points of inflection at \u00b11\u03c3<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u00b11\u03c3 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0924\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u00b11\u03c3<\/span>\n <h6>68.26 %<\/h6>\n About two-thirds<\/strong> of all cases lie within one SD of the mean \u2014 34.13 per cent on each side.<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0926\u094b-\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 SD \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0913\u0930 34.13 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u00b12\u03c3<\/span>\n <h6>95.44 %<\/h6>\n Almost all<\/strong> cases; only about 4.6 per cent lie beyond, roughly 2.3 per cent in each tail.<\/span>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092d\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 4.6 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 2.3 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u00b13\u03c3<\/span>\n <h6>99.73 %<\/h6>\n Practically the whole<\/strong> population. A case beyond \u00b13\u03c3 is genuinely exceptional \u2014 about 3 in 1000.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u00b13\u03c3 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 1000 \u092e\u0947\u0902 3\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u00b11.96\u03c3<\/span>\n <h6>95 %<\/h6>\n The exact 95 per cent<\/strong> limit, used in tests of significance in inferential statistics.<\/span>\u0920\u0940\u0915 95 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Applications of the normal curve in education<\/span>\u0916. \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>To determine the percentage of cases<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Between any two scores, above a score, or below it \u2014 read off as area under the curve.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u2014 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>To convert raw scores<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Into Z-scores, T-scores, percentiles and stanines \u2014 the whole of \u00a74.12 rests on the NPC.<\/span>Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u00a74.12 NPC \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>To assign grades<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>The basis of \"grading on the curve\" \u2014 fixed percentages of A, B, C, D and E awarded by \u03c3-distance from the mean.<\/span>\"\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917\" \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 A, B, C, D \u090f\u0935\u0902 E \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>To compare two groups<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Distributions on different tests can be compared once both are expressed in \u03c3-units.<\/span>\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0924\u092c \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u03c3-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>To standardize a test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Norms (\u00a72.1) are built by fitting the try-out scores to the normal curve.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 (\u00a72.1) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>To interpret an IQ<\/span>IQ \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Terman's IQ bands in \u00a710.2 are simply \u03c3-distances: IQ 130 is +2\u03c3 on a scale with mean 100 and SD 15.<\/span>\u00a710.2 \u0915\u0940 \u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928 IQ \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902: 100 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 15 SD \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 IQ 130 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 +2\u03c3 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd14<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Why traits are normally distributed \u2014 the standard explanation.<\/strong> Any human trait is the outcome of a very large number of small, independent causes<\/strong>, some pushing the individual up and some down. In a large unselected group these causes cancel out for most people, who therefore cluster near the middle, while only a few individuals get an unusual run of causes in one direction. That is why height, weight, intelligence, achievement and reaction time all approach normality<\/strong> \u2014 but note that a selected group<\/strong> (a scholarship class, a special school) will not<\/em> be normal, because the selection has already removed one tail.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0927\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0905\u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0936\u0943\u0902\u0916\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0930, \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939<\/strong> (\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f) \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u091f\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 The normal curve<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>50<\/span>Which one of the following is included within the range of M \u00b1 1\u03c3 in a normal distribution?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 68.13%<\/li>\n <li>(b) 68.26%<\/li>\n <li>(c) 66.28%<\/li>\n <li>(d) 66.26%<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) 68.26%<\/b> The three figures to memorize exactly: 68.26% within \u00b11\u03c3 (34.13% each side), 95.44% within \u00b12\u03c3 and 99.73% within \u00b13\u03c3. The distractors here differ only in the decimals, so the figure must be known precisely.<\/span>\u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901: \u00b11\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 68.26% (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0913\u0930 34.13%), \u00b12\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 95.44% \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00b13\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 99.73%\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.10 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>101<\/span>The mean of a normally distributed set is 13.5 and the SD is 2.5. What does this indicate?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) About 50% of observations fall within 11 and 16<\/li>\n <li>(b) About 68% of observations fall within 11 and 16<\/li>\n <li>(c) About 95% of observations fall within 11 and 16<\/li>\n <li>(d) About 99% fall within 8.5 and 18.5<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> 11 and 16 are exactly M \u2212 1\u03c3 (13.5 \u2212 2.5) and M + 1\u03c3 (13.5 + 2.5), so about 68% of cases lie between them. Option (d) names \u00b12\u03c3 (8.5 to 18.5), which contains about 95%, not 99%.<\/span>11 \u090f\u0935\u0902 16 \u0920\u0940\u0915 M \u2212 1\u03c3 (13.5 \u2212 2.5) \u090f\u0935\u0902 M + 1\u03c3 (13.5 + 2.5) \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 68% \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0918) \u00b12\u03c3 (8.5 \u0938\u0947 18.5) \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 95% \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, 99% \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.10 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-6\">\n 4.11<\/span>\n <h3>Percentile and Percentile Rank<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Score wanted<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Percentile (P)<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 (P)<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>A point on the score scale<\/strong> below which a given percentage of cases lies.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Question: \"What score cuts off the bottom 25 per cent?\"<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928: \"\u0928\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0947 25 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Answer is a mark<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. P25<\/sub> = 42.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 P25<\/sub> = 42\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Special cases: P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, P50<\/sub> = Median, P75<\/sub> = Q3<\/sub><\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, P50<\/sub> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, P75<\/sub> = Q3<\/sub><\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">\u2194<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Rank wanted<\/span>\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Percentile Rank (PR)<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 (PR)<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>The percentage of cases lying below<\/strong> a given score.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Question: \"What percentage of the group did Rahul beat?\"<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928: \"\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e?\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Answer is a percentage<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. PR = 68.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 PR = 68\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The two are inverse operations<\/strong> \u2014 each is the other read backwards.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0932\u091f\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Percentile \u2014 note the family resemblance to the median<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Pp<\/sub> = L + [ ( pN\/100 \u2212 cf<\/em> ) \/ f<\/em> ] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/span>\n Pp<\/sub> = L + [ ( pN\/100 \u2212 cf<\/em> ) \/ f<\/em> ] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n p<\/b> = the percentile wanted \u00b7 L<\/b> = exact lower limit of the class containing it \u00b7 cf<\/b> = cumulative frequency below that class \u00b7 f<\/b> = frequency of that class \u00b7 i<\/b> = class interval. This is the median formula generalized<\/b>: put p = 50 and pN\/100 becomes N\/2, giving the median formula back exactly \u2014 one formula therefore serves for both.<\/span>\n p<\/b> = \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u00b7 L<\/b> = \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u00b7 cf<\/b> = \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 f<\/b> = \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 i<\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/b> \u0939\u0948: p = 50 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 pN\/100 \u0920\u0940\u0915 N\/2 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093e\u092a\u0938 \u092e\u093f\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 P25<\/sub> from the running distribution<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 P25<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>pN\/100 = 25 \u00d7 50 \/ 100 = 12.5.<\/strong> Locate the class containing the 12.5th case.<\/span>pN\/100 = 25 \u00d7 50 \/ 100 = 12.5\u0964<\/strong> 12.5\u0935\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>cf reaches 10<\/strong> at the end of 30\u201339 and 20<\/strong> at the end of 40\u201349, so the class is 40\u201349<\/strong>.<\/span>cf 30\u201339 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 10<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e 40\u201349 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 20<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 40\u201349<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>L = 39.5, cf = 10, f = 10, i = 10.<\/strong><\/span>L = 39.5, cf = 10, f = 10, i = 10\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>P25<\/sub> = 39.5 + [(12.5 \u2212 10)\/10] \u00d7 10 = 39.5 + 2.5 = 42<\/strong><\/span>P25<\/sub> = 39.5 + [(12.5 \u2212 10)\/10] \u00d7 10 = 39.5 + 2.5 = 42<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>A quarter of the class scored below 42<\/strong>. Since P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, this is also the first quartile of the distribution.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915-\u091a\u094c\u0925\u093e\u0908 \u0928\u0947 42<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Percentile rank \u2014 the reverse journey<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n PR = [ ( cf<\/em> + ( ( X \u2212 L ) \/ i<\/em> ) \u00d7 f<\/em> ) \/ N ] \u00d7 100<\/span>\n PR = [ ( cf<\/em> + ( ( X \u2212 L ) \/ i<\/em> ) \u00d7 f<\/em> ) \/ N ] \u00d7 100<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n X<\/b> = the raw score whose rank is required \u00b7 the other symbols are as before. A percentile rank is the single most useful way of reporting a score to a parent<\/b>: \"the boy scored 62\" conveys nothing, whereas \"the boy scored higher than 74 per cent of his class\" is immediately understood. It is also the form in which most standardized test norms<\/b> (\u00a72.1) are published.<\/span>\n X<\/b> = \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0964 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/b> \u0939\u0948: \"\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u0947 62 \u092a\u093e\u090f\" \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0906\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \"\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 74 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u092f\u093e\" \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0906 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/b> (\u00a72.1) \u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-8\">\n 4.12<\/span>\n <h3>Derived Scores: Z-score, Standard Score and T-score<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915: Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf The problem derived scores solve<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n A pupil scores 72 in Mathematics<\/strong> and 60 in Hindi<\/strong>. In which subject is he better? The raw marks cannot answer, because the two tests had different means and different spreads. A derived score<\/strong> re-expresses every raw score in terms of how many standard deviations it lies from its own mean<\/strong> \u2014 and once both are in that common language, they can be compared directly.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 72<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 60<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948? \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0907\u0938 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u0942\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0924\u094b \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The three conversions \u2014 learn them as one family<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Z = ( X \u2212 M ) \/ \u03c3 T = 50 + 10 Z General standard score = New Mean + ( New SD \u00d7 Z )<\/span><\/span>\n Z = ( X \u2212 M ) \/ \u03c3 T = 50 + 10 Z \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 = \u0928\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f + ( \u0928\u092f\u093e SD \u00d7 Z )<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n X<\/b> = raw score \u00b7 M<\/b> = mean of that test \u00b7 \u03c3<\/b> = its standard deviation. The Z-score<\/b> has mean 0 and SD 1<\/b>. It is the purest form, but it produces negative numbers and decimals<\/b>, which confuse pupils and parents \u2014 a pupil does not like being told his score is \u22121.5. The T-score<\/b> removes both nuisances by rescaling to mean 50 and SD 10<\/b>, so scores run roughly 20 to 80 and are always positive whole-ish numbers. The deviation IQ<\/b> of \u00a710.2 is the same device with mean 100 and SD 15.<\/span>\n X<\/b> = \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u00b7 M<\/b> = \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u00b7 \u03c3<\/b> = \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0964 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/b> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 1<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935<\/b> \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u22121.5 \u0939\u0948\u0964 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/b> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 10<\/b> \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092e\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 20 \u0938\u0947 80 \u0924\u0915 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u00a710.2 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/b> \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 100 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 15 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 comparing two subjects<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n \n Rahul scores 72 in Mathematics<\/strong>, where the class mean is 60<\/strong> and \u03c3 is 8<\/strong>; and 60 in Hindi<\/strong>, where the class mean is 50<\/strong> and \u03c3 is 4<\/strong>. In which subject has he done better?<\/span>\n \u0930\u093e\u0939\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 72<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u090f, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 60<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u03c3 8<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 60<\/strong>, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u03c3 4<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e?<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Mathematics:<\/strong> Z = (72 \u2212 60)\/8 = 12\/8 = +1.5<\/strong>. T = 50 + 10(1.5) = 65<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924:<\/strong> Z = (72 \u2212 60)\/8 = 12\/8 = +1.5<\/strong>\u0964 T = 50 + 10(1.5) = 65<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Hindi:<\/strong> Z = (60 \u2212 50)\/4 = 10\/4 = +2.5<\/strong>. T = 50 + 10(2.5) = 75<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940:<\/strong> Z = (60 \u2212 50)\/4 = 10\/4 = +2.5<\/strong>\u0964 T = 50 + 10(2.5) = 75<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Although his raw mark is higher in Mathematics<\/strong>, his Z-score is higher in Hindi<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092a\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Rahul has done better in Hindi.<\/strong> Reading the Z-scores against the normal curve: +1.5 places him above about 93 per cent<\/strong> of the class in Mathematics, but +2.5 places him above about 99 per cent<\/strong> in Hindi. The small Hindi \u03c3 of 4 means the class was tightly bunched, so standing 10 marks above that mean is a far rarer achievement.<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0947 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/strong> Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093f\u090f: +1.5 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 93 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 +2.5 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 99 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0964 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e \u03c3 = 4 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0918\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0925\u0940, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 10 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0932\u092d \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Derived score<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">SD<\/span>SD<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Note<\/span>\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Z-score<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td>The parent form; all others are rescalings of it. Produces negatives and decimals.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0930\u0942\u092a; \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>T-score<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td>The commonest reporting form in education; always positive, easy to explain.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a; \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Deviation IQ<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">100<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">15<\/td><td>Used by the Wechsler scales (\u00a710.2), replacing the old MA\/CA ratio.<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 (\u00a710.2) \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 MA\/CA \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Stanine<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td>A nine-point scale (1 to 9) that groups scores into broad bands \u2014 useful where fine distinctions are not warranted.<\/span>\u0928\u094c-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1 \u0938\u0947 9) \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Derived scores<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>54<\/span>Which of the following are standard scores? 1. T-score 2. Z-score 3. Stanine score 4. Mean score<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 4 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/b> A standard score expresses a raw score as its distance from the mean in SD units: Z (mean 0, SD 1), T (mean 50, SD 10) and stanine (mean 5, SD 2). The mean is a measure of central tendency, not a standard score.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 SD-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: Z (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0, SD 1), T (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50, SD 10) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 5, SD 2)\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.12 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>90<\/span>What is the z-score of a value of 24, given a mean of 16 and a standard deviation of 4?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) \u20132.0<\/li>\n <li>(b) 1.0<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1.5<\/li>\n <li>(d) 2.0<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 2.0<\/b> Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3 = (24 \u2212 16)\/4 = 8\/4 = 2.0. The pupil stands two standard deviations above the mean, which on the normal curve places him above about 97.7% of the group. The corresponding T-score is 50 + 10(2) = 70.<\/span>Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3 = (24 \u2212 16)\/4 = 8\/4 = 2.0\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 97.7% \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 50 + 10(2) = 70 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.12 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>94<\/span>Consider in respect of z-score: 1. If the raw score equals the mean, z is zero. 2. z can be negative. 3. z can be a decimal number.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) All three<\/b> All three follow from Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3. If X = M the numerator is zero; if X is below the mean the numerator is negative; and the quotient need not be a whole number. Precisely these two inconveniences \u2014 negatives and decimals \u2014 are why the T-score was devised.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f X = M \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f; \u092f\u0926\u093f X \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0917\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2014 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u2014 \u0939\u0940 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.12 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-82\">\n 4.13<\/span>\n <h3>C-Scores and the Eleven-Point Scale<\/span>C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Meaning of C-scores<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/span><\/div>\n C-scores are converted scores of raw scores of which the mean is 5 and the standard deviation is 2<\/strong>. For this, the range of raw scores is distributed into eleven equal unit-groups<\/strong>, displayed on an eleven-point scale from 0 to 10<\/strong>. The groups are sequential<\/strong> \u2014 the scores of the second group are higher than the first, those of the third higher than the second, and so on up to the eleventh.<\/span>\n C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 5 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 2<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b 0 \u0938\u0947 10 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939\u0935\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0915\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fc-label\">Converting a raw score to a C-score<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fc-formula\">C = 5 + 2Z<\/div>\n <div class=\"fc-note\">\n There are two methods<\/strong>: by Z-score<\/strong>, using the formula above; or by percentile rank<\/strong>, where the raw score is first changed into a percentile rank and the C-score then read from the conversion table below. Compare this with the T-score formula T = 50 + 10Z<\/strong> of \u00a74.12 \u2014 the structure is identical, only the chosen mean and SD differ.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902: Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e<\/strong>, \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947; \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u092c \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u00a74.12 \u0915\u0947 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 T = 50 + 10Z<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>The eleven-point C-score scale<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">C-score<\/span>C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Z-score limits<\/span>Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Range of PRs<\/span>PR \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">% of raw scores<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e %<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">% in whole number<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 %<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">More than +2.25<\/span>+2.25 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">More than 98.78<\/span>98.78 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1.22<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+1.75 \u2192 +2.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">95.99 \u2013 98.78<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2.79<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+1.25 \u2192 +1.75<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">89.44 \u2013 95.99<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6.55<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+0.75 \u2192 +1.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">77.34 \u2013 89.44<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12.10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+0.25 \u2192 +0.75<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">59.87 \u2013 77.34<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">17.47<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">17<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#fff9ef;\"><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22120.25 \u2192 +0.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40.13 \u2013 59.87<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">19.74<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22120.75 \u2192 \u22120.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">22.66 \u2013 40.13<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">17.47<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">17<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121.25 \u2192 \u22120.75<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10.56 \u2013 22.66<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12.10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121.75 \u2192 \u22121.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4.01 \u2013 10.56<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6.55<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122.25 \u2192 \u22121.75<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1.22 \u2013 4.01<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2.79<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">Less than \u22122.25<\/span>\u22122.25 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">Less than 1.22<\/span>1.22 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1.22<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n \n Note the symmetry of the distribution<\/strong> about C = 5, and that the percentages reproduce the areas of the normal curve of \u00a74.10 \u2014 20 per cent in the middle band, 1 per cent at each extreme.<\/span>\n C = 5 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u0902\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u00a74.10 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 20 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u094b\u0930 \u092a\u0930 1 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Utility<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>In some situations in education, the use of C-scores is more useful than that of Z-scores and T-scores<\/strong> \u2014 though such situations are very rare<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092a\u093f \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Being an eleven-point whole-number scale<\/strong>, it avoids the decimals and negative values that make raw Z-scores awkward to report.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>The first demerit is the awarding of a zero score<\/strong> \u2014 a pupil can be reported as having C = 0, which communicates absolute absence of attainment.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0939\u0948 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e C = 0 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The second is that a change of even one point in the C-score produces a large difference in percentage terms<\/strong> \u2014 moving from C = 5 to C = 6 shifts the pupil across roughly 17 per cent of the group.<\/span>\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 C = 5 \u0938\u0947 C = 6 \u092a\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 17 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930-\u092a\u093e\u0930 \u0916\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd22<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The four derived-score scales, distinguished by their mean and SD alone.<\/strong> Z-score:<\/strong> M = 0, \u03c3 = 1. T-score:<\/strong> M = 50, \u03c3 = 10. C-score:<\/strong> M = 5, \u03c3 = 2, on eleven points, 0 to 10<\/strong>. Stanine:<\/strong> M = 5, \u03c3 = 1.96, on nine points, 1 to 9<\/strong>. Two consequences follow. First, since only nine numbers are used in the stanine against eleven in the C-score, analysis of stanine scores is easier<\/strong>. Second, the stanine begins at 1, not 0<\/strong> \u2014 which is exactly how it escapes the first demerit of the C-score.<\/span>\n \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915:<\/strong> M = 0, \u03c3 = 1\u0964 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915:<\/strong> M = 50, \u03c3 = 10\u0964 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915:<\/strong> M = 5, \u03c3 = 2, \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930, 0 \u0938\u0947 10<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928:<\/strong> M = 5, \u03c3 = 1.96, \u0928\u094c \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930, 1 \u0938\u0947 9<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e, \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u093c\u093e\u092c\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u094c \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f, \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 0 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, 1 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-83\">\n 4.14<\/span>\n <h3>Interpretation of Test Scores: Qualitative and Quantitative<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928: \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n A raw score is mute<\/strong>. The figure 43 says nothing until it is placed against something \u2014 a maximum, a group, a criterion, a previous performance, or a description of what the pupil can now do. Interpretation is the act of supplying that context<\/strong>, and it proceeds along two lines which the syllabus names separately.<\/span>\n \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 43 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u2014 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092c \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u094b \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Quantitative interpretation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Places the score numerically within a distribution<\/strong> \u2014 through percentile rank, Z-score, T-score, C-score, stanine or grade equivalent<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0902\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940, Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Answers \"how much\" and \"how does this compare\"<\/strong> \u2014 the pupil stands at PR 68, or 1.2 SD above the mean.<\/span>\"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e\" \u090f\u0935\u0902 \"\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901\"<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 PR 68 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 1.2 SD \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Requires the statistics of \u00a74.4 to \u00a74.12<\/strong> \u2014 central tendency, variability, the normal curve and derived scores.<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u0938\u0947 \u00a74.12<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Is precise, comparable and communicable<\/strong>, but silent about what the pupil actually knows<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915, \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-divider\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Qualitative interpretation<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Describes what the performance means in substantive terms<\/strong> \u2014 which objectives were attained, which concepts remain unclear, what pattern of error recurs.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f, \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Answers \"what can this pupil do, and what should be taught next\"<\/strong> \u2014 the question a mark alone can never answer.<\/span>\"\u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u092c \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\"<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Draws on diagnostic testing (\u00a78.2), the criterion-referenced frame (\u00a75.1) and observation and anecdotal records (\u00a72.8)<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (\u00a78.2), \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u0922\u093e\u0901\u091a\u093e (\u00a75.1) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0924-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 (\u00a72.8)<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Is rich and directly usable by the teacher<\/strong>, but less comparable across pupils and schools<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc The four cautions that govern any interpretation<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>A score is an estimate, not a measurement<\/strong> \u2014 it carries a standard error of measurement<\/strong>, so it must be read as a band rather than a point<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>A score is meaningful only against the norm group on which it was standardized<\/strong> \u2014 the norms of \u00a73.9 do not transfer to a different population.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906<\/strong> \u2014 \u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>No decision of consequence should rest on a single score from a single occasion<\/strong>; corroboration from other tools is required.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f; \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>The factors of \u00a75.2<\/strong> \u2014 the nature of the test, and psychological and environmental conditions \u2014 must be weighed before a low score is read as low ability.<\/span>\u00a75.2 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2014 \u0924\u094b\u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0924\u092c \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udca1<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The formulation that answers this question well.<\/strong> Quantitative interpretation tells the teacher where the pupil stands<\/strong>; qualitative interpretation tells her what to do on Monday morning<\/strong>. The two are complementary, not alternative<\/strong> \u2014 the percentile rank locates the pupil in the group, and the diagnostic profile explains the location. An answer that treats them as rival philosophies has missed the point; an answer that shows how a stanine of 3 becomes actionable only when the error pattern behind it is described<\/strong> has understood it.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0916\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>; \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u094b\u092e\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0935\u0940 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u091a\u0942\u0915 \u0917\u092f\u093e; \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u090f \u0915\u093f 3 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b<\/strong>, \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-81\">\n 4.15<\/span>\n <h3>Further Statistics and Research Methodology<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Units 4 and 5 have dealt with descriptive<\/strong> statistics. This section carries the treatment forward into the topics that lie immediately next to it \u2014 the assumptions that separate one family of statistical test from another, the sampling and research designs on which any generalization rests, and three further statistics that complete the account of variability, error and test length begun in Units 4 and 5. The standard fuller treatments are Garrett<\/strong> and Guilford & Fruchter<\/strong> for the statistics, and Best & Kahn<\/strong> and Koul<\/strong> for the research methodology.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u0948\u0930\u0947\u091f<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092b\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0915\u094d\u091f\u0930<\/strong>, \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Parametric and non-parametric tests<\/span>\u0915. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n A parameter<\/strong> is a value that describes a population<\/em> \u2014 its mean, its standard deviation. A parametric test<\/strong> is one that makes assumptions about those population parameters; a non-parametric test<\/strong> makes none, which is why it is also called a distribution-free<\/strong> test.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f; \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923-\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc The four assumptions of a parametric test \u2014 learn these as a set<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2014 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Normality.<\/strong> The population from which the sample is drawn is normally distributed<\/strong> on the variable being studied.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0927\u0940\u0928 \u091a\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Randomization.<\/strong> Observations are independent<\/strong> and the sample has been drawn at random<\/strong> from that population.<\/span>\u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0909\u0938 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Homogeneity of variance.<\/strong> The groups being compared have approximately equal variances<\/strong> \u2014 sometimes called homoscedasticity<\/em>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940-\u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Continuity and level of measurement.<\/strong> The variable is continuous<\/strong> and measured on an interval or ratio<\/strong> scale, so that means and standard deviations are legitimate.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/strong> \u091a\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Parametric<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Non-parametric<\/span>\u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Assumptions<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The four above<\/span>\u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/td><td>None about the shape of the population<\/span>\u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Level of data<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Interval or ratio<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Nominal or ordinal (also usable with higher)<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 (\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Sample size<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Larger samples preferred<\/span>\u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/td><td>Works with small samples<\/span>\u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Statistic used<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Mean and standard deviation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>Median, ranks, frequencies<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Power<\/span>\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>More powerful<\/strong> when assumptions hold<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong><\/span><\/td><td>Less powerful, but valid where the others are not<\/span>\u0915\u092e \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u0948\u0927<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Examples<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>t-test, z-test, F-test, ANOVA, ANCOVA (analysis of covariance), Pearson's r<\/strong><\/span>t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, z-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, F-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, ANOVA, ANCOVA, \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/strong><\/span><\/td><td>Chi-square, sign test, median test, Mann\u2013Whitney U, Wilcoxon, Kruskal\u2013Wallis, Spearman's \u03c1<\/strong><\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917, \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u2013\u0935\u094d\u0939\u093f\u091f\u0928\u0940 U, \u0935\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0949\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0928, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0932\u2013\u0935\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0938, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udca1<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Two traps to recognize.<\/strong> (1)<\/strong> Four tests are given and the parametric one must be named \u2014 it is nearly always the t-test<\/strong>, because sign, median, chi-square and Mann\u2013Whitney are all non-parametric. (2)<\/strong> Four assumptions are given and the one that is not<\/em> an assumption must be named \u2014 the answer is \"discontinuity\"<\/strong>, since parametric tests require a continuous<\/em> variable. Note also the pairing worth memorizing: Pearson's r is parametric, Spearman's \u03c1 is non-parametric<\/strong> \u2014 which is exactly why \u00a74.7 prescribed \u03c1 for ranks.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0932\u0964<\/strong> (1)<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u2013\u0935\u094d\u0939\u093f\u091f\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 (2)<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \"\u0905\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f\"<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/em> \u091a\u0930 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902: \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u00a74.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u03c1 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Sampling techniques<\/span>\u0916. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n A population<\/strong> is the entire group about which a conclusion is wanted; a sample<\/strong> is the portion actually studied. The whole point of sampling is generalizability<\/strong> \u2014 and that is possible only when every member of the population had a known chance<\/strong> of being selected.<\/span>\n \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Probability (random) sampling<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e (\u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Simple random<\/strong> \u2014 every member has an equal and independent chance; drawn by lottery or a table of random numbers.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930; \u0932\u0949\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Systematic<\/strong> \u2014 every k<\/em>th name on a list after a random start (e.g. every 10th pupil in the register).<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 k<\/em>\u0935\u093e\u0901 \u0928\u093e\u092e (\u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0930\u091c\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 10\u0935\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930)\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Stratified<\/strong> \u2014 the population is divided into strata (boys\/girls, rural\/urban) and a random sample drawn from each, so every stratum is represented.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 (\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\/\u092c\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0940\u0923\/\u0928\u0917\u0930\u0940\u092f) \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Cluster<\/strong> \u2014 whole intact groups such as schools or classes are drawn at random, not individuals.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092f\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0905\u0916\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Results can be generalized<\/strong> to the population, and sampling error can be estimated.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Non-probability sampling<\/span>\u0905-\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Purposive (judgement)<\/strong> \u2014 the researcher deliberately selects cases he judges typical or informative.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 (\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915)<\/strong> \u2014 \u0936\u094b\u0927\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Convenience (incidental)<\/strong> \u2014 whoever happens to be available: one's own class, the nearest school.<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 (\u0906\u0915\u0938\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0915)<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b: \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Quota<\/strong> \u2014 fixed numbers are taken from each category, but filled non-randomly.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u091f\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905-\u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Snowball<\/strong> \u2014 each subject names the next; used for hidden or hard-to-reach groups.<\/span>\u0939\u093f\u092e\u092a\u093f\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u091b\u093f\u092a\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Economical and practical<\/strong>, but the sample may not represent the population, so generalization is unsafe.<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong>, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The question always takes one shape:<\/strong> four names are given and the one that is not<\/em> a probability sample must be identified. Random, systematic, stratified and cluster are all probability; purposive, convenience, quota and snowball are not<\/strong>. Remember the reason rather than the list \u2014 in a probability sample the chance of selection is known and does not depend on the investigator's judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948:<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u2014 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915, \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0939\u093f\u092e\u092a\u093f\u0902\u0921 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. Quantitative and qualitative research, and the qualitative approaches<\/span>\u0917. \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Quantitative research<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Qualitative research<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Aim<\/span>\u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>To measure, test hypotheses and generalize<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>To understand meaning and describe in depth<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Data<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Numbers, scores, frequencies<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/td><td>Words, transcripts, field notes, observations<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Design<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Fixed before data collection begins<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Emergent \u2014 it evolves as the study proceeds<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u2014 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Sample<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Large, usually probability-based<\/span>\u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Small, usually purposive<\/span>\u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Types<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Descriptive survey, correlational, causal-comparative (ex post facto)<\/strong>, experimental<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f)<\/strong>, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>Case study, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, narrative<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928, \u0928\u0943\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924, \u0906\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Post-positivist approach<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/strong>Retains the search for objective truth but accepts that all observation is theory-laden and fallible<\/strong>, so knowledge is always provisional. It is the bridge between positivism and interpretivism.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924-\u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Interpretive approach<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/strong>Seeks to understand the meaning participants themselves give<\/strong> to their experience. Reality is socially constructed and multiple. The dominant<\/strong> qualitative approach \u2014 and the natural companion of the constructivist perspective of \u00a71.5.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a71.5 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Critical approach<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/strong>Examines how power, class, caste, gender and ideology<\/strong> shape educational reality \u2014 and aims not merely to describe it but to change<\/strong> it. Emancipatory in purpose.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917, \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f, \u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093e<\/strong> \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u092e\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>The standard distractor<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/span><\/strong>Causal-comparative (ex post facto)<\/strong> research compares groups that already differ, to infer causes after the event. It is quantitative<\/strong>, and is the option inserted as a trap.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f)<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>D. Continuous and discrete variables<\/span>\u0918. \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Continuous variable<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Can take any value<\/strong>, however fine the subdivision \u2014 between any two values another always exists.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u090f\u0915 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Its measurement is always approximate<\/strong> \u2014 a height \"recorded as 150 cm\" really means 149.5 to 150.5 cm. This is the origin of the exact limits<\/strong> of \u00a74.3.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0938\u0928\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \"150 \u0938\u0947\u092e\u0940 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c\" \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 149.5 \u0938\u0947 150.5 \u0938\u0947\u092e\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a74.3 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> age, time, height, weight, temperature, intelligence, achievement scores.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0938\u092e\u092f, \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0930, \u0924\u093e\u092a, \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Represented by the histogram and frequency polygon<\/strong>, whose bars touch.<\/span>\u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u091f\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Discrete (discontinuous) variable<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Takes only separate, whole values<\/strong> \u2014 there is nothing between one value and the next.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Its measurement is exact<\/strong>, because it is a count<\/strong>, not a measure.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> class size<\/strong>, number of pupils, number of schools, number of children in a family \u2014 a class cannot have 34.7 pupils.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u091a\u094d\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 34.7 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Represented by the bar diagram<\/strong>, whose bars are separated by gaps.<\/span>\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Three things this one distinction explains.<\/strong> Why a histogram has no gaps<\/strong> but a bar diagram does (\u00a74.3); why a class written 50\u201359 has exact limits 49.5\u201359.5<\/strong> (\u00a74.3); and why continuity is an assumption of parametric tests<\/strong> (\u00a74.15 A). The examiner's favourite discrete variable is class size<\/strong> placed among age, time and weight.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 (\u00a74.3); 50\u201359 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 49.5\u201359.5<\/strong> \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 (\u00a74.3); \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948<\/strong> (\u00a74.15 \u0915)\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0930\u0916 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>E. Coefficient of Variation<\/span>\u0919. \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Coefficient of variation \u2014 a relative measure of dispersion<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u2014 \u0905\u092a\u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n CV = ( \u03c3 \/ M ) \u00d7 100<\/span>\n CV = ( \u03c3 \/ M ) \u00d7 100<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n The SD, the range and the quartile deviation are all absolute<\/b> measures \u2014 they carry the units of the original scores. Two groups with different means<\/b> therefore cannot be compared on SD alone: an SD of 6 means far more in a group averaging 20 than in one averaging 200. The CV removes the units by expressing the SD as a percentage of its own mean<\/b>. It is therefore the only correct measure when comparing the variability of groups measured on different scales or with widely different averages. The lower the CV, the more consistent \u2014 that is, the less variable \u2014 the group.<\/b><\/span>\n SD, \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/b> \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u0939\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 SD \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940: 6 \u0915\u093e SD 20 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 200 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 CV, SD \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/b> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0964 CV \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u092e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0964<\/b><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 the exam question itself<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n Four sections of 40 pupils each have the following mean marks and standard deviations. Which section shows the lowest variability<\/strong>?<\/span>40-40 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead><tr><th class=\"narrow\">Section<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/span><\/th><th class=\"narrow\">A<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">B<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">C<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">D<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">30<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">SD<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f2fdfa;\"><td class=\"narrow\">CV<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20%<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">30%<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25%<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">32%<\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>A: (6\/30) \u00d7 100 = 20%<\/strong> \u00b7 B: (12\/40) \u00d7 100 = 30% \u00b7 C: (9\/36) \u00d7 100 = 25% \u00b7 D: (8\/25) \u00d7 100 = 32%.<\/span>A: (6\/30) \u00d7 100 = 20%<\/strong> \u00b7 B: (12\/40) \u00d7 100 = 30% \u00b7 C: (9\/36) \u00d7 100 = 25% \u00b7 D: (8\/25) \u00d7 100 = 32%\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Section A<\/strong> has the lowest CV and therefore the lowest variability \u2014 its pupils are the most alike in achievement.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 A<\/strong> \u0915\u093e CV \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>The trap:<\/strong> answering from SD alone would also yield A \u2014 but by accident. Consider the variant in which Section D has SD 5 and mean 25 (CV = 20%) against Section A with SD 6 and mean 30 (CV = 20%): the SDs differ, yet the variability is identical. Always compute the CV.<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0932:<\/strong> \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 SD \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 A \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0935\u0936\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 D \u0915\u093e SD 5 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 25 (CV = 20%) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 A \u0915\u093e SD 6 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 30 (CV = 20%): SD \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0964 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 CV \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>F. Standard Error of Measurement<\/span>\u091a. \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Standard error of measurement \u2014 the margin of error round a single score<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u2014 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3 \u221a( 1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub> )<\/span>\n SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3 \u221a( 1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub> )<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n \u03c3<\/b> = standard deviation of the test scores \u00b7 rtt<\/sub><\/b> = reliability coefficient. This is the true-score model of \u00a72.4 made practical. Since X = T + E<\/b>, the SEm<\/sub> estimates how far an obtained score is likely to stray from the pupil's true score<\/b>. It converts a single mark into a band<\/b>: the true score probably lies within \u00b11 SEm<\/sub><\/b> of the obtained score about 68% of the time, and within \u00b12 SEm<\/sub><\/b> about 95% of the time \u2014 the normal-curve areas of \u00a74.10 applied to error. Read the two relationships carefully.<\/b> The higher the reliability, the smaller<\/b> the standard error (if r = 1, SEm<\/sub> = 0). The larger the spread \u03c3, the larger<\/b> the standard error.<\/span>\n \u03c3<\/b> = \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 rtt<\/sub><\/b> = \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u00a72.4 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f X = T + E<\/b>, SEm<\/sub> \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/b>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940<\/b> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 68% \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u00b11 SEm<\/sub><\/b> \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 95% \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u00b12 SEm<\/sub><\/b> \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a74.10 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/b> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u092e<\/b> (\u092f\u0926\u093f r = 1 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b SEm<\/sub> = 0)\u0964 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u03c3 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940<\/b>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 turning a mark into a band<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n A test has \u03c3 = 10 and reliability 0.84. Ravi obtains 65. Within what band does his true score probably lie?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u03c3 = 10 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e 0.84 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0930\u0935\u093f \u0928\u0947 65 \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e?<\/span><\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>SEm<\/sub> = 10 \u00d7 \u221a(1 \u2212 0.84) = 10 \u00d7 \u221a0.16 = 10 \u00d7 0.4 = 4<\/strong>.<\/span>SEm<\/sub> = 10 \u00d7 \u221a(1 \u2212 0.84) = 10 \u00d7 \u221a0.16 = 10 \u00d7 0.4 = 4<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>At \u00b11 SEm<\/sub>: his true score lies between 61 and 69<\/strong>, with about 68% confidence.<\/span>\u00b11 SEm<\/sub> \u092a\u0930: \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 68% \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 61 \u090f\u0935\u0902 69<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>At \u00b12 SEm<\/sub>: between 57 and 73<\/strong>, with about 95% confidence.<\/span>\u00b12 SEm<\/sub> \u092a\u0930: \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 95% \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 57 \u090f\u0935\u0902 73<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The educational moral.<\/strong> Ravi at 65 and Meera at 68 are not reliably different<\/strong> \u2014 their bands overlap almost entirely. This is the statistical justification for the whole case against fine marking and in favour of grading<\/strong> (\u00a76.3): a difference of three marks is well inside the error of measurement.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/strong> 65 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0930\u0935\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 68 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0940\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> (\u00a76.3) \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948: \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u26a0\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The exact statement examiners test.<\/strong> \"If the spread of marks is large and the reliability is low, then the standard error is also low\" \u2014 this is false<\/strong>. Look at the formula: a large \u03c3 multiplies, and a low r makes \u221a(1 \u2212 r) larger. Both push SEm<\/sub> up<\/strong>. A large spread with low reliability gives the largest<\/strong> standard error of all.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \"\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928, \u0924\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u0940\" \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f: \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u03c3 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 r \u0938\u0947 \u221a(1 \u2212 r) \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 SEm<\/sub> \u0915\u094b \u090a\u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>G. Spearman\u2013Brown Prophecy Formula, general form<\/span>\u091b. \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">For any change of test length<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n rnn<\/sub> = n<\/em> rtt<\/sub> \/ [ 1 + ( n<\/em> \u2212 1 ) rtt<\/sub> ] Solved for n<\/em>: n<\/em> = rnn<\/sub> ( 1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub> ) \/ rtt<\/sub> ( 1 \u2212 rnn<\/sub> )<\/span><\/span>\n rnn<\/sub> = n<\/em> rtt<\/sub> \/ [ 1 + ( n<\/em> \u2212 1 ) rtt<\/sub> ] n<\/em> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0932: n<\/em> = rnn<\/sub> ( 1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub> ) \/ rtt<\/sub> ( 1 \u2212 rnn<\/sub> )<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n rtt<\/sub><\/b> = present reliability \u00b7 rnn<\/sub><\/b> = reliability after the change \u00b7 n<\/b> = number of times the test is lengthened. Put n = 2<\/b> and the first formula collapses exactly to the split-half version of \u00a72.5 \u2014 the split-half case is simply \"the test doubled\". The formula is called a prophecy<\/b> formula because it predicts<\/em> what reliability would become, and it works in both directions: shortening a test (n < 1) lowers reliability.<\/span>\n rtt<\/sub><\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 rnn<\/sub><\/b> = \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 n<\/b> = \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 n = 2<\/b> \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a72.5 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \"\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e\" \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/b> \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/em> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 (n < 1) \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Two Worked Examples \u2014 both directions of the formula<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Forward \u2014 \"what will it become?\"<\/strong> A test of reliability 0.60 is doubled<\/strong> in length. r = (2 \u00d7 0.60)\/[1 + (2 \u2212 1)0.60] = 1.20\/1.60 = 0.75<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0917\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u2014 \"\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u0940?\"<\/strong> 0.60 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 r = (2 \u00d7 0.60)\/[1 + (2 \u2212 1)0.60] = 1.20\/1.60 = 0.75<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Backward \u2014 \"how much longer must it be?\"<\/strong> A test of reliability 0.50 must reach 0.75. n = [0.75(1 \u2212 0.50)] \/ [0.50(1 \u2212 0.75)] = 0.375\/0.125 = 3<\/strong>. The test must be made three times as long<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0917\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u2014 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e?\"<\/strong> 0.50 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b 0.75 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 n = [0.75(1 \u2212 0.50)] \/ [0.50(1 \u2212 0.75)] = 0.375\/0.125 = 3<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>Note the diminishing return.<\/strong> Doubling a test of r = 0.60 gains 0.15; doubling again gains far less. Reliability rises with length but with ever-smaller increments<\/strong>, and it can never reach 1.00. This is why \"make the test longer\" is sound advice only up to a point \u2014 beyond it, fatigue begins to add error of its own.<\/span>\u0939\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/strong> r = 0.60 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 0.15 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u093e\u092d; \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u092e\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u092d\u0940 1.00 \u0924\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \"\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\" \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>H. Effect of adding or multiplying a constant<\/span>\u091c. \u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Operation on every score<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Mean, Median, Mode, Percentiles<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>SD, Variance, Range, QD<\/span>SD, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923, \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938, QD<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Add a constant c<\/em><\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 c<\/em> \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Each increases by c<\/em><\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Unchanged<\/strong><\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Subtract a constant c<\/em><\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 c<\/em> \u0918\u091f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Each decreases by c<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Unchanged<\/strong><\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Multiply by a constant c<\/em><\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Each is multiplied by c<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Each is multiplied by c<\/em> (variance by c<\/em>\u00b2)<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093f\u0924 (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 c<\/em>\u00b2 \u0938\u0947)<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udd0d Why adding a constant leaves the SD untouched<\/span>\ud83d\udd0d \u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 SD \u0905\u091b\u0942\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n The reason is visible in the formula itself. The SD is built from deviations taken from the mean<\/strong>, x = X \u2212 M. If every score X rises by 10, then the mean M also rises by 10 \u2014 so every deviation x is exactly what it was before<\/strong>. \u03a3x\u00b2 is unchanged, and therefore so is \u03c3. Adding a constant slides the whole distribution along the scale without stretching or squeezing it<\/strong>: position changes, spread does not.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 SD \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> x = X \u2212 M \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 X 10 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0947, \u0924\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f M \u092d\u0940 10 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 x \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0925\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u03a3x\u00b2 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u03c3 \u092d\u0940\u0964 \u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0916\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0916\u0940\u0902\u091a\u0947 \u092f\u093e \u0926\u092c\u093e\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e<\/strong>: \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:10px;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The exam question:<\/strong> median 25 and SD 2.5; every item is increased by 10. Answer \u2014 median becomes 35, SD stays 2.5<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928:<\/strong> \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e 25 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 2.5; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 10 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e 35 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, SD 2.5 \u0939\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Where this has already been used.<\/strong> Grace marks added to every candidate change the average but not the spread \u2014 and the whole of \u00a74.12 depends on it, since a Z-score subtracts a constant (M) and then divides by one (\u03c3).<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u094b \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0915\u0943\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u00a74.12 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u091a\u0930 (M) \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u091a\u0930 (\u03c3) \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>I. The interview as a research and evaluation tool<\/span>\u091d. \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n An interview<\/strong> is a purposeful face-to-face interaction<\/strong> in which one person seeks information from another. It differs from ordinary conversation in having a definite purpose<\/strong>, and from the questionnaire in that the investigator is present<\/strong> \u2014 able to probe, clarify, observe expression and reach the illiterate.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0906\u092e\u0928\u0947-\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093e\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0939\u093e\u0935-\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Fixed<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Structured (standardized) interview<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 (\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924) \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n The questions are predetermined and the sequence fixed<\/strong>, and the same wording is put to every respondent. The interviewer may not add, omit or reorder.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0928 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Consequence<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/b>Responses become comparable across candidates<\/strong> and can be quantified, so reliability is high \u2014 this is why selection boards use it. But it cannot follow up an unexpected answer.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u091a\u092f\u0928-\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Free<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Unstructured (non-directive) interview<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 (\u0905\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n Only the topic<\/strong> is fixed. The interviewer has freedom to frame questions and reorder them<\/strong> as the situation demands, following whatever the respondent raises.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0920\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Consequence<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/b>Yields depth, richness and unexpected insight<\/strong> \u2014 the natural tool of qualitative and case-study research. But responses are not comparable<\/strong>, it demands a skilled interviewer, and it is open to his bias.<\/span>\u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908, \u0938\u092e\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u0941\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0906 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Both<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Semi-structured interview<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n A fixed core of questions<\/strong> put to everyone, with freedom to probe<\/strong> beyond them. It combines the comparability of the first with the depth of the second and is the commonest form in educational research.<\/span>\u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>J. Basic skills and their diagnostic sub-tests<\/span>\u091e. \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n \u00a78.3 named the subject areas in which diagnostic tests are built. This is the standard grid pairing each basic skill<\/strong> with the sub-test<\/strong> that diagnoses it \u2014 the form in which the matching question is asked.<\/span>\n \u00a78.3 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u2014 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basic skill<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Diagnostic sub-test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it looks for<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Reading<\/span>\u092a\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Comprehension<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Word recognition, vocabulary, understanding of passages, reading speed<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926-\u092c\u094b\u0927, \u092a\u0920\u0928-\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Language<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Expression<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Spelling, grammar, punctuation, sentence construction, written composition<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0930\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928, \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f-\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Mathematics<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Computation<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0923\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The four operations, place value, fractions, decimals, problem solving<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928, \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928, \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Study skills<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Reading maps, graphs and tables<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u092a\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Using references, locating information, interpreting graphical material, note-taking<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e, \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>K. Two small points that decide whole questions<\/span>\u091f. \u0926\u094b \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Central tendency by scale of measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Nominal \u2192 Mode.<\/strong> Labels cannot be ordered or added, so only the most frequent category is meaningful. Ordinal \u2192 Median.<\/strong> Ranks can be ordered but their intervals are unequal, so a mean is not legitimate. Interval and Ratio \u2192 Mean.<\/strong> Equal intervals make addition and division valid. This follows directly from what each scale permits (\u00a71.7).<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u2192 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 (\u00a71.7)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>The arithmetic of means<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong>Numerical questions on the mean are solved by converting means into totals<\/strong>: total = mean \u00d7 N. Once every group is expressed as a total, the unknown falls out by subtraction. Example:<\/em> mean of four numbers 17.5 \u2192 total 70; mean of the smaller three 15 \u2192 total 45; so the largest = 25. Range 15 \u2192 smallest = 10. Larger three total 70 \u2212 10 = 60, mean = 20<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0939\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u092f\u094b\u0917 = \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u00d7 N\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 17.5 \u2192 \u092f\u094b\u0917 70; \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 15 \u2192 \u092f\u094b\u0917 45; \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 = 25\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 15 \u2192 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 = 10\u0964 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 70 \u2212 10 = 60, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f = 20<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n Section Recap<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0917-\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5 class=\"sub\">The eleven formulae and rules of this section<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/h5>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Point<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Formula or rule<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Parametric assumptions<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/td><td>Normality \u00b7 Randomization \u00b7 Homogeneity of variance \u00b7 Continuity<\/strong><\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Parametric tests<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>t \u00b7 z \u00b7 F \u00b7 ANOVA \u00b7 Pearson's r<\/span>\u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Non-parametric tests<\/span>\u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Chi-square \u00b7 Sign \u00b7 Median \u00b7 Mann\u2013Whitney \u00b7 Spearman's \u03c1<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u00b7 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u00b7 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u00b7 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u2013\u0935\u094d\u0939\u093f\u091f\u0928\u0940 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Probability samples<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/td><td>Simple random \u00b7 Systematic \u00b7 Stratified \u00b7 Cluster<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0917\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Non-probability samples<\/span>\u0905-\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/td><td>Purposive \u00b7 Convenience \u00b7 Quota \u00b7 Snowball<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u00b7 \u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u00b7 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093e \u00b7 \u0939\u093f\u092e\u092a\u093f\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Qualitative approaches<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/td><td>Post-positivist \u00b7 Interpretive \u00b7 Critical (not<\/em> causal-comparative)<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u00b7 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em>)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Discrete variable<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>A count, not a measure \u2014 class size<\/strong> is the standard example<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Coefficient of variation<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>CV = (\u03c3 \/ M) \u00d7 100 \u2014 lower CV = less variable<\/span>\u0915\u092e CV = \u0915\u092e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Standard error of measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/td><td>SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3 \u221a(1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub>) \u2014 higher r, smaller error<\/span>r \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u092e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Spearman\u2013Brown, general<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/td><td>rnn<\/sub> = n r \/ [1 + (n \u2212 1) r] \u00b7 n = rnn<\/sub>(1 \u2212 r) \/ r(1 \u2212 rnn<\/sub>)<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Adding a constant<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/td><td>Position measures rise by c<\/em>; spread measures unchanged<\/strong><\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935-\u092e\u093e\u092a \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Central tendency by scale<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/td><td>Nominal \u2192 Mode \u00b7 Ordinal \u2192 Median \u00b7 Interval\/Ratio \u2192 Mean<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u00b7 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u00b7 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u2192 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc The standard fuller treatments of this material are Garrett<\/strong> and Guilford & Fruchter<\/strong> for the statistics, and Best & Kahn<\/strong> and Koul<\/strong> for the research methodology.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u0948\u0930\u0947\u091f<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092b\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0915\u094d\u091f\u0930<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0932<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"5\" id=\"c5\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 5<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 5<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Referencing and Factors Affecting Scores<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Criterion Referenced Test; Norm Referenced Test; Factors Influencing Test Scores \u2014 Nature of Test, Psychological Factors and Environmental Factors<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-21\">\n 5.1<\/span>\n <h3>Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Tests<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n A raw score by itself is meaningless \u2014 50 out of 80<\/strong> tells us nothing until we decide what to compare it against<\/em>. There are only two possible reference points, and they give the two families of tests.<\/span>\n \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 80 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50<\/strong> \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0939\u092e \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u092f \u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/em>\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n CRT<\/span>\n <h5>Criterion-referenced Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Compares performance against a fixed, pre-declared standard<\/strong> \u2014 the criterion.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u2014 \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Question asked: \"What can this student do?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928: \"\u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Result is reported as mastery \/ non-mastery<\/strong> or \"can solve quadratic equations\".<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923 \/ \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \"\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0918\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are easy enough<\/strong> that most who were taught well will pass; difficulty is not deliberately spread.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u0924\u0930\u0939 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902; \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0908 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>All students can pass<\/strong> \u2014 or all can fail.<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Used in mastery learning, CCE, diagnostic and formative<\/strong> evaluation, driving licence tests.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e, CCE, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u091c\u094d\u091e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n NRT<\/span>\n <h5>Norm-referenced Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Compares performance against the performance of a reference group<\/strong> \u2014 the norm.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Question asked: \"How does this student stand relative to others?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928: \"\u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0916\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Result is reported as a rank, percentile, grade or standard score<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are deliberately spread in difficulty<\/strong> so that scores spread out and individuals can be separated.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u090f<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Someone must always be at the top and at the bottom<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0932 \u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Used in entrance examinations, selection, scholarship and placement<\/strong> decisions.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf The same 50\/80 read two ways<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u0935\u0939\u0940 80 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50, \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>CRT<\/span>\"The pass criterion was 60%. The student scored 62.5% and has therefore attained mastery<\/strong> of the unit.\" \u2014 the class average is irrelevant.<\/span>\"\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 60% \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 62.5% \u092a\u093e\u092f\u093e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0932\u0940\u0964\" \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>NRT<\/span>\"The class average was 68. The student scored 50 and stands at the 25th percentile<\/strong> \u2014 in the bottom quarter of the group.\" \u2014 the criterion is irrelevant.<\/span>\"\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 68 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 50 \u092a\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 25\u0935\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u094c\u0925\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964\" \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Criterion-referenced<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Norm-referenced<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Standard of comparison<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A fixed criterion of performance<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/td><td>The performance of the group<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Purpose<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>To certify mastery and guide remedial teaching<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>To rank, select and discriminate between individuals<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Content coverage<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Narrow and deep \u2014 a limited set of clearly defined objectives<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0939\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/td><td>Broad and shallow \u2014 a wide field sampled thinly<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0925\u0932\u093e \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u0932\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Item difficulty<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Matched to the objective; easy items are retained<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a; \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/td><td>Spread out; very easy and very hard items are dropped<\/span>\u092b\u0948\u0932\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908; \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Score interpretation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Absolute \u2014 pass\/fail, mastery\/non-mastery<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Relative \u2014 percentile, rank, standard score<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u2014 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Typical example<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Unit mastery test; swimming certificate; driving test<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0924\u0948\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930; \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/td><td>NEET, JEE, CTET, university entrance tests<\/span>NEET, JEE, CTET, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Norm-referenced testing<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>61<\/span>Which one of the following is related to the concept of \"Norm-referenced testing\"?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Comparing a student\u2019s performance with a predetermined standard<\/li>\n <li>(b) Comparing a student\u2019s performance with the performance of other students<\/li>\n <li>(c) Comparing a student\u2019s performance with the curriculum objectives<\/li>\n <li>(d) Comparing a student\u2019s performance with the teacher\u2019s expectations<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> Norm-referenced testing compares the pupil with the group \u2014 the norm. Option (a) describes criterion-referenced testing, the distinction that decides whether all pupils can pass.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0915) \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a75.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-5\">\n 5.2<\/span>\n <h3>Factors Influencing Test Scores<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What a standardized test score actually is<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n A standardized test score is an indication of how much knowledge a child has accumulated and can put down on paper on a certain day within a limited time frame<\/strong>. That is all it is: an indication.<\/strong> There are many additional factors \u2014 some of them more important \u2014 that a teacher must consider before assigning a mark or deciding on placement: the quality of daily work, contribution to projects, responsibility about homework, and attitude towards school<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0907\u0938 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092c\u0938 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939: \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924\u0964<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f: \u0926\u0948\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u0926\u093e\u0928, \u0917\u0943\u0939\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Nature of the test<\/span>\u0915. \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n \n One factor influencing a score is the student's own knowledge, understanding or ability in the subject matter<\/strong> \u2014 this affects that student's score alone<\/strong>. But the following factors influence the scores of all students, more or less equally<\/strong>, and are therefore properties of the test rather than of the pupil.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Factor<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it distorts the score<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Difficulty level of the examination<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>It is not possible to judge the exact difficulty level of a question at the time of its construction<\/strong>. It may turn out so difficult that hardly a few students pass<\/strong> \u2014 should the whole class then fail? Or so easy that more than 75% get distinction<\/strong> \u2014 should everyone then get very high scores? Some adjustment has to be made while assigning the final marks.<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092e\u0941\u0936\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0924\u094b \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b? \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0907\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0915\u093f 75% \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947 \u2014 \u0924\u094b \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092c\u0915\u094b \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0902? \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Nature of the group tested<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>In one school the level of students may be high compared with another<\/strong>. This affects the difficulty level of a question for that particular group<\/strong> \u2014 the same paper is not the same test for two different groups.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Instructional effectiveness<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The level of teaching may vary from one school to another<\/strong>; the teaching impact on learning varies accordingly, which in turn affects the difficulty level of an examination from school to school<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0926\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Miscalculation of the time limit<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>If the paper setter makes a wrong guess about the total time required<\/strong>, he may set more questions than can be attempted<\/strong> in the span allowed. Should the marks of all students be lowered because the paper setter guessed wrongly? Certainly not.<\/strong><\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0932\u0917\u093e\u090f \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901? \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Sampling inadequacies<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>To what extent do the questions adequately cover the prescribed course content<\/strong>? This affects marks especially in essay-type questions, which are usually few in number and do not ensure good coverage<\/strong>. Inadequate coverage in testing \u2014 or even in teaching \u2014 affects the raw score, which ultimately affects many decisions<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u2014 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>B. Psychological factors<\/span>\u0916. \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Anxiety.<\/strong> Some children \"freeze\" in a testing situation<\/strong>, unable to focus or concentrate long enough to give a true picture of their actual knowledge. This is especially true when parents are stressed about the test and have pressured the child to do well<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \"\u091c\u0921\u093c\" \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u0924\u092c \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935 \u0921\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0939\u094b<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Physical health.<\/strong> A child may be coming down with the flu, have a headache or sore throat, or be overtired<\/strong>; he may have slept in, missed breakfast and be hungry<\/strong>. All of these affect test performance.<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094d\u0935\u0930 \u0906 \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0938\u093f\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0926 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u0932\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0926 \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0925\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b; \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u0947\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u094b\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0928\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0924\u093e \u091b\u0942\u091f \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0914\u0930 \u092d\u0942\u0916\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u0938\u092c \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Emotional health.<\/strong> The student may be upset because parents are in the midst of separation or divorce<\/strong>, a close relative is seriously ill<\/strong>, or he is witness to an ongoing abusive relationship at home<\/strong>; he may equally be excited and distracted by an upcoming holiday, birthday or sleepover<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092f\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0939-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u091a\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0918\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b; \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0906\u0917\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0936, \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0926\u093f\u0928 \u092f\u093e \u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0947\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Cultural differences.<\/strong> Children from a different culture may have a problem understanding the content of questions or situations appearing in the tests<\/strong> \u2014 for example, Jewish or Muslim children might have trouble with questions centring on Christmas or Easter<\/strong>. This is precisely the cultural bias<\/strong> that \u00a77.7 requires to be removed at the item-writing stage.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/strong> \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939\u0942\u0926\u0940 \u092f\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0932\u093f\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0938 \u092f\u093e \u0908\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u00a77.7 \u092a\u0926-\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Economic differences.<\/strong> Children from homes where money is scarce are disadvantaged in many ways<\/strong>. As well as lacking proper nourishment<\/strong>, they may never have been to a farm, a zoo or a circus<\/strong>; any reference to these or other sites familiar to most students will puzzle them and negatively affect their scores<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u0918\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0916\u0947\u0924, \u091a\u093f\u0921\u093c\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0918\u0930 \u092f\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0938 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0917\u090f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0907\u0928 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u091d\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>C. Environmental factors<\/span>\u0917. \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 The critical period, and fluid intelligence<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0930\u0932 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/div>\n Neurobiological theory holds that the development of a human's various forms of intelligence usually ends by the age of 16<\/strong>, when a critical point<\/strong> is reached; after this point of intellectual maturity, IQ is thought to be relatively stable<\/strong>. The environment has its biggest effect in determining fluid intelligence up to that critical point<\/strong>. Fluid intelligence<\/strong> is the ability to think logically in verbal and spatial terms and to detect patterns<\/strong>. For a person to develop certain intellectual abilities, they must be provided with the appropriate environmental stimuli during childhood, before the critical period for adapting neuronal connections ends<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u091c\u0948\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092e\u0928\u0941\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 16 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u0906 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0935\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0907\u0938 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d IQ \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0909\u0938 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0924\u0915 \u0924\u0930\u0932 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0924\u0930\u0932 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935, \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The environmental factors named as affecting test performance are: modern media, education, breast feeding, womb conditions, nutrition, pollution, nurture and parenting, prejudices and self-belief, national culture, head injuries, sleep problems, drug and alcohol abuse, mental illnesses, stress and diseases<\/strong>. Of these, modern media<\/strong> is singled out for comment: television, film, computer games, electronic gadgets, the internet and software give people a cognitive workout each time they participate<\/strong>, since games, software and gadgets require great analytical effort<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u092f\u0947 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0928\u092a\u093e\u0928, \u0917\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093e\u0936\u092f\u0940 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0942\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u093e\u0932\u0928-\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938, \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u093f\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u094b\u091f\u0947\u0902, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092e\u093e\u0926\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0926\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u094b\u0917, \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940 \u0939\u0948: \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928, \u091a\u0932\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0916\u0947\u0932, \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0928\u0947\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0949\u092b\u093c\u094d\u091f\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093e\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0916\u0947\u0932, \u0938\u0949\u092b\u093c\u094d\u091f\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n How to organise this in an answer, and what it connects to.<\/strong> Present the three groups in the order the syllabus names them \u2014 nature of test, psychological, environmental<\/strong> \u2014 and note the logical distinction that holds them together: factors in the first group affect all examinees roughly equally and are therefore properties of the instrument<\/strong>, correctable by moderation and by the item analysis of \u00a73.9; factors in the second and third groups vary from examinee to examinee<\/strong> and constitute error variance<\/strong>, which is precisely what depresses the reliability coefficient of \u00a72.4. Stating that link \u2014 these factors are the concrete content of the abstract term 'error of measurement'<\/strong> \u2014 is what turns a memorised list into an argument.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0949\u0921\u0930\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940-\u0926\u0930-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u00a72.4 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 '\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f' \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"6\" id=\"c6\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 6<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 6<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Evaluation Systems, Marking and Grading<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Integrated Approach of Evaluation; Marking System \u2014 Need, Problems and Components; Grading \u2014 Need, Problems, Components and Methods; Methods of Feedback for Students<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e; \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u2014 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0915; \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-0\">\n 6.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The preceding units treated evaluation as something done to a pupil<\/em> \u2014 a test constructed, administered, scored and interpreted. This unit widens the frame. Evaluation of the pupil is inseparable from evaluation of the curriculum, the programme and the institution<\/strong>; the marks that result must be communicated through a defensible system<\/strong>; and the communication is worthless unless it returns to the learner as feedback that tells him what to do next<\/strong>. Those three concerns \u2014 integration, marking and feedback \u2014 form this unit, together with the two questions that hang over every score ever awarded: what makes it continuous rather than terminal, and what other than knowledge influenced it<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0930\u091a\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f; \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0901\u0921\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-1\">\n 6.1<\/span>\n <h3>Integrated Approach of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 The three components every evaluation must contain<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n Evaluation theorists and practising evaluators emphasise three key components of evaluation: (a) the process of gathering information; (b) forming judgments about the worth of the phenomena; and (c) using judgments for taking educational decisions.<\/strong> These three steps apply whether what is being evaluated is a curriculum, a programme or the learner<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: (\u0915) \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e; (\u0916) \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e; \u0924\u0925\u093e (\u0917) \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u092c \u092d\u0940 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u092c \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The argument for integration runs as follows. Pupil evaluation is dependent on the programmes undertaken to transact the curriculum<\/strong>, which in turn have impact on pupils' achievement. Pupils' learning is also conditioned by the learning milieu of the school<\/strong> \u2014 its plant facilities, services, personnel, money, material and social environment. Curriculum transaction, programme effects and pupils' learning are therefore all commensurate with institutional effectiveness<\/strong>. Hence the emerging demand on today's evaluators is to integrate pupils' evaluation with curriculum evaluation, programme evaluation and institutional self-evaluation<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0935\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0938\u0947\u0935\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0915, \u0927\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0906\u091c \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092d\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Curriculum evaluation<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Four components must each be evaluated: (a) curriculum objectives, (b) curriculum content, (c) curriculum process and methodology of teaching and learning, and (d) outcomes of learning<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915: (\u0915) \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, (\u0916) \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, (\u0917) \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093f, \u0924\u0925\u093e (\u0918) \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Programme evaluation<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong>The programmes undertaken to transact the curriculum<\/strong> \u2014 their design, resourcing and effect on achievement.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Institutional self-evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong>A planned and organised inquiry carried out by the staff, students and principal<\/strong> into the total effectiveness of institutional operations<\/strong>, to find adequacies and inadequacies on the basis of which teaching, learning and assessment can be improved.<\/span>\u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Pupil evaluation<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong>The subject of Units 1 to 5 \u2014 but now understood as one component of a larger whole<\/strong> rather than a self-contained activity.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0938\u0947 5 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092c \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc Institutional Self-Evaluation is not the same as CCE<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 CCE \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n In the Indian context, institutional self-evaluation is a form of school-based evaluation, usually called Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation<\/strong> \u2014 but it cannot be equated with CCE<\/strong>. CCE refers to the concept, model, assessment procedure, tools of measurement, marking, grading and reporting of subject-wise results to pupils<\/strong>. The distinction is one of focus: the focus of CCE is on pupils' assessment and their improvement; the focus of ISE is on school effectiveness \u2014 assessing the institution as a whole, not pupils alone<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 CCE \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 CCE \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0936\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928, \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/strong>\u0964 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948: CCE \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948; ISE \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n ISE thus aims at determining the efforts, efficiency and effectiveness of the institution<\/strong>, covering pupils' attainments, teachers' instructional impact, the learning milieu, utilisation of resources<\/strong> and all conditions that contribute to or hinder school processes. It fits into the formative\u2013summative model of Scriven (1972)<\/strong>, and may be undertaken annually or every two to three years<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u0903 ISE \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938, \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0927\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0928 (1972) \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u2013\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0926\u094b-\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>The four essential characteristics of institutional self-evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>A pluralistic approach to institutional analysis and review<\/strong> \u2014 identify the institutional clientele (students, teachers, administrators, parents) who are ready to participate, and let the participants themselves identify specific problems and suggest solutions<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0932\u094b\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0939\u093f\u0924\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 (\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915) \u0915\u094b \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u094b \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Using psychometric and descriptive approaches<\/strong> for data collection and processing \u2014 open discussion among participant observers, emotional interaction of parents and community, extensive data collection and interpretation, and research support.<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Using humanistic illuminative evaluation<\/strong> \u2014 the views and concerns of all stakeholders<\/strong>: principal, staff, students and auxiliary staff; alumni, employers and receiving colleges; the managing committee, community and PTA representatives; and curriculum and evaluation experts for technical knowhow, not for judgment<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u093f\u0924\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940; \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 PTA \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Using reports and documentary evidence<\/strong> \u2014 the analysis of inspectors' and supervisors' visitation reports over the years, alongside the institution's own records.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The sentence that carries the whole section.<\/strong> Since pupils' evaluation is dependent on curriculum intentions or restrictions, pupil evaluation and curriculum evaluation are closely related<\/strong> \u2014 a poor score may indicate a poor learner, but it may equally indicate an unsuitable objective, an inaccurate content selection, or an ineffective method<\/strong>. The integrated approach exists precisely so that the system examines itself before it condemns the child<\/strong>, which is the same principle met at \u00a73.9 in item analysis and again in the no-detention reasoning of educational law.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0918\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u0905\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0937\u0940 \u0920\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0947<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u0947\u0927 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-2\">\n 6.2<\/span>\n <h3>Marking System: Need, Problems and Components<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940: \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What a marking system is<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Marks and marking systems are deeply embedded in the educational culture<\/strong> \u2014 marks are performance indicators<\/strong>, and they have become the basis of decisions for promotion, selection, employment and teacher evaluation<\/strong>. A marking system is basically a system of communication<\/strong>. If teachers do not assign marks in conformity with the policies reflecting the system, the marks lose their significance and the system fails to serve its function<\/strong>. The degree to which marks have the same meaning for all who use them<\/strong> is what makes the communication meaningful \u2014 and since the marks of one institution concern teachers of other schools and institutions, the meaning of each mark must be clearly defined<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928 \u091a\u0941\u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0916\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Absolute marking<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Numerical marks in terms of percentage, varying from zero to 100.<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 100 \u0924\u0915\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Called absolute<\/strong> precisely because a student's mark is independent of other students' marks<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-divider\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Letter marking<\/span>\u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Based on the use of a small number of letter marks<\/strong> \u2014 often five: A, B, C, D and F<\/strong> \u2014 to express various levels of performance.<\/span>\u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a: A, B, C, D \u090f\u0935\u0902 F<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Leads naturally into the grading systems of \u00a76.3<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u00a76.3 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Need of the marking system \u2014 by whose need<\/span>\u0915. \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Whose need<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What the marks are needed for<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Students<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\">\n <li>To know their present performance and rate of progress<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f-\u0926\u0930<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To know their adequacies and inadequacies in learning<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To compare their performance with their classmates<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To know their potentials and limitations in various subject areas<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Parents<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\">\n <li>To know whether their ward is progressing satisfactorily in the class<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0937\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To be alerted if some problems are developing<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0938\u091a\u0947\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To help them plan for the future of their child<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To know how to use marks on standardised test scores for decision making<\/strong> about further education.<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Teachers<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\">\n <li>To know in general the performance of students in terms of syllabus tested<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To identify the areas of weakness for remedial teaching<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To judge the effectiveness of their instruction<\/strong> on the basis of students' performance.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To find out if certain topics or concepts in the curriculum are beyond the students' level<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092f\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0947<\/strong> \u0924\u094b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Administrators<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\">\n <li>To compare inter-school performance<\/strong> of students.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To judge whether tests from different schools compare well in terms of instructional objectives tested<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To ensure that the intended learning outcomes are being tested properly<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To maintain inter-subject and intra-school parity of performance standards<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903-\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>B. The three technical questions in marking<\/span>\u0916. \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \u2696\ufe0f These three questions must be answered before<\/strong> any mark is awarded. A marking system that has not settled them is producing numbers whose meaning nobody can state.<\/span>\n \u2696\ufe0f \u0907\u0928 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n What should a mark be based on?<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b?<\/span><\/strong>\n Should it be an appraisal of competence in a curriculum portion<\/strong>? Should it be modified by other factors<\/strong> \u2014 amount of work completed, neatness, legibility, oral expression, scholastic aptitude? Should it be judged by a common standard or in relation to the student's own potential<\/strong>? And what type of tests, exercises or behaviours<\/strong> would provide the evidence the mark is to represent?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b? \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e? \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong>? \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0902\u0917\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0947?<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n How should different components be weighted?<\/span>\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b?<\/span><\/strong>\n Three measures govern: validity<\/strong> \u2014 what the indicator actually provides and the faithfulness with which it reflects it; reliability<\/strong> \u2014 the more the errors of measurement, the less the weight, giving highest reliability to objective tests, less to essay type and lowest to orals<\/strong>; and effective weight<\/strong>, which is determined by the standard deviation<\/strong> of each component, not by the nominal maximum marks.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e, \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093e\u092e\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n How many categories should be used?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902?<\/span><\/strong>\n Reporting may use 2 categories (pass\u2013fail, mastery\u2013non-mastery), 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, or up to 100<\/strong>. As the number of categories increases, the number of borderline decisions increases correspondingly \u2014 but each decision becomes less crucial<\/strong> for the student's total academic record. There is thus a trade-off between increased frequency of potential error and decreased importance of that error<\/strong>, and the number of categories is related to the reliability of marking<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 2 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 (\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\u2013\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e\u2013\u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e), 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e 100 \u0924\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u094c\u0926\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 effective weight is fixed by the SD, not by the maximum marks<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, SD \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>A teacher combines a test<\/strong> (M = 60, \u03c3 = 10) with a term paper<\/strong> (M = 3.0, \u03c3 = 0.5 on a 5-point scale), intending the test to carry twice<\/strong> the weight of the paper.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> (M = 60, \u03c3 = 10) \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> (M = 3.0, \u03c3 = 0.5, 5-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930) \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>If the marks are combined as they stand<\/strong>, the ratio of the standard deviations is 10 : 0.5, so the test would have twenty times<\/strong> the effect of the paper on the combined score \u2014 ten times more than intended.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902-\u0915\u0947-\u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0924\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 10 : 0.5 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u0938 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0938 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Multiply the term-paper score by 10<\/strong>. Its mean becomes 3.0 \u00d7 10 = 30<\/strong> and its SD becomes 0.5 \u00d7 10 = 5.0<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b 10<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 3.0 \u00d7 10 = 30<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e SD 0.5 \u00d7 10 = 5.0<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The two standard deviations now stand at 10 and 5 \u2014 a ratio of 2 : 1<\/strong>, with means of 60 and 30. The test now carries exactly twice<\/strong> the effective weight, as intended. The lesson: a component's influence on a combined score is governed by its standard deviation, not by the marks nominally allotted to it<\/strong> \u2014 which is why \u00a74.4 B insisted that variability be understood before scores are ever combined.<\/span>\u0905\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 10 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 2 : 1<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 60 \u090f\u0935\u0902 30\u0964 \u0905\u092c \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092f\u0939: \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u00a74.4 \u0916 \u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Advantages of a marking system<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Provides a precise, quantitative and easily communicated record<\/strong> of performance.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Permits comparison across students, subjects, schools and years<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Supplies the basis for promotion, selection, employment and award decisions<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Enables the teacher to identify weaknesses for remedial teaching<\/strong> and to judge instructional effectiveness.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Problems of a marking system<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Marks lose their significance when teachers do not apply the system's policies consistently<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u092c \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0916\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The same mark carries different meanings in different institutions<\/strong>, defeating the communication purpose.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A single mark conceals what it is composed of<\/strong> \u2014 achievement, neatness, effort and aptitude may all be silently mixed into it.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0918\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092c \u092e\u094c\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Combining components without regard to their standard deviations<\/strong> silently distorts the intended weighting, as the worked example above shows.<\/span>\u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u094c\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Fine-grained scales multiply borderline decisions<\/strong> and depend on a marking reliability that essay and oral components rarely possess.<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-4\">\n 6.3<\/span>\n <h3>Trends in Evaluation: Grading, Credit System and Cumulative Record Card<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Grading<\/span>\u0915. \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What grading is and why it came<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0906\u0908<\/span><\/div>\n Grading<\/strong> is the practice of reporting achievement in broad categories or letter symbols \u2014 A, B, C, D, E<\/strong> \u2014 instead of exact numerical marks. It arose from a simple recognition: the marks system claims a precision it does not possess<\/strong>. A difference of one mark between two candidates is well within the error of measurement described in \u00a72.4, yet under a marks system it can decide a merit position, a scholarship or an admission.<\/span>\n \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u2014 A, B, C, D, E<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0908: \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u00a72.4 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Absolute Grading<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Grades are fixed by predetermined ranges of marks<\/strong> \u2014 90\u2013100 = A, 80\u201389 = B, and so on.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u2014 90\u2013100 = A, 80\u201389 = B, \u0907\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Performance is judged against a fixed standard<\/strong>, not against other pupils.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>All pupils may get A, or all may fail<\/strong> \u2014 this is criterion-referenced<\/strong> grading (\u00a75.1).<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 A \u092a\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0939\u0948 (\u00a75.1)\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Weakness: it depends entirely on the difficulty of the paper<\/strong>, which varies from year to year.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e: \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937-\u0926\u0930-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Relative Grading (grading on the curve)<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 (\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917)<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Grades are fixed by the pupil's position in the group<\/strong>, using \u03c3-distances from the mean.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A fixed percentage of pupils<\/strong> gets each grade, following the normal curve of \u00a74.10.<\/span>\u00a74.10 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Someone must always get the top grade and someone the bottom \u2014 this is norm-referenced<\/strong> grading.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0905\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Weakness: a pupil's grade depends on who else happened to sit the examination<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e: \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Merits of grading<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Removes the false precision<\/strong> of a single mark and acknowledges the error of measurement<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u091d\u0942\u0920\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Ends the cut-throat competition<\/strong> for one extra mark and the tyranny of the merit list<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0918\u093e\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reduces examination stress<\/strong> and unhealthy rivalry<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Broad categories are more reliable<\/strong> than exact marks, since small errors do not shift the grade<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easier for parents and pupils to understand<\/strong> and act on<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Fits CCE<\/strong> and the assessment of non-scholastic areas, where exact marks are meaningless<\/span>CCE<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Recommended by the Kothari Commission, NPE 1986, NCF 2005<\/strong> and NEP 2020<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0920\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917, NPE 1986, NCF 2005<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits of grading<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>There is a loss of information<\/strong> \u2014 a pupil at 89 and one at 80 receive the same B<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 89 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 80 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 B \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Pupils just below a grade boundary<\/strong> feel unfairly treated, and the boundary itself is arbitrary<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0930\u0939 \u0917\u090f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Under relative grading a pupil's grade depends on the strength of his batch<\/strong>, not on his own learning<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0948\u091a \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Employers and higher institutions often demand marks<\/strong> for selection, forcing a reconversion<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Can reduce motivation<\/strong> among high achievers, since further effort earns no visible reward within the band<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a-\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Requires teacher training<\/strong> and moderation, without which grading becomes as arbitrary as marking.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. The Credit System<\/span>\u0916. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n A credit<\/strong> is a unit measuring the volume of learning<\/strong> in a course, normally reckoned as one credit for one hour of theory or two hours of practical work per week through a semester<\/strong>. Achievement is expressed as a grade point<\/strong>, and the two are combined into an average.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u094b \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">SGPA and CGPA<\/span>SGPA \u090f\u0935\u0902 CGPA<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n SGPA = \u03a3 ( Credit \u00d7 Grade Point ) \/ \u03a3 Credits CGPA = the same, computed across all<\/em> semesters<\/span><\/span>\n SGPA = \u03a3 ( \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u00d7 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 ) \/ \u03a3 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f CGPA = \u0935\u0939\u0940, \u0938\u092d\u0940<\/em> \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Notice that this is a weighted mean<\/b> \u2014 the very statistic of \u00a74.4, with credits acting as the weights. A four-credit paper therefore counts twice as heavily as a two-credit paper, which is the whole point of the system. The Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)<\/b> adds to this a structure of core, elective and foundation courses<\/b>, so that a student can build his own combination; and the Academic Bank of Credit<\/b> under NEP 2020 lets those credits be stored and transferred between institutions.<\/span>\n \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a74.4 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0907\u0938 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u092e (CBCS)<\/b> \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0930, \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902<\/b> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947; \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0915\u093e\u0926\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/b> \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 computing SGPA<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 SGPA \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Paper<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Credits (C)<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f (C)<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Grade<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Grade Point (G)<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 (G)<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">C \u00d7 G<\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Paper I<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 I<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">A<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Paper II<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 II<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">B<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">32<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Paper III<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 III<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">C<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">14<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Practical<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">A<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">18<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Total<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">100<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>\u03a3(C \u00d7 G) = 36 + 32 + 14 + 18 = 100<\/strong>; \u03a3C = 12<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03a3(C \u00d7 G) = 36 + 32 + 14 + 18 = 100<\/strong>; \u03a3C = 12<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>SGPA = 100 \/ 12 = 8.33<\/strong><\/span>SGPA = 100 \/ 12 = 8.33<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Note that the simple average of the four grade points would be (9+8+7+9)\/4 = 8.25. The SGPA is higher because the heavier four-credit papers carried the better grades<\/strong> \u2014 which is exactly what weighting is meant to capture.<\/span>\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0914\u0938\u0924 (9+8+7+9)\/4 = 8.25 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964 SGPA \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947 \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. The Cumulative Record Card<\/span>\u0917. \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n A cumulative record card (CRC)<\/strong> is a permanent, continuously maintained record of all significant information about a pupil<\/strong> \u2014 personal, physical, academic, social and psychological \u2014 gathered year after year throughout his school career<\/strong>. Where a mark sheet is a photograph of one moment, the CRC is a film of the whole journey<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 (CRC)<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940, \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937-\u0926\u0930-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 CRC \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u0932\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel neu\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u25b8<\/span>What it contains<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Identifying data<\/strong> \u2014 name, date of birth, address, parentage<\/span>\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0928\u093e\u092e, \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0925\u093f, \u092a\u0924\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Home background<\/strong> \u2014 parents' occupation and education, siblings, socio-economic condition<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092d\u093e\u0908-\u092c\u0939\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915-\u0906\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Health record<\/strong> \u2014 height, weight, vision, hearing, illnesses<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u2014 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0930, \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923, \u0930\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Academic record<\/strong> \u2014 marks or grades, attendance, promotion, subjects<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921, \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Test results<\/strong> \u2014 intelligence, aptitude, interest, personality (\u00a710.2, \u00a710.3)<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 (\u00a710.2, \u00a710.3)<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Co-curricular achievement<\/strong> \u2014 games, arts, NCC, NSS<\/span>\u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0916\u0947\u0932, \u0915\u0932\u093e, NCC, NSS<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Behavioural notes<\/strong> \u2014 anecdotal records, habits, special traits<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0906\u0926\u0924\u0947\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Guidance given<\/strong> and the pupil's own stated aims.<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel neu\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u25b8<\/span>Its uses<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Gives a comprehensive picture of the whole child<\/strong>, not merely his marks \u2014 the \"comprehensive\" of CCE made concrete<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 CCE \u0915\u093e \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Enables the teacher to see growth over time<\/strong> and to spot a sudden decline early<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0915\u0938\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0917\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0935\u091f \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Provides the evidence base for educational and vocational guidance<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Helps in diagnosing<\/strong> persistent difficulty by showing when it began<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u092c \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Passes information on when the pupil changes class, teacher or school<\/strong><\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Assists in writing testimonials and recommendations<\/strong> honestly<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Helps the school communicate with parents<\/strong> on evidence rather than impression<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Is the direct ancestor of the holistic progress card<\/strong> of NEP 2020.<\/span>NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-3\">\n 6.4<\/span>\n <h3>Methods of Feedback for Students<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What feedback is<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Feedback refers to the information teachers give to learners about their performance on an assessment.<\/strong> If the teacher's role is seen as that of a facilitator of learning<\/strong>, then assessment feedback becomes an opportunity for children to learn<\/strong> \u2014 which means it must provide constructive comments, suggestions on where the learner may improve, and acknowledgement of the learning and thinking already shown<\/strong>. Feedback may be written or verbal<\/strong>, and should address both how to improve and the effort made<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0936\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0924\u094b \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Positive feedback \u2014 what to do<\/span>\u0938\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Suggests to learners what they might do to improve<\/strong>. Examples given in the literature: \"I can see that you have tried very hard on this task.\"<\/em><\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923: \"\u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901 \u0915\u093f \u0906\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"You have been seriously thinking about this topic.\"<\/em><\/span>\"\u0906\u092a \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Try writing this sentence so it is clear that you are disagreeing with the author.\"<\/em><\/span>\"\u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b \u0915\u093f \u0906\u092a \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"You have not included any labels for the diagram, check your exercise book if you are having trouble.\"<\/em><\/span>\"\u0906\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e; \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-divider\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Negative feedback \u2014 what to avoid<\/span>\u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Usually does not help learners and should be avoided<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Makes learners feel unsuccessful, ashamed and unable to do the work<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0938\u092b\u0932, \u0932\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Instead of motivating, it tends to push learners away from accomplishing the desired tasks<\/strong>, and may hurt some children deeply<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0927\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0917\u0939\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u094b\u091f<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Expressions to avoid: \"Pull up your socks!\" \"You can do better.\" \"You have been lazy.\"<\/em><\/span>\u092c\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: \"\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u0930 \u0915\u0938\u093f\u090f!\" \"\u0906\u092a \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\" \"\u0906\u092a \u0906\u0932\u0938\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u23f1\ufe0f Feedback must be timely<\/span>\u23f1\ufe0f \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/div>\n Learners should get back their assignments and projects with the feedback soon after they have handed them in<\/strong>. If a teacher waits too long to mark and hand back<\/strong> the work, the learners may not show much interest in the feedback, or may forget things about the work they did<\/strong> \u2014 and the feedback, however well written, then teaches nothing.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0935\u093e\u092a\u0938 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u092a\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0932\u0902\u092c<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0902, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0924\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0942\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u092c \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923, \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>The levels at which student feedback operates<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Lecturer<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>An individual lecturer or class<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n The class teacher looks for endorsement of the teaching approach<\/strong>, but also for guidance on what worked, what did not, and how it might be improved next time<\/strong> \u2014 and may be more interested in how far the students understood what was taught than whether they liked it<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e, \u0928 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926 \u0906\u092f\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Module<\/span>\u092e\u0949\u0921\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0932<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>A module or unit<\/span>\u092e\u0949\u0921\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/h5>\n Feedback on a discrete teaching block, allowing revision of that block before it is taught again.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0916\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Programme<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>A course or programme<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/h5>\n The programme team looks for evidence that learning objectives had been met and that the programme as a whole cohered<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u0926\u0932 \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Institution<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Departmental, institutional and beyond<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940\u092f, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/span><\/h5>\n Committees examine feedback alongside a range of quality indicators<\/strong>, with interest in trend data, comparisons between programmes<\/strong>, and in using feedback to understand data from other sources \u2014 a higher than expected drop-out rate, or criticism by an external examiner<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u2014 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f-\u0926\u0930, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f The failure mode: feedback as ritual<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a: \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n There is a real possibility that the purposes of the exercise have been lost in time<\/strong> \u2014 that it has become just another of the institution's rituals<\/strong>, that engagement has become largely an act of compliance<\/strong>, that feedback is collected but little is done with it<\/strong>, and that those involved see little point in it and have few expectations that change will occur<\/strong>. Where such a situation occurs, there is little point in collecting feedback data at all<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0907\u0938 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0916\u094b \u0917\u090f \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0921 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u093f \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0930\u0939 \u0917\u0908 \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0943\u0939\u0940\u0924 \u0924\u094b \u0939\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0928 \u091c\u093e\u090f<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0932\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0928 \u0939\u094b<\/strong>\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0939\u094b, \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923-\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n The remedy proposed is discussion about the purposes of student feedback \u2014 at suitable intervals, to check that purposes have not changed<\/strong> \u2014 including all who are involved: those providing data, those analysing and interpreting it, and those using it<\/strong>. The purposes of the users<\/strong> will have primacy.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u2014 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930, \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0932\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902: \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"7\" id=\"c7\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 7<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 7<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Examination Reform and Technology<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Semester System vs Annual System; Continuous Assessment; Portfolio Assessment; Question Bank; Use of Computer in Evaluation<\/span>\n \u0938\u0947\u092e\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940; \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915; \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-0\">\n 7.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Unit 2 dealt with tests of what the pupil has learnt<\/strong>. This unit turns to tests of what the pupil is<\/strong> \u2014 the psychological tests<\/strong> that measure intelligence, attitude, aptitude, interest and personality.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 2 \u0928\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0915\u0940\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n A psychological test<\/strong> is \"an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour\"<\/strong> (Anne Anastasi)<\/em>. Two words carry the weight: the measurement is of a sample<\/strong> of behaviour, never of the whole person; and it is standardized<\/strong>, so that the same procedure is followed for everyone.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\"<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 (\u0910\u0928 \u090f\u0928\u093e\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0938\u0940)<\/em>\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Because psychological measurement is indirect and relative<\/strong> \u2014 as \u00a71.1 established \u2014 every such test is inferential: we observe responses and infer<\/strong> the trait behind them. This is why the qualities of \u00a72.1 matter more here than anywhere else.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0939\u092e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u00a72.1 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n The second half of the unit turns from the instrument<\/strong> to the institution<\/strong> \u2014 the examination system as it stands, its defects, and the three reforms most discussed in India: examination reform generally, the open book examination and the semester system<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0927 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930, \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-4\">\n 7.1<\/span>\n <h3>Examination System: Current Strategies<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n An examination<\/strong> is the formal, institutional form of evaluation \u2014 the point at which the school's private judgement becomes a public certificate<\/strong>. \u00a71.8 listed fourteen purposes it serves. This section asks the harder question: how well does the present system actually serve them?<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u091c\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a71.8 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u094c\u0926\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Features of the present examination system<\/span>\u0915. \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is largely external and terminal<\/strong> \u2014 a single public examination at the end of the year or course decides the pupil's fate.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is dominated by the essay-type written paper<\/strong>, with the defects of low objectivity and poor content sampling set out in \u00a79.1.<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u00a79.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It tests almost only the cognitive domain<\/strong>, and within that mainly the lowest level \u2014 knowledge and recall<\/strong> \u2014 leaving the affective and psychomotor domains of \u00a73.1 untouched.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a73.1 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u091b\u0942\u0924\u0947 \u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is norm-referenced and competitive<\/strong>: marks, divisions and merit lists rank pupils against one another rather than against a standard.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Recent decades have brought counter-currents \u2014 CCE, grading in place of marks, internal assessment, semesterization, the credit system and question banks<\/strong> \u2014 but these coexist with, rather than replace, the older pattern.<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0936\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0906\u0908 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 CCE, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091a\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>B. Defects of the present examination system<\/span>\u0916. \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Low validity<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>It measures memory rather than understanding, application or the higher abilities the syllabus claims to develop.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u091d, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Low reliability<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>The same script marked by different examiners \u2014 or by the same examiner on a different day \u2014 receives different marks.<\/span>\u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u2014 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Poor sampling<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/strong>A handful of questions cannot represent a year's syllabus, so success depends partly on the luck of the paper.<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u091f\u094d\u0920\u0940 \u092d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0939\u0926 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Encourages cramming<\/span>\u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Question-spotting, guide books and selective study are rational responses to a predictable, memory-based paper.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0905\u091f\u0915\u0932, \u0915\u0941\u0902\u091c\u0940-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0947\u092f, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Examination anxiety<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>A single terminal examination concentrates enormous pressure on a few days, producing stress and, at the extreme, tragedy.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935 \u0914\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0926\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Malpractice<\/span>\u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>Because so much rides on one paper, copying, impersonation, leakage and other unfair means become attractive.<\/span>\u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0928\u0915\u0932, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923, \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0932\u0940\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>No diagnostic value<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/strong>A single aggregate mark tells neither pupil nor teacher where<\/em> the learning failed, so no remedial action follows.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/em> \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u0941\u0906, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Neglect of the whole child<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Attitudes, values, interests, practical and social skills go unrecorded, so what is not examined ceases to be taught.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u0928\u092d\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-43\">\n 7.2<\/span>\n <h3>Semester System<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Under the semester system<\/strong> the academic year is divided into two independent terms of about six months<\/strong>, each with its own courses, its own teaching and its own terminal examination. Achievement is certified at the end of every semester<\/strong> and accumulated, usually through a credit system<\/strong> and a cumulative grade point average (CGPA)<\/strong>, instead of being decided by one examination at the end of the year.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u091b\u0939-\u091b\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924 (CGPA)<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u2014 \u0928 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Traditional<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Annual System<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>One examination<\/strong> at the end of the session decides the whole year.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Syllabus is large and undivided<\/strong>; the pupil carries it all to the end.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong>; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 \u0922\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Long gaps between teaching and testing, so feedback comes too late<\/strong> to be useful.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0930 \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Failure costs a whole year<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Simple to administer<\/strong> and cheap.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Reformed<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Semester System<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Two examinations<\/strong> a year, each certifying its own semester.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong>, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Syllabus is broken into manageable units<\/strong> and closed off as it is completed.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u092c\u0902\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Teaching and testing stay close together, so feedback is timely<\/strong> and remedial action is possible.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u094b\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Failure costs one semester<\/strong>, and the credit already earned is not lost.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0928\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Heavy administrative load<\/strong> \u2014 twice the examinations, results and paperwork.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u094b\u091d<\/strong> \u2014 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Merits of the semester system<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Reduces the load<\/strong> on the pupil by dividing a year's syllabus into two<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Keeps students continuously engaged<\/strong> instead of studying only near the examination<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Brings frequent feedback<\/strong>, so weaknesses are found and corrected within the year<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Lowers examination anxiety<\/strong> \u2014 no single paper decides everything<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u092c \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0924\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Permits an elective and credit-based structure<\/strong>, giving the student choice and mobility<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Makes continuous internal assessment<\/strong> natural and workable<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Enables credit transfer<\/strong> between institutions, as NEP 2020 now provides<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e NEP 2020 \u0905\u092c \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Improves the reliability of the final result<\/strong>, since it rests on several measurements rather than one.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits and difficulties<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>The institution is in a state of perpetual examination<\/strong> \u2014 teaching time shrinks as evaluation time grows<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u093f\u0915\u0941\u0921\u093c \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Heavy administrative and clerical burden<\/strong>: two sets of papers, results, revaluations and convocations<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092c\u094b\u091d<\/strong>: \u0926\u094b-\u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e, \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Syllabus is often merely split, not redesigned<\/strong>, so the load is not really reduced<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Encourages short-term, unit-wise cramming<\/strong> and discourages wide reading<\/span>\u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0939\u0924\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Little time for co-curricular activity<\/strong>, projects or field work<\/span>\u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u092e<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Teachers become evaluators more than teachers<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Requires infrastructure, staff and computerization<\/strong> that many institutions lack<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Frequent internal assessment can invite favouritism and grade inflation<\/strong> unless moderated.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0906\u092e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-4\">\n 7.3<\/span>\n <h3>Continuous Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Continuous assessment is the mechanism whereby the final grading of a learner takes account of all performances during a given period of schooling<\/strong>, rather than resting on a single terminal examination. It is systematic, comprehensive, cumulative and guidance-oriented<\/strong>, and it is the operational answer to every criticism of the annual examination raised at \u00a77.1.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u0939 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0928 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a77.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0920\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908 \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Systematic<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong>It follows a plan specifying what is to be assessed, when, by what instrument and against what criteria<\/strong> \u2014 not an accumulation of unplanned tests.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0915\u092c, \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0922\u0947\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Comprehensive<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915<\/span><\/strong>It covers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains<\/strong>, using the full range of tools and techniques set out at \u00a72.8 rather than the written test alone.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u00a72.8 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Cumulative<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Every decision about the learner draws on the record built up over time<\/strong>, so that a single bad day cannot determine an academic career.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0930\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0924\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Guidance-oriented<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916<\/span><\/strong>Its results are used to guide the learner and to inform remedial teaching<\/strong>, connecting it directly to the diagnostic testing of \u00a78.2.<\/span>\u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u00a78.2 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Advantages<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Reduces the chance element and examination stress<\/strong> of a single terminal test.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Yields a more reliable picture<\/strong>, since reliability rises with the number of independent observations.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Permits early identification of difficulty<\/strong> and hence timely remediation.<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Assesses qualities no single paper can reach<\/strong> \u2014 participation, practical skill, attitude, cooperation.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Problems<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Heavy demand on teacher time and record-keeping<\/strong>, particularly in large classes.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916-\u0930\u0916\u0930\u0916\u093e\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917<\/strong>, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Risk of subjectivity and favouritism<\/strong> where criteria are not explicit.<\/span>\u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094b\u0916\u093f\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Comparability across schools<\/strong> is hard to establish, which is why external moderation is required.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0949\u0921\u0930\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Degenerates into continuous testing rather than continuous assessment<\/strong> if every observation is turned into a mark.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0924\u094b \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"6\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n VI<\/span>\n \n Evaluation Systems<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u6-0\">6.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-1\">6.1<\/span>Integrated Approach of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-2\">6.2<\/span>Marking System: Need, Problems, Components<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-3\">6.3<\/span>Methods of Feedback for Students<\/span>\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-4\">6.4<\/span>Continuous Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-5\">6.5<\/span>Factors Influencing Test Scores<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-6\">6.6<\/span>DEDU504 Syllabus Map<\/span>DEDU504 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-41\">\n 7.4<\/span>\n <h3>Reforms in the Examination System<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Every major Indian commission has said the same thing. The Secondary Education Commission (Mudaliar, 1952\u201353)<\/strong> attacked the single external examination; the Education Commission (Kothari, 1964\u201366)<\/strong> called for internal assessment and continuous evaluation; the National Policy on Education (1986)<\/strong> and the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005<\/strong> pressed for examination reform and CCE; and the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020<\/strong> has restated it once more.<\/span>\n \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0928\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917 (\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0930, 1952\u201353)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917 (\u0915\u094b\u0920\u093e\u0930\u0940, 1964\u201366)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0940; \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f (1986)<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e (NCF) 2005<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 CCE \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f (NEP) 2020<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Reform<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it corrects<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Spreads assessment across the year and across all three domains, so the terminal paper is no longer the only evidence. See \u00a71.3.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u00a71.3\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Internal assessment with external moderation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Brings in the teacher's continuous knowledge of the pupil, while moderation guards against inflation and bias.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Grading in place of raw marks<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Removes the false precision of a single mark and the cut-throat competition for one extra mark. Treated in Unit 5 \u00a76.3.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u091d\u0942\u0920\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0918\u093e\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u00a76.3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Question banks and the blueprint<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A blueprint (\u00a73.9) guarantees content validity; a question bank of pre-tested items raises objectivity and ends question-spotting.<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f (\u00a73.9) \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0905\u091f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Mixed question paper<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Objective, short-answer and essay items together \u2014 objectivity and coverage from the first two, expression from the third.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923, \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td>\n <td>Scoring reforms<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Marking schemes with value points, question-wise rather than script-wise marking, central evaluation, double valuation of borderline scripts and coded answer books.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0942\u091f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td>\n <td>Semester system and credit system<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Breaks one annual verdict into several smaller ones and allows accumulation and transfer of credit. See \u00a77.2.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u00a77.2\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td>\n <td>Open book examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Removes the reward for memorization directly, by allowing the memorized material into the hall. See \u00a77.5.<\/span>\u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0930\u091f\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u00a77.5\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td>\n <td>Technology in examination<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>On-screen marking, computer-based and on-demand testing, item-banking software and online result processing \u2014 treated in Unit 5 \u00a77.9.<\/span>\u0911\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0949\u092b\u093c\u094d\u091f\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u00a77.9 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td>\n <td>Anti-malpractice and welfare measures<\/span>\u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0923 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Multiple question-paper sets, secure transmission, flying squads; and on the welfare side, counselling, helplines and a second chance through supplementary examinations.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0947\u091f, \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0909\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0926\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0947; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0923-\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u0939\u0947\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-42\">\n 7.5<\/span>\n <h3>Open Book Examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n An open book examination<\/strong> is one in which candidates are permitted to consult their textbooks, notes or other prescribed material<\/strong> while answering. Its logic is simple and radical: if the material can be carried into the hall, then no question worth asking can be answered by memory alone<\/strong>. The examiner is therefore forced to set questions demanding understanding, application, analysis and judgement<\/strong> \u2014 the higher levels of \u00a73.1 A.<\/span>\n \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902, \u0928\u094b\u091f\u094d\u0938 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0939\u0948: \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0932 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three forms of the open book examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Restricted type<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>Only specified material<\/strong> \u2014 a prescribed textbook, a formula sheet or a statute book \u2014 may be brought in. The commonest form in practice.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0939\u093f\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Unrestricted type<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>The candidate may bring whatever material he wishes<\/strong>. Places the greatest demand on the quality of the question paper.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u091c\u094b \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u0932\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Take-home type<\/span>\u0917\u0943\u0939-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>The paper is taken away and answered over days<\/strong>, with full access to library and internet. Highest authenticity of task, lowest control over authorship.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0918\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0915\u0908 \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u093e\u0932\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0928\u0947\u091f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e, \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Kills rote memorization<\/strong> at the root \u2014 there is no point cramming material that may be carried in<\/span>\u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u0921\u093c \u0915\u093e\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Tests the higher cognitive abilities<\/strong>: application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a: \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Develops information-handling skills<\/strong> \u2014 locating, selecting and using a source, which is what adult professional work actually requires<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u0922\u0942\u0901\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e, \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reduces examination anxiety<\/strong> and the fear of forgetting<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0942\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u092f \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discourages malpractice<\/strong>, since copying from a permitted book is no longer an offence and gains little<\/span>\u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0924\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0905\u092c \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093e\u092d \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u092e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Closer to real-life problem solving<\/strong>, where no doctor or engineer works from memory alone<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Encourages the reading of wider material<\/strong> during the course.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Setting the paper is very difficult<\/strong> \u2014 questions must be genuinely novel, and a lazy paper becomes a copying exercise<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0914\u0930 \u0906\u0932\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0915\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Scoring is harder and more subjective<\/strong>, since answers are longer and more varied<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Students may waste time searching<\/strong> instead of thinking, and the weak reader is penalized twice<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0922\u0942\u0901\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0917\u0901\u0935\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Not suitable for every subject<\/strong> \u2014 factual recall of terminology, formulae and vocabulary still has to be tested somewhere<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092d\u0902\u0921\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0928 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Requires more time<\/strong> per paper and a larger hall<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Can encourage superficial preparation<\/strong> in the belief that \"the book will be there\"<\/span>\"\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0924\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0917\u0940\" \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u0939\u0940 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0935\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>In the take-home form, authorship cannot be guaranteed<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0917\u0943\u0939-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u270d\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The point examiners look for.<\/strong> The open book examination does not make the examination easier \u2014 it makes it harder in a different way<\/strong>. It shifts the burden from the candidate's memory<\/strong> to the examiner's question-setting skill<\/strong>. A poorly set open book paper is worse than a closed book one; a well-set open book paper cannot be passed by cramming at all.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0921\u093e\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0916\u0930\u093e\u092c \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u092c\u0941\u0930\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-41\">\n 7.6<\/span>\n <h3>Issues and Problems<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Grade boundaries are arbitrary<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong>The line between B and C has to fall somewhere, and the pupil one mark below it suffers the full loss of a grade.<\/span>B \u090f\u0935\u0902 C \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0928 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0916\u0940\u0902\u091a\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0930\u0939 \u0917\u092f\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f \u0909\u0920\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Loss of fine discrimination<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Broad grades cannot separate candidates for a scholarship or a competitive admission, so marks are demanded again.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Grade inflation<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Where internal assessment is unmoderated, institutions compete by awarding ever-higher grades until the grade means nothing.<\/span>\u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u0947-\u0938\u0947-\u090a\u0901\u091a\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Comparability across institutions<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>An A from one college and an A from another may represent very different achievement, since standards and paper difficulty differ.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u093e A \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093e A \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Teacher preparation<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Grading, CCE and the CRC all demand training that most teachers have never received; without it they become clerical rituals.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, CCE \u090f\u0935\u0902 CRC \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e; \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0921 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Record-keeping burden<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u091d<\/span><\/strong>A CRC properly maintained for forty pupils is heavy clerical work, and in overcrowded schools it is filled in hurriedly at the year's end \u2014 destroying its whole purpose.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0940\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e CRC \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092d\u0940\u0921\u093c\u092d\u093e\u0921\u093c \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0932\u094d\u0926\u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0928\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Subjectivity and bias<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/strong>Behavioural notes on a CRC reflect the recording teacher's impression; an early adverse remark can follow a child for years \u2014 the labelling danger noted in \u00a710.2.<\/span>CRC \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a710.2 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0947\u092c\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0916\u093c\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Confidentiality<\/span>\u0917\u094b\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>The CRC holds sensitive family, health and psychological data. It must be kept secure and used only for the pupil's benefit, never as a means of exposure.<\/span>CRC \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-42\">\n 7.7<\/span>\n <h3>Inclusive and Equitable Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0932\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Every principle so far has assumed a pupil who can see the paper, hold a pen, sit for three hours and read the language of instruction. For a substantial minority that assumption is false \u2014 and when it is, the test stops measuring the trait it names and starts measuring the disability instead. This is a validity<\/strong> problem before it is anything else.<\/span>\n \u0905\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0947, \u0915\u0932\u092e \u092a\u0915\u0921\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0947, \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u0948\u0920 \u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u092c \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 The governing principle<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n An accommodation is a change in how<\/strong> a pupil is assessed, never in what<\/strong> is assessed. Its purpose is to remove a barrier that is irrelevant to the construct<\/strong> \u2014 so that a mathematics test measures mathematics and not handwriting speed or eyesight. If a change alters the construct itself, it is no longer an accommodation but a modification<\/strong>, and the score is no longer comparable.<\/span>\n \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0907\u0938 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0935\u091f \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0939\u0940 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Category<\/span>\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Accommodations commonly provided<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Presentation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Question paper in Braille or large print<\/strong>; a reader<\/strong> for the visually impaired; oral delivery of instructions; sign-language interpretation for the hearing impaired; simplified language where language is not the construct.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u092c\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093e\u091a\u0915<\/strong>; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u091a\u0928; \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923\u092c\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926; \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0917 \u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Response<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A scribe or amanuensis<\/strong>; use of a computer, typewriter or calculator; oral response in place of written; answers marked in the question booklet itself.<\/span>\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915 (\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0924\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915)<\/strong>; \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930, \u091f\u0902\u0915\u0923-\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0932\u0915\u0941\u0932\u0947\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917; \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930; \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Timing and scheduling<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Extra time<\/strong> \u2014 commonly 20 minutes per hour; supervised rest breaks; the paper split across sessions; scheduling at the pupil's best time of day.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0918\u0902\u091f\u093e 20 \u092e\u093f\u0928\u091f; \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e-\u0905\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0936; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Setting<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A separate room<\/strong> or small group; special seating and lighting; a distraction-reduced environment; assistive technology permitted.<\/span>\u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939; \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u0930\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923; \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Content and scoring<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Exemption<\/strong> from a component genuinely inaccessible \u2014 for example diagrams for a blind candidate or the oral component for the speech impaired \u2014 with an alternative question<\/strong> of equal weight; spelling errors not penalized for a dyslexic pupil in a non-language paper.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0917\u092e\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u0942\u091f<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0939\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d-\u092c\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924; \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0921\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Universal Design for Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092d\u094c\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/strong>Rather than adjusting a test afterwards for a few, design it from the start to be accessible to all<\/strong> \u2014 clear layout, plain language, multiple means of representation and response. UDL turns accommodation from an exception into a design principle.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0932\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f, \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0907\u090f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0935\u093f\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938, \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u0964 UDL \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a-\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Test bias and fairness<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>An item is biased<\/strong> when pupils of equal ability but different background succeed on it at different rates \u2014 an item drawing on urban experience, for instance. This is the culture-fairness<\/strong> problem of \u00a710.2 stated at the level of the single item.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u0926 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0924\u092c \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0917\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u00a710.2 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Policy basis in India<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act 2016<\/strong> guarantees reasonable accommodation and lays down the scribe and extra-time provisions; NEP 2020<\/strong> requires assessment to be inclusive and equitable; and boards issue standing circulars listing permissible accommodations by category.<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0917\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930 (RPwD) \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e 2016<\/strong> \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; NEP 2020<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0932\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Equality versus equity<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Equality<\/strong> gives every pupil the identical paper under identical conditions. Equity<\/strong> gives each what he needs to show what he knows. Only the second yields a valid<\/strong> score, because the first measures disability along with attainment.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The sentence that settles the usual objection.<\/strong> People often say extra time or a scribe gives an \"unfair advantage\". The answer is that an accommodation does not raise the score of a pupil who does not need it \u2014 it only removes a source of error variance<\/strong> for the pupil who does. In the language of \u00a72.4, it reduces E<\/strong> so that the obtained score comes closer to the true score T<\/strong>. Far from distorting measurement, a correctly chosen accommodation improves both reliability and validity<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0906\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0932\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915 \"\u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u093e\u092d\" \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0909\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a72.4 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0935\u0939 E<\/strong> \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 T<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0906\u090f\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-43\">\n 7.8<\/span>\n <h3>Recent Trends, ICT-Supported Evaluation and the National Education Policy 2020<\/span>\u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, ICT-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Trends already covered in these units, and two that are not<\/span>\u0915. \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0928 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u091c\u094b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Trend<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Covered above?<\/span>\u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924?<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Note<\/span>\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Learner-centred assessment strategies<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a71.3<\/td><td>CCE and self-assessment; the \"assessment AS learning\" of \u00a71.4.<\/span>CCE \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u00a71.4 \u0915\u093e \"\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\"\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Question banks<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a77.4<\/td><td>Pre-tested items drawn against a blueprint.<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Semester system<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a77.2<\/td><td>Fully treated with merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Continuous internal evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a77.4<\/td><td>Internal assessment with external moderation.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>CBCS and marking versus grading<\/span>CBCS \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a76.3<\/td><td>SGPA, CGPA and the grading debate.<\/span>SGPA, CGPA \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Open book examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a77.5<\/td><td>Three forms, merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a, \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#fff9ef;\"><td>On-demand examination<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2717<\/strong><\/td><td>An ICT-enabled scheme<\/strong> letting the learner appear when he is ready<\/strong>, walking in at a selected centre at any time. A blend of ICT with the traditional system, made necessary by the demand for flexibility and the changing profile of learners \u2014 pioneered in India by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)<\/strong>.<\/span>ICT-\u0938\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0926\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0915\u0930\u0964 ICT \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u0947\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 (NIOS)<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#fff9ef;\"><td>Online examination<\/span>\u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">~<\/strong><\/td><td>Touched at \u00a77.9, but note the distinction: it is ICT support to assessment<\/strong>, distinct from on-demand examination, which is about when<\/em> the pupil appears rather than how<\/em>.<\/span>\u00a77.9 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f: \u092f\u0939 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094b ICT \u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947<\/em> \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u092c<\/em> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0926\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>B. NEP 2020 on assessment and evaluation<\/span>\u0916. NEP 2020 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Notified 29 July 2020<\/strong>; restructured school education from 10+2 to the 5+3+3+4<\/strong> pattern. Frequently asked as a \"recent trends\" question, and the natural continuation of the CCE argument in \u00a71.3.<\/span>\n 29 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2020<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u0924; \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b 10+2 \u0938\u0947 5+3+3+4<\/strong> \u0922\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \"\u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\" \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a71.3 \u0915\u0947 CCE \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Beyond rote learning<\/strong> to competency- and outcome-based<\/strong> assessment measuring analysis, critical thinking and conceptual clarity.<\/span>\u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/strong> \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e- \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>360-degree multi-dimensional assessment<\/strong> with a holistic progress card<\/strong> combining self, peer and teacher assessment<\/strong> \u2014 an important link between home and school (NEP 2020, pp. 17\u201318).<\/span>360-\u0905\u0902\u0936 \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935, \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0918\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0921\u093c\u0940 (NEP 2020, \u092a\u0943. 17\u201318)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Explicit assessment of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains<\/strong> \u2014 the three domains of \u00a73.1, now written into national policy.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u2014 \u00a73.1 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0905\u092c \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Multi-layered and multi-source<\/strong> assessment; self, peer and group<\/strong> assessment; assessment for holistic development<\/strong>; and assessment within a 10-day bag-less curriculum<\/strong> (NEP 2020, p. 16).<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u0938\u094d\u0935, \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u0924\u0925\u093e 10-\u0926\u093f\u0935\u0938\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u0930\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 (NEP 2020, \u092a\u0943. 16)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>At higher levels, the Academic Bank of Credit<\/strong>, credit transfer<\/strong> and multiple entry and multiple exit (MEME)<\/strong> \u2014 making the credit reform of \u00a76.3 national policy.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0915\u093e\u0926\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 (MEME)<\/strong> \u2014 \u00a76.3 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>New bodies and platforms: PARAKH<\/strong> (Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) as the national assessment centre, the National Testing Agency (NTA)<\/strong>, assessment under SWAYAM<\/strong> (Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds), and the National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE) 2023<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0902\u091a: \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 PARAKH<\/strong>, \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938\u0940<\/strong>, SWAYAM<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e NCFSE 2023<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>C. System-level purposes of evaluation<\/span>\u0917. \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n \n \u00a71.8 lists fourteen purposes, almost all classroom-facing. These five look at the system and the institution<\/strong> and round out any long answer on \"why evaluate\".<\/span>\n \u00a71.8 \u091a\u094c\u0926\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\" \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>To identify problems<\/strong> that might hinder or prevent the achievement of set goals.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e \u0921\u093e\u0932\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>To predict the general trend<\/strong> in the development of the teaching\u2013learning process.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>To ensure the economical and efficient management of scarce resources<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0932\u092d \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>To provide an objective basis<\/strong> for promotion from one class to another and the award of certificates.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>To provide a just basis<\/strong> for determining at what level of education a certificate-holder should enter a career.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Tie this to \u00a75.1.<\/strong> Purposes 4 and 5 are exactly why norm-referenced<\/strong> testing survives despite its competitive drawbacks: promotion, certification and career entry all require pupils to be placed relative to one another<\/strong>. Purposes 1 and 2, by contrast, are served far better by criterion-referenced<\/strong> and diagnostic testing.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u00a75.1 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u092e\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0935\u091c\u0942\u0926 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0939\u0948: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 1 \u090f\u0935\u0902 2 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-5\">\n 7.9<\/span>\n <h3>Computer in Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Every operation described in Units 4 and 5 \u2014 tabulating frequencies, computing means and standard deviations, correlating two sets of scores, item analysis, preparing norms \u2014 is arithmetically simple but enormously laborious by hand<\/strong>. That is precisely the kind of work a computer does best, and its entry has changed not only the speed<\/strong> of evaluation but the kinds of evaluation that are possible at all<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0928\u093e, \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Uses of the computer in evaluation<\/span>\u0915. \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Function<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it does<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Item banking<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Stores thousands of pre-tested items with their difficulty and discrimination indices<\/strong> (\u00a73.9), from which a paper matching a given blueprint can be drawn in minutes \u2014 and a different but equivalent paper drawn for the next batch.<\/span>\u0939\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u00a73.9), \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093f\u0928\u091f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u0948\u091a \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Statistical analysis<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Spreadsheets and packages such as SPSS<\/strong> (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) compute the whole of Unit 4 instantly, and reliability and validity coefficients along with them \u2014 removing the arithmetical barrier that once kept teachers from using statistics at all.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u0936\u0940\u091f \u0924\u0925\u093e SPSS<\/strong> (\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0948\u0915\u0947\u091c \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930 \u0938\u094b\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u0902\u0938\u0947\u091c\u093c) \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0948\u0915\u0947\u091c \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e \u0939\u091f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0930\u094b\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Online and computer-based testing<\/span>\u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Tests are delivered, timed, scored and reported without paper<\/strong>, and results are available immediately. Objective items are scored with perfect objectivity<\/strong> \u2014 the ideal of \u00a72.1 fully realized.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u090f, \u0938\u092e\u092f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0964 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u2014 \u00a72.1 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Adaptive testing<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The computer selects the next item according to the answer just given<\/strong> \u2014 harder after a success, easier after a failure. It reaches an accurate estimate in far fewer items, and no pupil faces a paper wholly beyond or beneath him.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928, \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0947 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>On-screen marking<\/span>\u0911\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Scanned answer scripts are distributed question-wise<\/strong> to examiners anywhere, which enforces the question-wise marking recommended in \u00a79.1 and permits instant moderation of a lenient or severe examiner.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092d\u0947\u091c\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u00a79.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u093e \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td>\n <td>Record keeping<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The cumulative record card becomes a database<\/strong>, maintained without clerical drudgery, searchable, and transferable when a pupil changes school \u2014 answering directly the record-keeping burden of \u00a77.6.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0921\u0947\u091f\u093e\u092c\u0947\u0938 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0916\u094b\u091c\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a77.6 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928-\u092c\u094b\u091d \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0927\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td>\n <td>Result processing and analytics<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Tabulation, grading, SGPA and CGPA computation, and the publication of results \u2014 together with diagnostic analytics<\/strong> showing which topics a whole class failed, so remedial teaching can be planned at once.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, SGPA \u090f\u0935\u0902 CGPA \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u0940, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td>\n <td>e-Portfolios and feedback<\/span>\u0908-\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Digital portfolios collect a pupil's work over years, supporting the performance assessment<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 C and the holistic progress card<\/strong> of NEP 2020, with automated feedback delivered as the pupil works.<\/span>\u0921\u093f\u091c\u093f\u091f\u0932 \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u00a73.1 \u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Limitations and cautions<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Cost and infrastructure.<\/strong> Hardware, software, electricity and connectivity are still beyond many schools, so computerized evaluation can widen the gap<\/strong> between well-resourced and poor institutions.<\/span>\u0932\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930, \u0938\u0949\u092b\u093c\u094d\u091f\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930, \u092c\u093f\u091c\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0928\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0935\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0906\u091c \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>It favours the objective item.<\/strong> What a machine scores easily is what gets tested, so computerization can quietly push evaluation back towards recall and away from expression<\/strong> \u2014 the very defect \u00a77.1 complained of.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0936\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091a\u0941\u092a\u091a\u093e\u092a \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0930<\/strong> \u0927\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u092f\u0924 \u00a77.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Data security and privacy.<\/strong> A digital CRC holds sensitive personal data and can be leaked or misused on a scale no paper register ever could.<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u091c\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093f\u091f\u0932 CRC \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0948\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u093c\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0930\u091c\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0928 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Technical failure and malpractice.<\/strong> Server breakdowns, power cuts and online cheating are new forms of the old examination problems.<\/span>\u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u092c\u093f\u091c\u0932\u0940-\u0915\u091f\u094c\u0924\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u0928\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u090f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>The computer cannot judge.<\/strong> It computes; it does not evaluate. As \u00a71.1 established, evaluation requires a value judgement<\/strong>, and that remains the teacher's work.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-51\">\n 7.10<\/span>\n <h3>Multimedia in Education<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Multimedia<\/strong> is the integrated use of several media in one presentation \u2014 text, audio, still images, animation, video and interactivity<\/strong> \u2014 delivered through a computer. Its educational force lies in a simple fact: a learner who sees, hears and does<\/strong> retains far more than one who only reads, because more than one sense channel is engaged at once<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u093e\u0920, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0935\u0940\u0921\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948: \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0907\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Makes the abstract concrete<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Animation shows blood circulation, a chemical reaction or a geometrical proof unfolding \u2014 exactly the \"meaningful whole\" that Cognitive Learning Theory (\u00a73.1 A) asks the teacher to begin with.<\/span>\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0930\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u0902\u091a\u0930\u0923, \u0930\u093e\u0938\u093e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091c\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0918\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \"\u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e\" \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 (\u00a73.1 \u0915) \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Serves all three domains<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Simulation and virtual laboratories allow psychomotor skills<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 C) to be practised and assessed where real equipment or safety would not permit it.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0936\u093e\u0932\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 \u0917) \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Allows self-pacing<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935<\/span><\/strong>The learner repeats, pauses and revisits at his own speed \u2014 individual differences are accommodated without extra staff.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u094b\u0915\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Immediate feedback<\/span>\u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Embedded questions correct an error at the moment it is made \u2014 the formative<\/strong> function of \u00a710.1 delivered instantly rather than a week later.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u00a710.1 \u0915\u093e \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939 \u092d\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Raises motivation and retention<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Varied stimuli hold attention, and multi-sensory presentation is retained longer than reading alone.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0907\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0924\u0915 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Extends reach<\/span>\u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Through platforms such as SWAYAM<\/strong> and open resources, good teaching reaches distance learners and remote schools \u2014 the very function distance education itself performs.<\/span>SWAYAM<\/strong> \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0902\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u26a0\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The balanced conclusion to write.<\/strong> Multimedia and the computer are tools, not substitutes for the teacher<\/strong>. They can present, drill, score and record; they cannot diagnose a discouraged child, judge worth, or supply the affective domain<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 B. Poorly designed multimedia \u2014 decoration without instructional purpose \u2014 actually distracts<\/strong> from learning. The technology is only as good as the educational objectives<\/strong> it was built to serve, which returns the whole course to where Unit 1 began.<\/span>\n \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/strong> \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u0947 \u0939\u0924\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u2014 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u091c\u093e\u0935\u091f \u2014 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u092d\u091f\u0915\u093e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"8\" id=\"c8\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 8<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 8<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Achievement and Diagnostic Tests<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Achievement Test \u2014 Concept, Types and Construction; Diagnostic Test \u2014 Concept and Construction, Remedial Teaching<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923; \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-4\">\n 8.1<\/span>\n <h3>Measurement of Achievement<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n An achievement test<\/strong> is a systematic procedure for determining the amount and quality of learning a pupil has acquired<\/strong> in a given subject after a period of instruction. It measures the present status<\/strong> of attainment against the objectives that were set before teaching began.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Functions of achievement testing<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Instructional<\/strong> \u2014 to find how far the objectives of teaching have been realized, and to feed that back into the next lesson.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u090f, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Diagnostic<\/strong> \u2014 to reveal the areas in which pupils are weak, so that remedial measures may be planned.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Administrative<\/strong> \u2014 promotion, classification into sections, award of grades, certification and the preparation of merit lists.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Guidance<\/strong> \u2014 to advise pupils and parents on the choice of subjects, courses and careers on the basis of demonstrated strength.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Motivational<\/strong> \u2014 a fair and regular test induces sustained study and gives the pupil a sense of progress.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>Evaluative<\/strong> \u2014 to judge the effectiveness of the curriculum, the textbook and the method of teaching itself.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Achievement testing<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>60<\/span>Which one of the following statements about the basic principles of an Achievement test is not correct?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) It should be used to improve students\u2019 learning<\/li>\n <li>(b) It should be designed to fit the particular uses to be made of the results<\/li>\n <li>(c) It can be used as a standardized tool for measurement<\/li>\n <li>(d) It should measure clearly defined learning outcomes<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c)<\/b> A teacher-made achievement test is not a standardized tool \u2014 it has no try-out, item analysis or norms. Options (a), (b) and (d) are genuine principles: purpose-fit design, clearly defined outcomes and use for improving learning.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0939\u0948, \u0928 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0915), (\u0916) \u090f\u0935\u0902 (\u0918) \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.8, \u00a78.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-5\">\n 8.2<\/span>\n <h3>Diagnostic Test: Construction and Usefulness<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923: \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n A diagnostic test<\/strong> is an instrument designed to locate the specific points of weakness<\/strong> in a pupil's learning and, so far as possible, the causes<\/strong> of those weaknesses, so that remedial instruction<\/strong> can be planned. Where the achievement test asks \"how much has been learnt?\"<\/em>, the diagnostic test asks \"exactly where and why is the learning breaking down?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span>\n \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u093e \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e?\"<\/em>, \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \"\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u091f\u0942\u091f \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Achievement<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Achievement Test<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Purpose: to measure the level attained<\/strong> and grade or certify.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Covers a wide field thinly<\/strong> \u2014 a whole course sampled.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u0932\u093e<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are of graded difficulty<\/strong>, mostly of moderate difficulty.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0915\u0947, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Result: a single total score<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e: \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Given at the end<\/strong> of teaching.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Diagnostic<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Diagnostic Test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Purpose: to locate specific weaknesses<\/strong> and plan remedial work.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Covers a narrow field intensively<\/strong> \u2014 one skill broken into all its sub-steps.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0939\u0928<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a-\u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are deliberately easy<\/strong>, since the aim is to find where failure begins.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092f\u0939 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Result: a profile of strengths and weaknesses<\/strong>, not one score.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong>, \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Given whenever difficulty persists<\/strong> despite formative correctives.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0935\u091c\u0942\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Construction of a diagnostic test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83d\udd2c The governing principle is task analysis<\/strong>: break the skill into every sub-skill a pupil must master, then write items for each sub-skill separately so that failure can be pinpointed.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udd2c \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>: \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Identify the problem area<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Use achievement-test results, class observation and pupils' written work to fix the topic or skill<\/strong> in which difficulty persists.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Analyse the content into sub-skills<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Break the skill into its logical sequence of steps<\/strong> \u2014 for long division, for instance: place value \u2192 multiplication facts \u2192 subtraction \u2192 bringing down \u2192 remainder.<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941: \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u2192 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u2192 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u2192 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u093e\u0930\u0928\u093e \u2192 \u0936\u0947\u0937\u092b\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Frame items for each sub-skill<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0926-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Write several easy items per sub-skill<\/strong>, so that a single careless slip is not mistaken for a real weakness. Arrange them in the sequence of the steps<\/strong>, not by difficulty.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947\u0902, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0928 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Administer without time pressure<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Give ample time and a relaxed atmosphere<\/strong>; there are no marks and no pass or fail<\/strong>. Pupils should be told it is meant to help them, not to judge them.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u091c \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0902; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong>\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Analyse errors and prepare the profile<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Tabulate the errors sub-skill by sub-skill<\/strong> for each pupil and for the class as a whole, and look for the pattern<\/strong> \u2014 a repeated error is a weakness, a stray error is not.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u0935\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0915\u094d\u0915\u093e-\u0926\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 6<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Plan and apply remedial teaching<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong>\n Teach the failed sub-skill specifically<\/strong>, by a method different from the one that failed, and then re-test<\/strong> to confirm the weakness has been removed.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong>, \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0925\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Usefulness of the diagnostic test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Pinpoints weakness<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Tells the teacher not merely that the pupil is weak in division, but that he fails specifically at borrowing in subtraction.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0932 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Basis of remedial teaching<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>Remedial work without diagnosis is guesswork; the test converts it into targeted instruction.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0905\u091f\u0915\u0932 \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Saves the pupil's time<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092c\u091a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Only the failed sub-skills are re-taught; what is already mastered is not repeated.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Reveals class-wide gaps<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>If most of the class fails the same sub-skill, the fault lies in the teaching, not in the pupils.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Guides grouping<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Pupils with the same weakness can be grouped for common remedial instruction.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Reduces failure and dropout<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Early correction of a foundational gap prevents the cumulative failure that leads to dropout.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u092e\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0930\u094b\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Helps guidance<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/strong>Persistent weakness despite remedial teaching may point to a specific learning disability needing expert referral.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0935\u091c\u0942\u0926 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0938 \u092d\u0947\u091c\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Improves the curriculum<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>Recurring difficulties across batches show where the textbook or the sequence of topics needs revision.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc Limitations to remember<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>It is narrow in scope<\/strong> \u2014 one test covers only one skill area, so many tests are needed.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0922\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>It is laborious to construct and to analyse<\/strong>, since every sub-skill needs its own items.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>It locates where<\/strong> learning fails but not always why<\/strong> \u2014 the cause may be physical, emotional, environmental or motivational, and needs further enquiry.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Diagnosis is useless unless followed by remedial teaching<\/strong> \u2014 the test is a means, not an end.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928 \u0939\u094b<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Diagnostic testing<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>48<\/span>Which one of the following tests should be conducted by a teacher in order to identify the strength and weakness of students in an area of study?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Achievement test<\/li>\n <li>(b) Aptitude test<\/li>\n <li>(c) Diagnostic test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Reasoning test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Diagnostic test<\/b> An achievement test gives a single total score and tells the teacher how much was learnt; only a diagnostic test, built by task analysis into sub-skills, shows exactly where the learning breaks down.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u091f\u0942\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a78.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>78<\/span>Which one of the following test scores can be reported to parents for improving their children\u2019s achievement?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Diagnostic test scores<\/li>\n <li>(b) Achievement test scores<\/li>\n <li>(c) Criterion-referenced test scores<\/li>\n <li>(d) Norm-referenced test scores<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) Diagnostic test scores<\/b> The question asks which score helps improve<\/em> achievement. Only the diagnostic profile tells parents which specific sub-skill has failed and therefore what remedial help is needed; the others merely report a level or a rank.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/em> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f; \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a78.2 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-51\">\n 8.3<\/span>\n <h3>Types of Diagnostic Tests<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Type<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it does<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Standardized diagnostic tests<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Prepared by experts with try-out, item analysis and norms; supplied with a manual and a diagnostic profile chart. Reliable but not always matched to the local syllabus. Example:<\/em> standardized diagnostic tests in arithmetic and reading.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0947\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Teacher-made diagnostic tests<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Built by the teacher for her own class from her own task analysis. Less rigorous but far better matched<\/strong> to what was actually taught, and available immediately.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u0915\u092e \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0932<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Subject-wise diagnostic tests<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Tests in reading<\/strong> (word recognition, comprehension, speed), arithmetic<\/strong> (the four operations, fractions, decimals), spelling<\/strong>, handwriting<\/strong> and language usage<\/strong> \u2014 the areas where cumulative skill failure is commonest.<\/span>\u092a\u0920\u0928<\/strong> (\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0917\u0924\u093f), \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/strong> (\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928, \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935), \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940<\/strong>, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0935\u091f<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Group vs. individual diagnostic tests<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Group<\/strong> tests screen the whole class quickly and identify who needs closer study. Individual<\/strong> tests then examine that pupil intensively, often orally, with the teacher watching how<\/em> he works, not only what he answers.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0917\u0939\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947<\/em> \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Informal diagnostic techniques<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Not tests in the formal sense but essential aids \u2014 observation, oral questioning, the interview, analysis of homework and answer scripts, checklists, the cumulative record card and the anecdotal record<\/strong>. Physical checks such as vision and hearing tests<\/strong> also belong here, as noted in Unit 1 \u00a710.1.<\/span>\u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0917\u0943\u0939\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0940 \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u092f\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u00a710.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Tie this back to Unit 1.<\/strong> The four-fold sequence of \u00a710.1 now completes itself: placement<\/strong> tests decide where the pupil begins \u2192 formative<\/strong> tests monitor him as he goes \u2192 when formative correctives fail, the diagnostic<\/strong> test built in this unit finds the exact broken sub-skill \u2192 and the summative<\/strong> achievement test of \u00a78.1 certifies the final result.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/strong> \u00a710.1 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u092c \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u2192 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2192 \u091c\u092c \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0924\u092c \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u091f\u0942\u091f\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2192 \u0914\u0930 \u00a78.1 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Subject-wise diagnostic tests<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>56<\/span>Match List I (Basic skill) with List II (Sub test): A. Reading B. Language C. Mathematics D. Study skills \u2014 1. Reading maps 2. Computation 3. Expression 4. Comprehension<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 4 3 2 1<\/li>\n <li>(b) 4 2 3 1<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 3 2 4<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1 2 3 4<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1<\/b> Reading is tested by comprehension (4); language by expression (3); mathematics by computation (2); and study skills by a practical task such as reading maps (1) \u2014 these are the standard sub-tests of a diagnostic battery.<\/span>\u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0938\u0947 (4); \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 (3); \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0923\u0928 \u0938\u0947 (2); \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0920\u0928 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 (1) \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a78.3 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"9\" id=\"c9\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 9<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 9<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Types of Test Items<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Objective Type Test, Short Answer Type Test and Essay Type Test \u2014 Advantages and Limitations<\/span>\n \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0932\u0918\u0941-\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-42\">\n 9.1<\/span>\n <h3>Relative Merits and Demerits of Different Test Items<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Test items fall into three families<\/strong> by the kind of response demanded. The essential trade-off runs through all of them: as items become more objective<\/strong>, they gain in reliability and content coverage but lose the power to test organization and expression<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u0941\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0928 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092e\u092f \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947-\u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0916\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n A<\/span>\n <h6>Essay type<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n Long, free response. High freedom, low objectivity.<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n B<\/span>\n <h6>Short answer<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/h6>\n Restricted response in a few sentences. A middle ground.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n C<\/span>\n <h6>Objective type<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/h6>\n One definite answer, selected or supplied. Low freedom, high objectivity.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930, \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0964 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u2192<\/span>\n <h6>The trade-off<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092e\u092f<\/span><\/h6>\n Moving A \u2192 C: objectivity and coverage rise; expression and organization fall.<\/span>A \u2192 C \u091a\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930: \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Essay-type items<\/span>\u0915. \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>The only form that tests the power to organize, argue and express<\/strong> ideas in one's own language<\/span>\u092f\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Measures the higher objectives<\/strong> \u2014 analysis, synthesis and evaluation<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easy and quick to set<\/strong>; a few questions suffice<\/span>\u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930<\/strong>; \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Eliminates guessing<\/strong> altogether<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Encourages wide, connected study<\/strong> rather than isolated facts<\/span>\u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reveals the pupil's attitudes and creativity<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Low scorer objectivity<\/strong> \u2014 the same script gets different marks from different examiners, and even from the same examiner on different days<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947, \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Poor content sampling<\/strong>: five questions cannot cover a year's syllabus, so luck of the question paper matters<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932<\/strong>: \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0922\u0915 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Very time-consuming to score<\/strong><\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Marks are influenced by handwriting, length, language and the halo effect<\/strong><\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0935\u091f, \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Encourages selective study and question-spotting<\/strong><\/span>\u091a\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0905\u091f\u0915\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Unsuitable for pupils weak in written expression though strong in the subject.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udee0\ufe0f How to improve essay questions \u2014 six rules<\/span>\ud83d\udee0\ufe0f \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u091b\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Use many short, restricted-response<\/strong> questions instead of a few long ones \u2014 this improves content sampling.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0932\u0918\u0941, \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Frame the question with a precise directive verb<\/strong> \u2014 \"compare\", \"justify\", \"trace\" \u2014 not the vague \"write about\".<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \"\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\", \"\u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\", \"\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\" \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \"\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\" \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Indicate the marks and the expected length<\/strong> for every question.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0907\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Prepare a marking scheme with value points<\/strong> before evaluation begins.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Score question-wise, not script-wise<\/strong> \u2014 mark Q1 in all scripts, then Q2 \u2014 to keep the standard uniform.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930.1, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930.2 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>Avoid optional questions<\/strong>, since different pupils then sit different tests and scores cease to be comparable.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0924\u092c \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Short-answer items<\/span>\u0916. \u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n \n A restricted response of a few sentences or a small computation, usually carrying 2\u20135 marks. It is a compromise form<\/strong>: it retains some scope for expression while allowing many questions<\/strong> and therefore better content coverage, and it can be scored against a value-point scheme with fair consistency. Its weakness is that it still needs judgement in scoring<\/strong>, and it cannot test extended argument.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u094c\u0924\u093e-\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0917\u0941\u0902\u091c\u093e\u0907\u0936 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092c \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>C. Objective-type items<\/span>\u0917. \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Item form<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Multiple choice<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/strong> a stem plus four or five alternatives<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932-\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>The most versatile and widely used<\/strong> objective form<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/li><li>Can test knowledge, understanding and even application<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Guessing is low<\/strong> (20\u201325%)<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928<\/strong> (20\u201325%)<\/span><\/li><li>Wrong alternatives (distractors) themselves reveal misconceptions.<\/span>\u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915) \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Difficult and slow to construct<\/strong> \u2014 plausible distractors are hard to write<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/span><\/li><li>Cannot test organization or expression<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>Consumes much paper and printing.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>True\u2013False<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong> a statement judged right or wrong<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Very easy and quick<\/strong> to write and to score \u00b7 Large numbers of items can be set, giving wide content coverage<\/strong> in little time.<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u00b7 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>50% chance of guessing correctly<\/strong> \u2014 the most serious defect<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 50% \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/li><li>Tends to test rote memory of isolated facts<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091f\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Statements are easily made ambiguous or trivially true.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0924\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Matching<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong> two columns to be paired<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e\u0928<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Economical of space<\/strong> \u2014 many associations tested in a small area<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940<\/strong> \u2014 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Excellent for who\u2013what, term\u2013definition, event\u2013date<\/strong> relationships<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0928\u2013\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u0926\u2013\u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u2013\u0924\u093f\u0925\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/li><li>Objective and quick to score.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Confined almost entirely to factual association and rote recall<\/strong><\/span>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u091f\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/li><li>The last pairs can be got by elimination<\/strong> unless the response column is longer<\/span>\u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0928 \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Difficult to keep both columns homogeneous.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Completion \/ Fill in the blanks<\/span>\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong> the answer is supplied, not selected<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Eliminates guessing<\/strong>, because the pupil must recall rather than recognize<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Easy to construct<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/li><li>Well suited to terminology, formulae and numerical answers<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Tends to encourage verbatim memorization of the textbook<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u0936\u0903 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>More than one answer may be defensible<\/strong>, which reduces scoring objectivity<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Too many blanks in one sentence destroy its meaning.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Common defects of objective items \u2014 and the cure<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u2014 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Verbal clues in the stem<\/strong> \u2014 grammatical agreement (\"an ____\") betrays the answer. Cure:<\/em> use \"a\/an\" or restructure the stem.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932-\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>The longest alternative is the right one<\/strong> \u2014 a habit of item writers. Cure:<\/em> keep all alternatives of similar length.<\/span>\u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0926-\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Implausible distractors<\/strong> reduce a four-choice item to a two-choice one. Cure:<\/em> draw distractors from pupils' actual errors.<\/span>\u0905\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Absolute words<\/strong> \u2014 \"always\", \"never\" \u2014 are usually false; \"generally\" is usually true. Cure:<\/em> avoid such determiners.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935\", \"\u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\" \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \"\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903\" \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0928 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Interlinked items<\/strong> \u2014 the answer to item 8 gives away item 9. Cure:<\/em> keep every item independent.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0926 8 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0926 9 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Matching-type items<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>63<\/span>In the context of matching type test items, which one of the following is correct?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Premises should be longer than responses<\/li>\n <li>(b) Responses should be longer than premises<\/li>\n <li>(c) Premises and responses should be of equal length<\/li>\n <li>(d) Length of premises and responses is not important<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a)<\/b> The premise column carries the fuller statement and the response column the short label, so that the candidate reads each long premise once and scans short responses. Keeping the response list longer in number (not in wording) also prevents the last pairs being got by elimination.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 (\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902) \u0932\u0902\u092c\u0940 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a79.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Correction for guessing \u2014 the answer to the guess factor<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n S = R \u2212 [ W \/ ( n \u2212 1 ) ]<\/span>\n S = R \u2212 [ W \/ ( n \u2212 1 ) ]<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n S<\/b> = corrected score \u00b7 R<\/b> = number of right answers \u00b7 W<\/b> = number of wrong answers \u00b7 n<\/b> = number of alternatives per item. The formula assumes that a candidate who guesses at random will get one item right for every (n \u2212 1) he gets wrong, and it deducts exactly that. For a true\u2013false<\/b> item n = 2, so S = R \u2212 W<\/b> \u2014 one full mark lost per wrong answer. For a four-option multiple choice<\/b> item n = 4, so S = R \u2212 W\/3<\/b>, which is the familiar one-third negative marking<\/b> of competitive examinations. Note:<\/b> omitted<\/em> items are not penalized \u2014 only wrong ones. The formula is why \u00a79.1 criticized the true\u2013false item so heavily: with a 50 per cent guess factor, the correction that keeps it honest is also the harshest.<\/span>\n S<\/b> = \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u00b7 R<\/b> = \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u00b7 W<\/b> = \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u00b7 n<\/b> = \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 (n \u2212 1) \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u092a\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0917\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 n = 2, \u0905\u0924\u0903 S = R \u2212 W<\/b> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f<\/b> \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 n = 4, \u0905\u0924\u0903 S = R \u2212 W\/3<\/b>, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0915-\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0908 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/b> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902:<\/b> \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0917\u090f<\/em> \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u00a79.1 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940: 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 correction for guessing<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>A 100-item test of four-option<\/strong> multiple choice items. Anil attempts 90, of which 66 are right and 24 wrong<\/strong>; 10 are left blank.<\/span>100-\u092a\u0926\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0932 90 \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 66 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 24 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924<\/strong>; 10 \u0916\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>S = 66 \u2212 24\/(4 \u2212 1) = 66 \u2212 24\/3 = 66 \u2212 8 = 58<\/strong>.<\/span>S = 66 \u2212 24\/(4 \u2212 1) = 66 \u2212 24\/3 = 66 \u2212 8 = 58<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>His raw score of 66 becomes a corrected score of 58<\/strong>. The 10 unattempted items cost him nothing, which is precisely the behaviour the formula is designed to encourage \u2014 the candidate answers when he knows and leaves the item when he does not<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e 66 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0915\u0930 58<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 10 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0926 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"10\" id=\"c10\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 10<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 10<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Formative, Summative and Psychological Measurement<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Formative and Summative Evaluation; Measurement of Attitude, Aptitude, Personality and Intelligence<\/span>\n \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \ud83e\udde0<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Founding Test<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">Binet\u2013Simon, 1905<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947\u2013\u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928, 1905<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">The first practical intelligence scale; IQ arrived with Stern in 1912<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940; IQ 1912 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0906\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \ud83d\udd04<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">Examination Reform<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">Open Book \u00b7 Semester \u00b7 CCE<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u00b7 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u00b7 CCE<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Three answers to the same complaint \u2014 that examinations reward memory<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u092f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u2014 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-4\">\n 10.1<\/span>\n <h3>Placement, Diagnostic, Formative and Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Evaluation is a process of judging the value or worth of a process or product<\/strong> \u2014 which may be achievement, aptitude, interest, skill or any other aspect of the student's personality, or the method of teaching and learning itself. Four types are distinguished by when<\/strong> in the instructional cycle they occur.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0907\u0938 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092c<\/strong> \u0918\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd50<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Sequence memory hook:<\/strong> Placement<\/strong> comes before<\/em> instruction (entry) \u2192 Formative<\/strong> runs during<\/em> instruction (monitoring) \u2192 Diagnostic<\/strong> steps in when formative correctives fail<\/em> (deep probe) \u2192 Summative<\/strong> comes after<\/em> instruction (certification).<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930:<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/em> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936) \u2192 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/em> (\u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940) \u2192 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0924\u092c \u091c\u092c \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/em> (\u0917\u0939\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a) \u2192 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/em> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928)\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">P<\/span>Before<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Placement Evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Assesses the entry behaviour<\/strong> of the student. Admission to new courses is granted according to intelligence, attitude, motivation and aptitude. Its goal is to determine, for each student, the position in the instructional sequence and the mode of instruction that is most beneficial.<\/strong><\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0964 \u0928\u090f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u093e\u092d\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">The three questions it asks<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>Does the student possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin<\/strong> the planned instruction?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>To what extent has the student already developed<\/strong> the understanding and skills that are the goals of the planned instruction?<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>To what extent do the student's interests, work habits and personality<\/strong> indicate that one mode of instruction might be better than another?<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0906\u0926\u0924\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u0940?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u270e<\/span>Example:<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/span><\/em> the B.Ed. entrance test.<\/span>\u092c\u0940.\u090f\u0921. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">F<\/span>During<\/span>\u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Formative Evaluation<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Done during<\/strong> the teaching\u2013learning process to assess the ongoing formation<\/em> of knowledge and understanding. It is a monitoring type<\/strong> of evaluation used to track progress during the class, course or session. Feedback is given after it<\/strong> so students can proceed accordingly. Aim: improving the quality of the teaching\u2013learning process.<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">The five questions it asks<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Are the objectives of teaching the topic \/ content \/ course \/ curriculum being achieved?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \/ \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \/ \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \/ \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Are the student's cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains forming properly?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Are the learner's scholastic and non-scholastic areas developing properly?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Is the learner's progress satisfactory?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0937\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Are the predetermined objectives of the ongoing educational programme being fulfilled?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">D<\/span>Deep probe<\/span>\u0917\u0939\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Diagnostic Evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Concerned with persistent learning difficulties left unresolved by the corrective prescriptions of formative assessment<\/strong>. It identifies or diagnoses the weaknesses<\/strong> of students in a given course of instruction, using specially prepared diagnostic tests and various observational techniques<\/strong>. Its aim is to determine the causes<\/strong> of persistent learning problems and to formulate a plan for remedial action<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094b \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0941\u0908\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\/\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">When it is invoked<\/span>\u0915\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/b>When a teacher finds that in spite of<\/em> using various alternative methods and techniques the student still faces learning difficulties, he takes recourse to a detailed diagnosis. It includes vision tests, hearing tests<\/strong> and tests of how the student approaches a reading assignment \u2014 whether he relies on pictures, sound, context clues, or skips over unfamiliar words.<\/span>\u091c\u092c \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0935\u091c\u0942\u0926<\/em> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u092c \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0920\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0927\u094d\u0935\u0928\u093f, \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">S<\/span>After<\/span>\u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Done at the end<\/strong> of a course, semester, class or topic, to evaluate the quality of the final product<\/strong> and find the extent to which instructional objectives have been achieved. No remedial teaching is given after it.<\/strong> Certification<\/strong> is done on the basis of its results, which also reflect the effectiveness of the curriculum transaction process.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples, tools and features<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/b>\n <div class=\"kv-block\">\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Examples<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n Annual exams \u00b7 Semester-end exams \u00b7 Terminal exams<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u00b7 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0948\u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Tools<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n Achievement test \u00b7 Rating scales \u00b7 Project evaluation by experts \u00b7 Interviews \u00b7 Viva-voce<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u00b7 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Features<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span>\n \n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:0;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Conducted at the end<\/strong> of a topic, class, chapter, unit or course.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Results give the final progress<\/strong> of students.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Results are used for preparing the merit list<\/strong>, finalizing position, taking pass \/ fail \/ promotion<\/strong> decisions and awarding degrees or diplomas<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947, \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \/ \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \/ \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0927\u093f \u092f\u093e \u0921\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0932\u094b\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Table 1.1 \u2014 Formative vs. Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e 1.1 \u2014 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Formative Evaluation<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Conducted during<\/strong> the process of teaching and learning \u2014 during the class, semester or session.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Conducted at the end<\/strong> of the process \u2014 end of class, end of semester, end of session.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924, \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Determines achievement in a small task<\/strong> learned in a short duration<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Determines achievement in a major task<\/strong> learned over a longer duration<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Conducted regularly<\/strong> during the class, course or session.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Conducted at the end<\/strong> of the course, session or programme.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Gives limited generalization<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Gives broad generalizations<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Limited<\/strong> content area and ability are covered.<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Large<\/strong> content areas and abilities are covered.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>External vs. Internal Evaluation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n External<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>External Evaluation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Evaluators or examiners are invited from outside<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u090f<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Teachers who teach a group are not involved<\/strong> in evaluating them \u2014 teacher and examiner are never the same<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0935\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u2014 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> all board examinations; viva by an outside expert; annual school examinations where the paper comes from outside.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901; \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915\u0940; \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Significance:<\/strong> it eliminates the element of bias<\/strong> from the evaluation system.<\/span>\u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935:<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Internal<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Internal Evaluation<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>The teacher and the examiner are the same person<\/strong>; no external expert is invited.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong>; \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> class test, unit test, weekly test, monthly test, quarterly test.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0948\u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Helps find out students' progress<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Remedial teaching<\/strong> can be organized for weaker students.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The teacher comes to know his\/her own weak areas as well as the students'<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Helps in building a strong foundation<\/strong> for students.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Placement, Formative, Diagnostic, Summative<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>37<\/span>The evaluation of pupils\u2019 learning difficulties during instruction is known as:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Placement<\/li>\n <li>(b) Formative<\/li>\n <li>(c) Diagnostic<\/li>\n <li>(d) Summative<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Diagnostic<\/b> Note the exact wording \u2014 \"learning difficulties\" is diagnostic. Formative monitors learning progress; diagnostic locates the specific difficulty behind persistent failure.<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \"\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901\" \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.1, \u00a78.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>38<\/span>Which one of the following statements indicates formative evaluation?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Pupils\u2019 entry performance in a sequence of instruction<\/li>\n <li>(b) Pupils\u2019 learning progress during instruction<\/li>\n <li>(c) Pupils\u2019 learning difficulties during instruction<\/li>\n <li>(d) Pupils\u2019 achievement at the end of instruction<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> The four options are precisely the four types: (a) placement, (b) formative, (c) diagnostic, (d) summative. Formative is progress-monitoring during instruction.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902: (\u0915) \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, (\u0916) \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, (\u0917) \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, (\u0918) \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0964 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>70<\/span>Formative assessment is conducted to: 1. monitor student learning 2. provide ongoing feedback 3. improve teaching-learning process 4. know the position of a student in the group<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1, 2 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1, 2 and 3<\/b> Item 4 is the purpose of norm-referenced summative testing, not formative. Formative assessment monitors, feeds back and improves \u2014 it does not rank.<\/span>\u092e\u0926 4 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940, \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.1, \u00a75.1 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-2\">\n 10.2<\/span>\n <h3>Testing in Intelligence<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. What is intelligence?<\/span>\u0915. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 The problem of definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Intelligence is a construct<\/strong>, not a thing \u2014 it cannot be seen, only inferred from behaviour. Psychologists have therefore defined it in at least three different directions: by the ability to adjust<\/strong>, by the ability to think abstractly<\/strong>, and by the ability to learn<\/strong>. A fourth group simply defines it operationally.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e-\u0938\u0947-\u0915\u092e \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>, \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964 \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u094c\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">William SternAdjustment view<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Intelligence is the general capacity of an individual to adjust his thinking consciously to new requirements<\/strong> \u2014 a general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u091a\u0947\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0908 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0922\u093e\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0908 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Lewis TermanAbstract-thinking view<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924-\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n An individual is intelligent in proportion as he is able to carry on abstract thinking<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Alfred BinetJudgement view<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Intelligence consists of judgement, good sense, initiative and the ability to adapt oneself<\/strong>. Its four elements are comprehension, invention, direction and criticism<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f, \u0938\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915, \u092a\u0939\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0906\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">David WechslerGlobal view \u2014 most quoted<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u091f\u0947<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">E. G. BoringOperational view<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure<\/strong>. Circular, but it is the honest operational definition \u2014 and it matches exactly the operational definition<\/em> described in \u00a71.1.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Theories of intelligence \u2014 what is being measured?<\/span>\u0916. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/h4>\n \n The design of any intelligence test depends on what its author believes intelligence to be<\/em>. A one-factor view yields a single IQ; a multi-factor view yields a profile<\/strong> of scores.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0930\u091a\u092f\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/em> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u090f\u0915-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0915\u0932 IQ \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Theory & author<\/span>\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Core claim<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Effect on testing<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Unifactor \/ Monarchic<\/span>\u090f\u0915-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/strong> Binet, Terman, Stern<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Intelligence is a single, unitary power<\/strong> that operates in every mental task.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u090f\u0915\u0932, \u0905\u0916\u0902\u0921 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Justifies reporting one global IQ<\/strong>.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 IQ<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Two-factor theory<\/span>\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong> Charles Spearman, 1904<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Every mental act involves a general factor 'g'<\/strong>, common to all tasks, plus a specific factor 's'<\/strong> peculiar to that task. 'g' is inborn; 's' is acquired.<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 'g'<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 's'<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 'g' \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u091c\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948; 's' \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>A good test should be saturated with 'g'<\/strong> \u2014 hence the emphasis on reasoning items.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 'g' \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0943\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Multifactor theory<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong> E. L. Thorndike<\/em><\/td>\n <td>There is no general factor at all<\/strong> \u2014 intelligence is a bundle of many independent abilities; what looks like 'g' is only overlap between them.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0902\u091c \u0939\u0948; \u091c\u094b 'g' \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Supports separate ability tests<\/strong> rather than one composite.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Group-factor theory<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong> L. L. Thurstone<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Intelligence consists of seven primary mental abilities<\/strong> \u2014 verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, space, memory, reasoning and perceptual speed.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939, \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Produces a profile of seven scores<\/strong> instead of one IQ.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 IQ \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Structure of Intellect<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong> J. P. Guilford<\/em><\/td>\n <td>A three-dimensional model<\/strong> \u2014 operations \u00d7 contents \u00d7 products<\/em> \u2014 yielding a large number of distinct abilities. This is where convergent and divergent thinking<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 A) come from.<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u00d7 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u00d7 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/em> \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 \u0915) \u092f\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Legitimizes creativity testing<\/strong> as part of intelligence.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Multiple Intelligences<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/strong> Howard Gardner, 1983<\/em><\/td>\n <td>There are several relatively independent intelligences<\/strong> \u2014 linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0915, \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915-\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0924\u092e\u092f, \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915-\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Argues that a single IQ is far too narrow<\/strong>; supports portfolio and performance assessment.<\/span>\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915\u0932 IQ \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>C. The Intelligence Quotient<\/span>\u0917. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n Alfred Binet<\/strong> and Theodore Simon<\/strong> produced the first practical intelligence scale in 1905<\/strong>, to identify children in Paris schools who could not profit from ordinary instruction. Their key invention was mental age (MA)<\/strong> \u2014 the age level at which a child performs. William Stern (1912)<\/strong> then expressed this as a ratio, and Terman (1916)<\/strong> multiplied it by 100 to remove the decimal.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0921\u094b\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 1905 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0908, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093e\u092d \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0909\u0920\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 (MA)<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0906\u092f\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0932\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928 (1912)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928 (1916)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 100 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The IQ formula \u2014 memorize this<\/span>IQ \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n IQ = Mental Age (MA)<\/em> \/ Chronological Age (CA)<\/em> \u00d7 100<\/span>\n IQ = \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 (MA)<\/em> \/ \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 (CA)<\/em> \u00d7 100<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n If MA = CA, IQ is exactly 100<\/b> \u2014 the definition of average. MA > CA<\/b> gives an IQ above 100; MA < CA<\/b> gives an IQ below 100. The formula holds only while mental growth continues. Since mental growth levels off around age 16<\/b>, CA is capped at 16<\/b> for adults \u2014 otherwise every adult's IQ would fall each birthday. Modern tests avoid the problem altogether by using the deviation IQ<\/b>, a standard score with mean 100 and SD 15 or 16 (see Unit 4 \u00a74.12).<\/span>\n \u092f\u0926\u093f MA = CA \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b IQ \u0920\u0940\u0915 100<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 MA > CA<\/b> \u0938\u0947 IQ 100 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930; MA < CA<\/b> \u0938\u0947 IQ 100 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 16 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/b> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 CA \u0915\u094b 16 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u093e IQ \u0939\u0930 \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0926\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/b> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u091a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b 100 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 15 \u092f\u093e 16 SD \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948 (\u0926\u0947\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u00a74.12)\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Computing IQ for two children<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 IQ \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Meena<\/strong> is 10 years old and performs at the level of an average 12-year-old. MA = 12, CA = 10. IQ = 12\/10 \u00d7 100 = 120<\/strong> \u2014 superior.<\/span>\u092e\u0940\u0928\u093e<\/strong> 10 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924 12-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0940\u092f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 MA = 12, CA = 10\u0964 IQ = 12\/10 \u00d7 100 = 120<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Rohit<\/strong> is 10 years old and performs at the level of an average 8-year-old. MA = 8, CA = 10. IQ = 8\/10 \u00d7 100 = 80<\/strong> \u2014 dull normal.<\/span>\u0930\u094b\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> 10 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924 8-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0940\u092f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 MA = 8, CA = 10\u0964 IQ = 8\/10 \u00d7 100 = 80<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u0902\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Note carefully:<\/strong> both children are the same age, but Meena's mental age exceeds her chronological age while Rohit's falls short of his. IQ expresses the ratio, not the level<\/strong> \u2014 a 6-year-old and a 12-year-old can both have an IQ of 120.<\/span>\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f:<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0940\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0930\u094b\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u0964 IQ \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 6 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 12 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 IQ 120 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Classification of IQ<\/span>IQ \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n The bands below follow Terman's classification. Note that they mirror the normal probability curve<\/strong> of Unit 4 \u00a74.10 \u2014 roughly half the population falls between 90 and 110.<\/span>\n \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0947 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u00a74.10 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e 90 \u0938\u0947 110 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">IQ<\/span>IQ<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Classification<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">IQ<\/span>IQ<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Classification<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">140+<\/td><td>Genius \/ near genius<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940 \/ \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">80\u201389<\/td><td>Dull normal<\/span>\u092e\u0902\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">120\u2013139<\/td><td>Very superior<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">70\u201379<\/td><td>Borderline<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">110\u2013119<\/td><td>Superior<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50\u201369<\/td><td>Mild intellectual disability<\/span>\u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">90\u2013109<\/td><td>Average \/ normal<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \/ \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">Below 50<\/td><td>Moderate to severe intellectual disability<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>D. Types of intelligence tests<\/span>\u0918. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n By administration<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Individual Tests<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Administered to one examinee at a time<\/strong> by a trained examiner.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The examiner can observe how the child works<\/strong> \u2014 his confidence, persistence, method of attack.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938, \u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Suitable for young children, the illiterate and clinical cases<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u0948\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Costly and time-consuming<\/strong>; needs an expert.<\/span>\u092e\u0939\u0901\u0917\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong>; \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> Binet\u2013Simon, Stanford\u2013Binet, Wechsler scales, Kohs Block Design.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947\u2013\u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928, \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921\u2013\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947, \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0915\u094b\u0939\u094d\u0938 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915 \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n By administration<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Group Tests<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Administered to many examinees simultaneously<\/strong>, usually paper-and-pencil.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c-\u092a\u0947\u0902\u0938\u093f\u0932 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Born of military necessity \u2014 the Army Alpha<\/strong> (verbal) and Army Beta<\/strong> (non-verbal, for illiterate recruits) of the First World War.<\/span>\u0938\u0948\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0947 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e<\/strong> (\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e<\/strong> (\u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930 \u092d\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915)\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Economical of time, money and expertise<\/strong>; scoring is objective and quick.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f, \u0927\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940<\/strong>; \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>But the examiner cannot observe the individual<\/strong>, and a child's poor reading can depress the score.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u0920\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> Army Alpha and Beta, Raven's Progressive Matrices, most school-used tests.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e, \u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Classification by the medium used<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Verbal tests<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Use language<\/strong> in both the items and the responses \u2014 vocabulary, analogies, comprehension, arithmetic reasoning. Quick and economical, but useless for the illiterate and unfair across languages.<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u2014 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940, \u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0964 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Non-verbal tests<\/span>\u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Use pictures, figures and symbols<\/strong>; instructions may be spoken but the items are not language-bound. Raven's Progressive Matrices<\/em> is the classic example.<\/span>\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0906\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0926 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c<\/em> \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Performance tests<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Require the actual manipulation of objects<\/strong> \u2014 blocks, form boards, mazes. Language plays no part at all, so they suit the deaf, the illiterate and cross-cultural work. Examples:<\/em> Kohs Block Design, Seguin Form Board, Alexander's Pass-along.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915, \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e \u092c\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0921, \u092d\u0942\u0932-\u092d\u0941\u0932\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u0927\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930-\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0915\u094b\u0939\u094d\u0938 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915 \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0928, \u0938\u0947\u0917\u0941\u0907\u0928 \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e \u092c\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0921, \u0905\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0921\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0938-\u0905\u0932\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Culture-fair tests<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Designed so that no cultural or educational group is favoured<\/strong> \u2014 generally non-verbal and free of school-taught content. Example:<\/em> Cattell's Culture Fair Test.<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u093e\u092d \u0928 \u0939\u094b<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0915\u0948\u091f\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u0932\u094d\u091a\u0930 \u092b\u093c\u0947\u092f\u0930 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">The principal intelligence scales<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Scale<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Description<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Binet\u2013Simon Scale (1905, revised 1908 & 1911)<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947\u2013\u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1905, \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 1908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 1911)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The first practical intelligence test<\/strong>, built for the Paris school authorities to identify children needing special instruction. Introduced the idea of mental age<\/strong> and arranged items by age level.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0926\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u092f\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Stanford\u2013Binet Scale (Terman, 1916)<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921\u2013\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (\u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928, 1916)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The American revision at Stanford University; standardized on American children<\/strong> and the first to express results as an IQ<\/strong>. Repeatedly revised since; still an individual verbal test.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928; \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094b IQ<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e\u0964 \u0924\u092c \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924; \u0906\u091c \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Wechsler Scales \u2014 WAIS, WISC and WPPSI<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 WAIS, WISC, WPPSI<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Individual scales for adults (WAIS<\/strong>), children (WISC<\/strong> \u2014 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) and pre-schoolers (WPPSI<\/strong> \u2014 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence). Their innovation is a verbal scale and a performance scale side by side<\/strong>, giving a Verbal IQ, a Performance IQ and a Full Scale IQ<\/strong> \u2014 so a child weak in language is not simply written off. They use the deviation IQ<\/strong>. Recall from \u00a71.1 that WAIS is a good test but very difficult to administer<\/em>.<\/span>\u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 (WAIS<\/strong>), \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 (WISC<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0921\u094d\u0930\u0928) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 (WPPSI<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u090f\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938) \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u0935\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 IQ, \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 IQ \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 IQ<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u00a71.1 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f WAIS \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Army Alpha and Army Beta (1917)<\/span>\u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e (1917)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The first group<\/strong> tests, developed to classify American recruits in the First World War. Alpha<\/strong> was verbal, for the literate; Beta<\/strong> was non-verbal, for the illiterate and non-English-speaking. They made mass testing possible.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915; \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Raven's Progressive Matrices<\/span>\u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A non-verbal group test<\/strong> of abstract reasoning in which the examinee completes a pattern. Widely used because it is largely culture-fair<\/strong> and highly saturated with Spearman's 'g'<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u0947 'g'<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0943\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Indian adaptations<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Indian work includes Rice's Hindustani Binet Performance Point Scale<\/strong>, Mohsin's and Jalota's group tests of general mental ability<\/strong>, and Bhatia's Battery of Performance Tests (1955)<\/strong> \u2014 the last being the most used performance battery in India, comprising the Kohs Block Design, Alexander Pass-along, Pattern Drawing, Immediate Memory and Picture Construction sub-tests.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u093e\u0907\u0938 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u092a\u0949\u0907\u0902\u091f \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/strong>, \u092e\u094b\u0939\u0938\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u0932\u094b\u091f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u092a\u0930\u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0938 (1955)<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u094d\u0938 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915 \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0928, \u0905\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0921\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0938-\u0905\u0932\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917, \u092a\u0948\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928 \u0921\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0907\u0902\u0917, \u0924\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>E. Uses and limitations of intelligence testing<\/span>\u0919. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Educational uses<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Classification<\/strong> of pupils into homogeneous groups<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Identification of the gifted<\/strong> and of children with intellectual disability<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Diagnosis of under-achievement<\/strong> \u2014 the pupil whose achievement falls well below his IQ<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928-\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 IQ \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u092b\u093c\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Educational and vocational guidance<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Selection<\/strong> for courses and scholarships<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Providing the criterion<\/strong> against which other tests are validated<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Research<\/strong> into learning and development.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">!<\/span>Limitations and cautions<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>IQ measures only a sample of abilities<\/strong>, chiefly verbal and logical \u2014 it says nothing of creativity, character, motivation or social skill<\/span>IQ \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Scores are affected by language, schooling and cultural background<\/strong>, so they can be unfair to rural and disadvantaged children<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0940\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>An IQ is not fixed for life<\/strong>; it can shift with environment and health<\/span>IQ \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>; \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The label sticks<\/strong> \u2014 a low IQ recorded once can lower a teacher's expectation permanently, producing a self-fulfilling prophecy<\/span>\u0932\u0947\u092c\u0932 \u091a\u093f\u092a\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 IQ \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0923\u0940 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Test results are confidential<\/strong> and must never be announced in class or used to shame a pupil.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0917\u094b\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0914\u0930 \u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Intelligence testing<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>42<\/span>Verbal comprehension is:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Identifying similarities and differences in words, letters, numbers and geometric figures<\/li>\n <li>(b) Demonstrating an understanding of the meaning of words, sentences and directions<\/li>\n <li>(c) Identifying similarities and differences in spoken words or sounds<\/li>\n <li>(d) Identifying letters of the alphabet, words and numerals<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> Verbal comprehension is the first of Thurstone\u2019s seven primary mental abilities and means understanding the meaning of language. Option (a) is perceptual speed, (c) auditory discrimination and (d) mere letter recognition.<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0915) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948, (\u0917) \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e (\u0918) \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>62<\/span>Which one of the following is an example of a group test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Individual intelligence test<\/li>\n <li>(b) Group intelligence test<\/li>\n <li>(c) Individual aptitude test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Individual projective test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> A group test is administered to many examinees at once, usually paper-and-pencil \u2014 Army Alpha and Beta and Raven\u2019s Progressive Matrices are the classic examples. The other three options are individual by definition.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c-\u092a\u0947\u0902\u0938\u093f\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u2014 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>103<\/span>Statement-I: An individual with IQ 120 is twice as capable and intelligent as one with IQ 60. Statement-II: IQ gives a direct proportional comparison.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Both correct and II explains I<\/li>\n <li>(b) Both correct but II does not explain I<\/li>\n <li>(c) I correct, II incorrect<\/li>\n <li>(d) Both Statements I and II are incorrect<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) Both incorrect<\/b> IQ is on an interval scale, not a ratio scale \u2014 it has no absolute zero, since \"zero intelligence\" is meaningless. Ratios therefore cannot be taken: IQ 120 is not twice IQ 60, any more than 40\u00b0C is twice as hot as 20\u00b0C.<\/span>IQ \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \"\u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\" \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947: IQ 120, IQ 60 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 40\u00b0C, 20\u00b0C \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0917\u0930\u094d\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7, \u00a710.2 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-3\">\n 10.3<\/span>\n <h3>Attitude and Personality Tests<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Intelligence belongs to the cognitive<\/strong> domain. Attitude and personality belong to the affective<\/strong> domain of \u00a73.1 B \u2014 and because a person can conceal or misreport<\/strong> what he feels, their measurement is far more difficult than the measurement of what he knows.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u092c\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Attitude scales<\/span>\u0915. \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Attitude was defined in \u00a73.1 B as a positive or negative evaluation<\/strong> of people, objects, events or ideas (Zimbardo, 1999)<\/em>, with three components \u2014 cognitive, affective and behavioural<\/strong>. Four standard scaling techniques are used.<\/span>\n \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> (\u091c\u093c\u093f\u092e\u094d\u092c\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u094b, 1999)<\/em> \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong>\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Scale<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it works<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Note<\/span>\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Thurstone scale (1928)<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1928)<\/span><\/strong> Equal-appearing intervals<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>A large pool of statements is sorted by judges<\/strong> into eleven piles from most favourable to most unfavourable; the median<\/strong> pile position becomes the statement's scale value<\/strong>. The respondent ticks only those he agrees with, and his score is the average scale value<\/strong> of the ticked statements.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0924\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0922\u0947\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0901\u091f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u0922\u0947\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0938 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940-\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>The first formal method<\/strong>; laborious and dependent on judges' bias.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong>; \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Likert scale<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong> Summated ratings<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Each statement is answered on a five-point agree\u2013disagree continuum<\/strong>; the values are added and averaged<\/strong>. Discussed fully in \u00a73.1 B, together with the forced-choice<\/strong> variant and the three biases that limit it.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0938\u093e\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>The most widely used<\/strong> \u2014 simpler than Thurstone and needs no judges.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Guttman scale<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u091f\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong> Cumulative scaling<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Statements are arranged in increasing intensity<\/strong>, so that agreeing with one implies agreement with all the milder ones below it. The score is simply how far up the ladder<\/strong> the respondent goes.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0935\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0932\u094d\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0922\u093c\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u090a\u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Elegant, but few attitudes are truly unidimensional<\/strong> enough to scale this way.<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0902\u0926\u0930, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u092e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Bogardus Social Distance Scale<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measures attitude towards a social group<\/strong> by asking how close a relationship the respondent would accept \u2014 from \"would marry into the group\" down to \"would exclude from my country\".<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0915\u0930 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0917\u093e \u2014 \"\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0939 \u0915\u0930\u0942\u0901\u0917\u093e\" \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \"\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0942\u0901\u0917\u093e\" \u0924\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Widely used in studies of caste, communal and racial prejudice<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u093e\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>B. Personality tests<\/span>\u0916. \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What is personality?<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/div>\n Gordon Allport:<\/strong> personality is \"the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.\"<\/strong> Three words matter \u2014 dynamic<\/strong> (it changes), organization<\/strong> (it is a whole, not a list of traits) and unique<\/strong> (no two are alike). The word derives from the Latin persona<\/em>, the mask worn by an actor.<\/span>\n \u0917\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0928 \u0911\u0932\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f:<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u094b-\u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\"<\/strong> \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932<\/strong> (\u092f\u0939 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948), \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> (\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f<\/strong> (\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0926\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902)\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0932\u0948\u091f\u093f\u0928 persona<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0939\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094c\u091f\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Self-report<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Inventories and questionnaires<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n The subject answers a long list of statements about himself, usually Yes \/ No \/ Cannot say<\/strong>. Scoring is objective and quick<\/strong>, and the tests can be given to large groups.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0939\u093e\u0901 \/ \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \/ \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0939 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947<\/strong>\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples and the built-in weakness<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>MMPI<\/strong> (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) \u2014 clinical; includes lie scales<\/em> to catch faking.<\/span>MMPI<\/strong> (\u092e\u093f\u0928\u0947\u0938\u094b\u091f\u093e \u092e\u0932\u094d\u091f\u0940\u092b\u093c\u0947\u091c\u093c\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940) \u2014 \u0928\u0948\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091d\u0942\u0920 \u092a\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0932\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Cattell's 16 PF<\/strong> \u2014 sixteen personality factors yielding a profile.<\/span>\u0915\u0948\u091f\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u093e 16 PF<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u094b\u0932\u0939 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Eysenck Personality Inventory<\/strong> \u2014 measures extraversion\u2013introversion<\/em> and neuroticism\u2013stability<\/em>.<\/span>\u0906\u0907\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u2014 \u092c\u0939\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0924\u093e\u2013\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0928\u093e\u092f\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u2013\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>The weakness:<\/strong> the subject knows what is being asked and can answer as he wishes to appear. This is exactly the social desirability bias<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 B.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e:<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Indirect<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Projective techniques<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n The subject is shown a deliberately vague, unstructured stimulus<\/strong> and asked what he sees or what is happening. Having no \"right answer\" to aim at, he projects<\/strong> his own needs, conflicts and feelings on to it \u2014 which is how these techniques reach the sub-conscious and pre-conscious mind<\/strong>, as \u00a71.7 noted.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f, \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \"\u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\" \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0926\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u00a71.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">The four best-known<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>Rorschach Ink Blot Test<\/strong> (Hermann Rorschach, 1921) \u2014 ten symmetrical ink blots, five in black and white, five with colour.<\/span>\u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e \u0907\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u091f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> (\u0939\u0930\u092e\u0928 \u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e, 1921) \u2014 \u0926\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u0940-\u0927\u092c\u094d\u092c\u0947, \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0924-\u0936\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092e, \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0930\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)<\/strong> (Morgan and Murray, 1935) \u2014 ambiguous pictures about which the subject tells a story. The Indian adaptation is Uma Chowdhury's TAT<\/strong>; the children's version is the CAT<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (TAT)<\/strong> (\u092e\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0930\u0947, 1935) \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u092e\u093e \u091a\u094c\u0927\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u093e TAT<\/strong>; \u092c\u093e\u0932-\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 CAT<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Sentence Completion Test<\/strong> \u2014 incomplete sentences such as \"My greatest fear is \u2026\" are finished by the subject.<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u092d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u2026\" \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>d<\/span>Word Association Test<\/strong> and Draw-a-Person Test<\/strong> \u2014 free response to a stimulus word, and analysis of a free drawing.<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u0938\u093e\u0939\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915-\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Observed<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Observational and situational methods<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n Instead of asking, the examiner watches<\/strong>. Rating scales<\/strong> record a judge's estimate of a trait; checklists<\/strong> record its presence or absence; the anecdotal record<\/strong> and cumulative record card<\/strong> accumulate evidence over years; and situational tests<\/strong> place the subject in a contrived but realistic situation \u2014 a group discussion, a leaderless task, an obstacle course \u2014 and observe how he actually behaves.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u091b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f; \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e, \u0928\u0947\u0924\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0935\u0939\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e-\u0926\u094c\u0921\u093c \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Also under this head<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924<\/span><\/b>Sociometry<\/strong> \u2014 mapping who chooses whom in a class, to reveal leaders, isolates and cliques; and the interview<\/strong> and case study<\/strong>, which combine several of these sources into a single portrait.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e, \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The trade-off to state in any answer on personality testing.<\/strong> Inventories<\/strong> are objective, reliable and economical but easily faked<\/strong>, because the subject can see what is being asked. Projective techniques<\/strong> cannot be faked, since the subject does not know what his response reveals \u2014 but they are highly subjective to interpret<\/strong>, need a trained clinician, and have low objectivity and reliability. Neither is complete; a full assessment uses several methods together.<\/span>\n \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092e\u092f \u0905\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u091b\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0915 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Attitude and personality measurement<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>51<\/span>Which one of the following tests is used for personality diagnosis?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Aptitude test<\/li>\n <li>(b) Projective test<\/li>\n <li>(c) Intelligence test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Achievement test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Projective test<\/b> Projective techniques \u2014 Rorschach, TAT, sentence completion, word association \u2014 present a vague unstructured stimulus onto which the subject projects his own needs and conflicts, which is why they reach the sub-conscious and resist faking.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e, TAT, \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u0938\u093e\u0939\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u091b\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>52<\/span>Thurstone\u2019s equal appearing intervals scale is used for measuring:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Aptitude<\/li>\n <li>(b) Attitude<\/li>\n <li>(c) Achievement<\/li>\n <li>(d) Creativity<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Attitude<\/b> Thurstone (1928) is an attitude scale: judges sort statements into eleven piles and the median position gives each statement its scale value. Note that Thurstone also gave the seven primary mental abilities \u2014 do not confuse the two contributions.<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 (1928) \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0948: \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0922\u0947\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940-\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092d\u0940 \u0926\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u0926\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3, \u00a710.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>79<\/span>Which one of the following is not a Projective Technique?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Sentence Completion<\/li>\n <li>(b) Word Associations<\/li>\n <li>(c) Situational Test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Rorschach Inkblot Test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Situational Test<\/b> A situational test places the subject in a contrived but realistic situation and observes<\/em> his actual behaviour \u2014 it is an observational or situational method, not a projective one. The other three all use vague stimuli onto which the subject projects.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>80<\/span>In which situations are sociometric techniques necessarily used by students? 1. When they elect their monitor 2. When they do homework regularly 3. When they choose sides for a game 4. When they listen attentively<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 4 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 4 only<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) 1 and 3 only<\/b> Sociometry maps who chooses whom within a group, to reveal leaders, isolates and cliques. Electing a monitor and choosing sides for a game are both acts of choosing peers; doing homework and listening attentively involve no interpersonal choice at all.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e, \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0949\u0928\u093f\u091f\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0916\u0947\u0932 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0917\u0943\u0939\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>64<\/span>Consider: 1. Interview is a face-to-face interaction. 2. In a structured interview, questions are predetermined and the sequence fixed. 3. In an unstructured interview, the interviewer has greater freedom to ask questions as per the situation.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) All three<\/b> All three statements are correct descriptions. The structured form makes responses comparable across candidates; the unstructured form yields depth but not comparability; the semi-structured form combines a fixed core with free probing.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3, \u00a74.15 F \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-31\">\n 10.4<\/span>\n <h3>Aptitude, Interest and Creativity Tests<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Intelligence tells us what a pupil can do in general<\/em>; personality and attitude tell us what he is<\/em>. Three further families of test complete the picture \u2014 what he could learn to do (aptitude<\/strong>), what he wants to do (interest<\/strong>), and what he can produce that is new (creativity<\/strong>). Together with intelligence they are the basis of all educational and vocational guidance<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>\u0964 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>), \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f<\/strong>), \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0928\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>)\u0964 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092f\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Aptitude tests<\/span>\u0915. \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Aptitude<\/strong> is the capacity to acquire proficiency<\/strong> in a specified field with training. As \u00a72.7 put it, achievement looks backward<\/em> and aptitude looks forward<\/em>. An aptitude test is therefore validated by its predictive validity<\/strong> (\u00a72.2).<\/span>\n \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0940\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u00a72.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947<\/em> \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/em>\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> (\u00a72.2) \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Differential Aptitude Test (DAT)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (DAT)<\/span><\/strong>The best-known battery<\/strong>, giving a profile<\/strong> across eight abilities \u2014 verbal reasoning, numerical ability, abstract reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, space relations, spelling and language usage.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0906\u0920 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e, \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928-\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Specialized aptitude tests<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Single-field tests: clerical, mechanical, musical (Seashore), artistic, teaching and scholastic aptitude<\/strong>. The entrance examination is in effect a scholastic aptitude test.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923: \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f, \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0924 (\u0938\u0940\u0936\u094b\u0930), \u0915\u0932\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Battery versus single test<\/span>\u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>A battery<\/strong> yields a profile of several scores and so supports guidance across careers; a single<\/strong> aptitude test answers one question only. The profile is what makes counselling possible.<\/span>\u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u090f\u0915\u0932<\/strong> \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Interest inventories<\/span>\u0916. \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Interest<\/strong> is a preference for one activity over another<\/strong> \u2014 a motivational, affective variable, not an ability. A pupil may have high mechanical aptitude and no mechanical interest, and guidance must attend to both. The standard instruments are the Strong Vocational Interest Blank<\/strong>, the Kuder Preference Record<\/strong> (which uses forced choice among triads), and in India S. P. Kulshrestha's<\/strong> and Chatterjee's<\/strong> interest inventories.<\/span>\n \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u092c\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0917\u0947\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917 \u0935\u094b\u0915\u0947\u0936\u0928\u0932 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0921\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u092b\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0921<\/strong> (\u091c\u094b \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948), \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0938. \u092a\u0940. \u0915\u0941\u0932\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u091f\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>C. Tests of creativity<\/span>\u0917. \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What creativity testing measures<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Creativity tests measure the divergent thinking<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 A \u2014 the ability to generate many different answers<\/strong> where a conventional test wants one right answer. Guilford's Structure of Intellect (\u00a710.2) is what made such testing theoretically respectable. Four qualities are scored:<\/span>\n \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e (\u00a710.2) \u0928\u0947 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u0926\u0940\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902:<\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:10px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Fluency<\/strong> \u2014 the number<\/em> of responses produced.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Flexibility<\/strong> \u2014 the number of different categories<\/em> the responses fall into.<\/span>\u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Originality<\/strong> \u2014 how statistically rare<\/em> a response is in the group.<\/span>\u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0932\u092d<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Elaboration<\/strong> \u2014 the amount of detail<\/em> added to an idea.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n Instruments:<\/strong> the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)<\/strong>, verbal and figural; Guilford's Unusual Uses<\/em> test; and in India Baqer Mehdi's<\/strong> and Passi's<\/strong> tests of creative thinking.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923:<\/strong> \u091f\u0949\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0938 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u090f\u091f\u093f\u0935 \u0925\u093f\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0902\u0917 (TTCT)<\/strong>, \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915; \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/em> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0915\u093c\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0939\u0926\u0940<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0938\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The relationship examiners ask about.<\/strong> Intelligence and creativity are related but not the same<\/strong>. The threshold hypothesis<\/strong> holds that a certain minimum intelligence (around IQ 120) is necessary<\/em> for creativity, but beyond that point the correlation between the two nearly disappears \u2014 a very high IQ does not guarantee a creative person. This is the strongest single argument against judging a pupil by IQ alone, and it connects directly to the limitations listed in \u00a710.2.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u0947\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f (\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 IQ 120) \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915<\/em> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0932\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a IQ \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 IQ \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u00a710.2 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"11\" id=\"c11\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n REVISION<\/span>\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Revision and Reference<\/span>\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Objectives, Summaries, Key Terms, Formula Sheet, Abbreviations, Questions and Exercises, Syllabus Map and Further Reading<\/span>\n \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936, \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-1\">\n 11.1<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Identify different measurement scales<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Discuss the nature of educational measurement and evaluation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the types and techniques of evaluation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains<\/strong> and how their objectives are formulated and assessed.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-1\">\n 11.2<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Distinguish teacher-made<\/strong> from standardized<\/strong> tests and state when each is appropriate.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain criterion-referenced<\/strong> and norm-referenced<\/strong> testing.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the essential qualities<\/strong> of a good measuring instrument.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Discuss the types of educational tests<\/strong> and the measurement of achievement.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the construction and standardization<\/strong> of an achievement test and compare different test items<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the construction, usefulness and types of diagnostic tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-1\">\n 11.3<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the concept of intelligence<\/strong> and describe the main types of intelligence tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Compute and interpret the Intelligence Quotient<\/strong> and state its uses and limitations.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the tools used in attitude and personality<\/strong> measurement.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Discuss the defects of the present examination system<\/strong> and the reforms proposed for it.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the open book examination<\/strong> and the semester system<\/strong>, with their merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0940, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-1\">\n 11.4<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Organize raw scores into a frequency distribution<\/strong> and represent it graphically<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Compute and interpret the mean, median and mode<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Compute and interpret the range, quartile deviation, average deviation and standard deviation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938, \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928, \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Compute the coefficient of correlation<\/strong> by the product-moment and rank-difference methods.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Calculate percentiles and percentile ranks<\/strong>, and explain skewness and kurtosis<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the normal probability curve<\/strong> and its applications, and convert raw scores into Z-scores and T-scores<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-1\">\n 11.5<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the concept of reliability<\/strong> and the factors affecting it.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the four methods<\/strong> of determining the reliability coefficient and state when each is used.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain validity<\/strong>, its types and uses, and how the validity coefficient is determined.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong>, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>State the relationship between validity and reliability<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Discuss grading, the credit system and the cumulative record card<\/strong>, with their issues and problems.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the role of the computer and multimedia<\/strong> in evaluation and education.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-7\">\n 11.6<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Measurement<\/strong> is the process by which the attributes or dimensions of an object are determined \u2014 the assignment of numbers to persons or objects according to established rules. It answers \"how much\"<\/strong> and is precise, objective and quantitative<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Measurement is of two types<\/strong> \u2014 physical<\/strong> (direct, absolute zero, always accurate) and mental or educational<\/strong> (indirect, relative, no absolute zero, both qualitative and quantitative).<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915<\/strong> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915<\/strong> (\u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A good measuring tool must be valid, reliable, objective, usable, comprehensive, easy to administer, economical, easy to score, easily available<\/strong> and of good get-up<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u0927, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932, \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932, \u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u093e\u091c-\u0938\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Scaling<\/strong> is the process of measuring in the social sciences; it may be comparative<\/strong> (items compared directly) or non-comparative<\/strong> (each item scaled independently). Cronbach (1949)<\/strong> classified the functions of measurement as prognosis, diagnosis and research<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> (\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e) \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928) \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 (1949)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Evaluation<\/strong> assigns value<\/strong> to a measure. Its equation is quantitative and\/or qualitative description + value judgement<\/strong>. It is philosophical, subjective and continuous<\/strong>, and draws its data from measurement.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0914\u0930\/\u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The evaluation process has three aspects<\/strong> \u2014 quantitative measurement<\/strong>, qualitative assessment<\/strong> and teachers' opinion<\/strong> \u2014 each compensating for the limits of the previous one.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong>, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u093e\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u093f\u091b\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)<\/strong> is \"comprehensive\" because it assesses all three domains and \"continuous\" because learning results from continuous formal and informal experience. Its central insight is that the student's competition is with themselves, not with others<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 (CCE)<\/strong> \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u0938\u0924\u0924\" \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Formative and summative<\/strong> are the two most commonly used types. Formative<\/strong> is a monitoring type<\/strong> conducted during<\/em> the teaching\u2013learning process, aimed at improving its quality<\/strong>, with feedback given after it. Summative<\/strong> is conducted at the end<\/strong> of a course, semester, class or topic, evaluates the quality of the final product, involves no remedial teaching<\/strong>, and is the basis of certification<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/em> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Placement<\/strong> evaluation assesses entry behaviour<\/strong> and determines each student's position in the instructional sequence. Diagnostic<\/strong> evaluation addresses persistent difficulties left unresolved by formative correctives<\/strong>, determines their causes and formulates a plan for remedial action.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0941\u0908\u0902<\/strong>, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>External<\/strong> evaluation invites examiners from outside and eliminates bias<\/strong>; internal<\/strong> evaluation has the teacher as examiner and permits remedial teaching<\/strong> for weaker students.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Teaching, learning experiences and assessment are interrelated<\/strong>. Assessment enters at the planning stage<\/strong>, and its purpose is to improve learning, not merely to measure achievement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e-\u091a\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Bloom (1948\u20131956, University of Chicago)<\/strong> classified educational objectives into cognitive, affective and psychomotor<\/strong> domains, corresponding to Gandhi's mind, soul and body<\/strong>. The domains are interrelated and hierarchical<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e (1948\u20131956, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0917\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0917\u093e\u0902\u0927\u0940\u091c\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0928, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The cognitive domain<\/strong> has six levels \u2014 knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation \u2014 and requires five thinking skills: convergent, divergent, critical thinking, problem solving and decision making<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The affective domain<\/strong> (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1964) has five levels \u2014 receiving, responding, valuing, organization and characterization. Attitude is measured by direct observation, direct questioning, projective techniques, the Thurstone scale (1928) and the Likert scale<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u092f\u093e, 1964) \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1928) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The psychomotor domain<\/strong> (R. H. Dave, 1969, adapted) has five levels \u2014 initiation\/observation, manipulation, precision, articulation and naturalization \u2014 and is assessed through performance assessment<\/strong> using open-ended answers, extended tasks and portfolios.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> (\u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947, 1969, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924) \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0928\/\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The 2001 revision<\/strong> by Anderson, Krathwohl, Cruikshank<\/strong> and others converted the six cognitive nouns into verbs<\/strong>, replacing \"Knowledge\" with \"Remembering\" because knowledge was a product<\/strong> of thinking rather than a category of thinking.<\/span>2001 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u090f\u0902\u0921\u0930\u0938\u0928, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0907\u0915\u0936\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u2014 \u0928\u0947 \u091b\u0939 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\" \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \"\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\" \u0930\u0916\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/strong> \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-6\">\n 11.7<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A tool<\/strong> is the instrument that collects evidence; a technique<\/strong> is the manner of collecting it. A rating scale is a tool, observation is a technique.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0964 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A teacher-made test<\/strong> is built by the class teacher for her own pupils \u2014 economical, flexible and matched to what was taught, but lacking norms, item analysis and computed reliability. A standardized test<\/strong> is built by experts with try-out, item analysis, established norms and a published manual, and its scores are comparable across schools.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940, \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0930\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A criterion-referenced test<\/strong> compares performance against a fixed pre-declared standard and reports mastery or non-mastery<\/strong>; a norm-referenced test<\/strong> compares performance against the group and reports a rank or percentile<\/strong>. CRT suits mastery learning and CCE; NRT suits selection and entrance examinations.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092f\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 CRT \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 CCE \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941, NRT \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The primary qualities<\/strong> of a good instrument are validity, reliability, objectivity and norms<\/strong>; the secondary qualities<\/strong> are usability, comparability and discriminating power<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong>; \u0917\u094c\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e, \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Validity<\/strong> has four types \u2014 content, criterion-related (concurrent and predictive), construct and face<\/strong>. Reliability<\/strong> is determined by test\u2013retest, parallel forms, split-half and rational equivalence<\/strong>. Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity<\/strong>: a test can be consistently wrong, but it cannot be truly right while being inconsistent.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 (\u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915), \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a, \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Educational tests are classified by what they measure<\/strong> (achievement, aptitude, intelligence, diagnostic, prognostic, personality), by administration<\/strong> (individual\/group), by time pressure<\/strong> (speed\/power), by medium<\/strong> (verbal\/non-verbal\/performance) and by scoring<\/strong> (objective\/essay).<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> (\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935), \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> (\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\/\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915), \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935<\/strong> (\u0917\u0924\u093f\/\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f), \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> (\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915\/\u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915\/\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> (\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\/\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Achievement<\/strong> looks backward and asks how much has been learnt; aptitude<\/strong> looks forward and asks how much can be learnt.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Achievement-test construction runs through four stages \u2014 planning (producing the blueprint), preparing, trying out and evaluating<\/strong>. The blueprint<\/strong> is a two-way grid of objectives against content units and is the chief guarantee of content validity<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e (\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f), \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong>\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/strong> \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Item analysis<\/strong> yields the difficulty value P<\/strong> and the discrimination index D<\/strong>, computed from the top and bottom 27% of scripts. Items with P between 40% and 60%<\/strong> and D of 0.30 or more<\/strong> are retained; an item with negative D<\/strong> is rejected.<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 P<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 D<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0947 27% \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 P 40%\u201360%<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e D 0.30 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 D<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Essay items<\/strong> test organization and expression but suffer from low scorer objectivity and poor content sampling; objective items<\/strong> give high objectivity and wide coverage but cannot test expression and are slow to construct. Short-answer items<\/strong> are the compromise between the two.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0940\u092e\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u094c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Among objective forms, multiple choice<\/strong> is the most versatile, true\u2013false<\/strong> suffers from 50% guessing, matching<\/strong> is economical but confined to factual association, and completion<\/strong> eliminates guessing but may admit more than one defensible answer.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 50% \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A diagnostic test<\/strong> locates the specific sub-skill at which learning breaks down. It is built by task analysis<\/strong>, its items are deliberately easy<\/strong> and arranged in the sequence of steps, it carries no marks and no pass or fail<\/strong>, and it yields a profile<\/strong> rather than a score.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u093e \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u091f\u0942\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Diagnostic tests may be standardized or teacher-made, subject-wise, group or individual<\/strong>, and are supported by informal techniques<\/strong> \u2014 observation, oral questioning, interview, analysis of written work, checklists and cumulative records. Diagnosis is useless unless it is followed by remedial teaching and a re-test.<\/strong><\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u2014 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-5\">\n 11.8<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A psychological test<\/strong> is an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour<\/strong> (Anastasi). It is always inferential<\/strong>, because psychological measurement is indirect.<\/span>\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 (\u090f\u0928\u093e\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0938\u0940)\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Intelligence<\/strong> has been defined as the capacity to adjust<\/strong> (Stern), to think abstractly<\/strong> (Terman), to exercise judgement<\/strong> (Binet), and as the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment<\/strong> (Wechsler). Boring's operational definition \u2014 intelligence is what intelligence tests measure \u2014 is circular but honest.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e (\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928), \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e (\u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928), \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e (\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947), \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> (\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930) \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u094b\u0930\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Theories differ on how many factors<\/strong> intelligence has: unifactor<\/strong> (Binet), two-factor 'g' and 's'<\/strong> (Spearman), multifactor<\/strong> (Thorndike), seven primary abilities<\/strong> (Thurstone), the Structure of Intellect<\/strong> (Guilford, source of convergent and divergent thinking) and multiple intelligences<\/strong> (Gardner). A one-factor view yields a single IQ; a multi-factor view yields a profile.<\/span>\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u090f\u0915-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> (\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947), \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 'g' \u090f\u0935\u0902 's'<\/strong> (\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928), \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> (\u0925\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0921\u093e\u0907\u0915), \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> (\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928), \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> (\u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> (\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0928\u0930)\u0964 \u090f\u0915-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0915\u0932 IQ \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>IQ = MA \/ CA \u00d7 100.<\/strong> Binet and Simon gave the first practical scale in 1905<\/strong> and the idea of mental age<\/strong>; Stern expressed it as a ratio in 1912 and Terman multiplied by 100 in 1916. CA is capped at about 16 for adults, and modern tests use the deviation IQ<\/strong> instead.<\/span>IQ = MA \/ CA \u00d7 100\u0964<\/strong> \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928 \u0928\u0947 1905<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0926\u0940; \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928 \u0928\u0947 1912 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928 \u0928\u0947 1916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 100 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 CA \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 16 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Intelligence tests are classified as individual or group<\/strong>, and as verbal, non-verbal, performance or culture-fair<\/strong>. The principal scales are the Binet\u2013Simon<\/strong>, the Stanford\u2013Binet<\/strong>, the Wechsler scales<\/strong> (verbal + performance + full scale IQ), Army Alpha and Beta<\/strong>, Raven's Progressive Matrices<\/strong>, and in India the Bhatia Battery of Performance Tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915, \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915, \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947\u2013\u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928<\/strong>, \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921\u2013\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947<\/strong>, \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> (\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 + \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 + \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 IQ), \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e<\/strong>, \u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u092a\u0930\u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0938<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>IQ is useful for classification, identification of the gifted, diagnosis of under-achievement, guidance and selection<\/strong>, but it samples only a narrow band of abilities, is affected by language and culture<\/strong>, is not fixed for life, and can produce a damaging label<\/strong>. Results are confidential.<\/span>IQ \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928, \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928-\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092d\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0932\u0947\u092c\u0932<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0917\u094b\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Attitude is measured by four standard scales \u2014 Thurstone<\/strong> (equal-appearing intervals, judges), Likert<\/strong> (summated ratings, most used), Guttman<\/strong> (cumulative) and Bogardus<\/strong> (social distance).<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928<\/strong> (\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915), \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f<\/strong> (\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924), \u0917\u0941\u091f\u092e\u0948\u0928<\/strong> (\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938<\/strong> (\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Personality \u2014 \"the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment\"<\/strong> (Allport) \u2014 is measured by inventories<\/strong> (MMPI, Cattell\u2019s 16 PF, the Eysenck Personality Inventory), projective techniques<\/strong> (Rorschach, TAT, sentence completion, word association) and observational and situational methods<\/strong> (rating scales, anecdotal records, sociometry, case study).<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u2014 \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u094b-\u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\"<\/strong> (\u0911\u0932\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f) \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (MMPI, \u0915\u0948\u091f\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u093e 16 PF, \u0906\u0907\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940), \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (\u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e, TAT, \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u0938\u093e\u0939\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (\u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932, \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928) \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The central trade-off in personality testing: inventories are objective but easily faked; projective techniques cannot be faked but are subjective to interpret.<\/strong> A full assessment uses several methods together.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092e\u092f: \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The present examination system is external, terminal, essay-dominated, cognitive-only and norm-referenced<\/strong>. Its main defects are low validity and reliability, poor sampling, cramming, anxiety, malpractice, absence of diagnostic value and neglect of the whole child<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e, \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u0930\u091f\u0928\u093e, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Reforms recommended by the Mudaliar, Kothari, NPE 1986, NCF 2005<\/strong> and NEP 2020<\/strong> include CCE, internal assessment with moderation, grading, question banks and blueprints, mixed question papers, scoring reforms, semesterization, open book examinations, technology and anti-malpractice measures<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0930, \u0915\u094b\u0920\u093e\u0930\u0940, NPE 1986, NCF 2005<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 CCE, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f, \u092e\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The open book examination<\/strong> permits consultation of material and so kills rote memorization, tests higher abilities and reduces anxiety and malpractice \u2014 but it makes question-setting and scoring far harder<\/strong> and is unsuitable where factual recall must be tested. It exists in restricted, unrestricted and take-home<\/strong> forms.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u0921\u093c \u0915\u093e\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u0905\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0943\u0939-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The semester system<\/strong> divides the year into two independent terms with their own examinations and credits. It reduces load, keeps students engaged, gives timely feedback and improves reliability<\/strong>, but creates perpetual examination, heavy administration, unit-wise cramming and little time for co-curricular work<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u092e\u092f\u094b\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-9\">\n 11.9<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Statistics<\/strong> is the science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analysing and interpreting numerical data. Descriptive<\/strong> statistics describes the group measured; inferential<\/strong> statistics generalizes from a sample to a population. This unit is entirely descriptive.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Statistical treatment follows five steps \u2014 collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation<\/strong>. Measurement becomes evaluation only at the last step, when the numbers are given educational meaning.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A frequency distribution<\/strong> groups scores into class intervals. The exact limits<\/strong> of 50\u201359 are 49.5\u201359.5 and its midpoint<\/strong> is 54.5. Graphs: the histogram<\/strong> (exact limits, no gaps), the frequency polygon<\/strong> (midpoints, allows comparison of two distributions), the ogive<\/strong> (cumulative, S-shaped, used to read medians and percentiles), the bar diagram<\/strong> (categorical, with gaps) and the pie diagram<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 50\u201359 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> 49.5\u201359.5 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> 54.5 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916: \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> (\u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902), \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c<\/strong> (\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941, \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935), \u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923<\/strong> (\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940, S-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941), \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/strong> (\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The three measures of central tendency<\/strong> are the mean<\/strong> (\u03a3f<\/em>X\/N; uses every score; affected by extremes; the basis of all later statistics), the median<\/strong> (positional; unaffected by extremes; preferred in skewed distributions) and the mode<\/strong> (most frequent; least stable). They are linked by Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> (\u03a3f<\/em>X\/N; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924; \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930), \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> (\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0915; \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/strong> (\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930; \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930)\u0964 \u092f\u0947 Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The measures of variability<\/strong> are the range<\/strong> (crudest, uses two scores), the quartile deviation<\/strong> (partner of the median, used with skewed or open-ended data), the average deviation<\/strong> (uses all scores but discards signs arbitrarily) and the standard deviation<\/strong> \u2014 the most reliable, algebraically sound, and the foundation of correlation, derived scores, the normal curve, reliability and validity.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/strong> (\u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932\u0924\u092e, \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915), \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/strong> (\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0940, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941), \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/strong> (\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u090f) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f, \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Correlation<\/strong> expresses the relationship between two sets of scores as a number from \u22121.00 to +1.00<\/strong>. Pearson's product-moment r<\/strong> is used with interval data and a linear relationship; Spearman's rank-difference \u03c1<\/strong> with ordinal data or small N. Remember: correlation is not causation<\/strong>, r is not a percentage<\/strong> (square it for shared variance), and a negative r is not a weak r<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u094b \u22121.00 \u0938\u0947 +1.00<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 r<\/strong> \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941; \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u03c1<\/strong> \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 N \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902: \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, r \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> (\u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f), \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 r \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 r \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A percentile<\/strong> is a score below which a given percentage lies; a percentile rank<\/strong> is the percentage lying below a given score. They are inverse operations. P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, P50<\/sub> = Median, P75<\/sub> = Q3<\/sub><\/strong>, and the percentile formula is the median formula generalized.<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0939\u094b; \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, P50<\/sub> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, P75<\/sub> = Q3<\/sub><\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Skewness<\/strong> measures departure from symmetry: positive<\/strong> means most scores are low and the paper was too hard; negative<\/strong> means most are high and it was too easy. Kurtosis<\/strong> measures peakedness: Ku = 0.263 is normal (mesokurtic)<\/strong>; below it is leptokurtic<\/strong> (homogeneous group, low variability); above it is platykurtic<\/strong> (heterogeneous group, high variability).<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948: \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948: Ku = 0.263 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f (\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940)<\/strong>; \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e \u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/strong> (\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e); \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/strong> (\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The normal probability curve<\/strong> is bell-shaped, perfectly symmetrical, unimodal and asymptotic, with mean = median = mode<\/strong>. Its areas are fixed: 68.26 per cent within \u00b11\u03c3, 95.44 per cent within \u00b12\u03c3 and 99.73 per cent within \u00b13\u03c3<\/strong>. It is used to determine percentages of cases, convert scores, assign grades, compare groups, standardize tests and interpret IQs.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u090f\u0915\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e = \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u00b11\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 68.26 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924, \u00b12\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 95.44 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00b13\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 99.73 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 IQ \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Derived scores<\/strong> re-express a raw score as its distance from its own mean in SD units, so scores on different tests become comparable. Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3<\/strong> has mean 0 and SD 1; T = 50 + 10Z<\/strong> has mean 50 and SD 10 and avoids negatives; the deviation IQ<\/strong> uses mean 100 and SD 15; the stanine<\/strong> uses mean 5 and SD 2.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 SD-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 1; T = 50 + 10Z<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 10, \u091c\u094b \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 100 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 15; \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 5 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 2\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-6\">\n 11.10<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Reliability<\/strong> is the consistency, stability and dependability of test scores. On the true-score model, X = T + E<\/strong>: every obtained score contains a true component and an error component, and reliability is the proportion of obtained variance that is true variance.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0947\u092e\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 X = T + E<\/strong>: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Reliability rises with the length of the test<\/strong> and the range of ability in the group<\/strong>, and with objectivity of scoring<\/strong> and moderate item difficulty<\/strong>. It is lowered by guessing, poor testing conditions, speededness<\/strong> and examinee variables<\/strong> such as fatigue and anxiety.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908<\/strong>, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u092a\u0926-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928, \u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0917\u0924\u093f-\u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940-\u091a\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Four methods determine the reliability coefficient \u2014 test\u2013retest<\/strong> (stability over time; threatened by memory and by real growth), parallel forms<\/strong> (equivalence; the best single index but laborious to build), split-half<\/strong> (internal consistency; odd against even items, corrected by Spearman\u2013Brown<\/strong>) and rational equivalence<\/strong> (Kuder\u2013Richardson and Cronbach's alpha, from a single administration).<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> (\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e; \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u091f\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924), \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> (\u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e; \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f), \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926<\/strong> (\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e \u092a\u0926, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> (\u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e, \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The Spearman\u2013Brown formula, rtt<\/sub> = 2rhh<\/sub>\/(1 + rhh<\/sub>)<\/strong>, corrects the split-half coefficient for length, because the half-test always understates the reliability of the whole.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930, rtt<\/sub> = 2rhh<\/sub>\/(1 + rhh<\/sub>)<\/strong>, \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Validity<\/strong> is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is specific to a purpose<\/strong> and a matter of degree, not of kind<\/strong>. Its types are content, concurrent, predictive, construct<\/strong> and face<\/strong> validity.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The validity coefficient is the same product-moment r<\/strong> of \u00a74.7, but computed between the test and an outside criterion<\/strong> rather than between the test and itself. It can never exceed the quality of the criterion, and 0.40 to 0.60 is considered good<\/strong> \u2014 far lower than the 0.80 to 0.95 expected of reliability.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u00a74.7 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 r \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e 0.40 \u0938\u0947 0.60 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 0.80\u20130.95 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of validity.<\/strong> A test can be reliable without being valid \u2014 the wrongly calibrated weighing machine \u2014 but it cannot be valid without being reliable. Numerically, validity cannot exceed the square root of reliability<\/strong>, so reliability sets the ceiling on validity.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Grading<\/strong> reports achievement in broad letter categories instead of exact marks, acknowledging the error of measurement and ending the competition for one extra mark. Absolute grading<\/strong> uses fixed mark ranges and is criterion-referenced; relative grading<\/strong> uses \u03c3-distances on the normal curve and is norm-referenced.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948; \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A credit<\/strong> measures the volume of learning in a course; SGPA = \u03a3(C \u00d7 G) \/ \u03a3C<\/strong> and CGPA is the same across all semesters. This is a weighted mean<\/strong>, with credits as weights. The CBCS<\/strong> adds course choice, and NEP 2020's Academic Bank of Credit<\/strong> allows storage and transfer.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; SGPA = \u03a3(C \u00d7 G) \/ \u03a3C<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e CGPA \u0935\u0939\u0940, \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 CBCS<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0915\u093e\u0926\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The cumulative record card<\/strong> is a permanent, continuously maintained record of all significant information about a pupil \u2014 personal, health, academic, test, co-curricular and behavioural. It makes the \"comprehensive\" of CCE concrete and is the ancestor of NEP 2020's holistic progress card<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940, \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 CCE \u0915\u0947 \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The chief issues<\/strong> in these trends are arbitrary grade boundaries, loss of fine discrimination, grade inflation<\/strong>, doubtful comparability across institutions, inadequate teacher training, the record-keeping burden, subjectivity and bias in behavioural notes, and confidentiality<\/strong> of sensitive data.<\/span>\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/strong>, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u093f\u0917\u094d\u0927 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u091d, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u094b\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The computer<\/strong> serves evaluation through item banking, statistical analysis, online and adaptive testing, on-screen marking, record keeping, result processing and e-portfolios<\/strong>. Its limitations are cost and infrastructure, a bias towards objective items, data security, technical failure \u2014 and the fact that a computer computes but cannot make a value judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0911\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0908-\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u091d\u0941\u0915\u093e\u0935, \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Multimedia<\/strong> integrates text, audio, images, animation, video and interactivity, engaging more than one sense channel at once. It makes the abstract concrete, serves all three domains, allows self-pacing and immediate feedback, and extends reach \u2014 but it is a tool, not a substitute for the teacher<\/strong>, and is only as good as the educational objectives it serves.<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u0920, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f, \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0935\u0940\u0921\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0907\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-8\">\n 11.11<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/b>Assignment of numbers to persons or objects according to established rules; answers \"how much\".<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902\/\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e; \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e\" \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Assigning value to a measure; quantitative and\/or qualitative description plus value judgement.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e; \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0914\u0930\/\u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Physical measurement<\/span>\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/b>Direct measurement of objects with absolute existence, starting from an absolute zero.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Mental \/ educational measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \/ \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/b>Indirect and relative measurement of traits inferred from responses; no absolute zero.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Scaling<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/b>The process of measuring in the social sciences; comparative or non-comparative.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e; \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The truthfulness of a test \u2014 the extent to which it measures what it intends to measure.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The consistency or faithfulness of an instrument across repeated administrations.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Objectivity<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Item objectivity (one definite answer) plus scoring objectivity (same score whoever scores).<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e (\u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e (\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Usability<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The degree to which teachers and administrators can successfully use a tool in practice.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Prognosis function<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/b>Use of measurement to predict future behaviour; carries the administrative functions.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Diagnosis function<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/b>Identification of weaknesses in learning, establishing a cause\u2013effect relationship.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u2013\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Research function<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/b>Use of measurement to verify scientific hypotheses and permit valid generalizations.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Rating scale<\/span>\u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/b>A 5-, 7-, 9- or 11-point scale on which judges rate a relative psychological trait.<\/span>5, 7, 9 \u092f\u093e 11 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Projective technique<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>Ambiguous, subjective technique reflecting the sub-conscious and pre-conscious mind, e.g. TAT.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 TAT\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">CCE<\/span>CCE<\/span><\/b>Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation \u2014 continuous in time, comprehensive across all three domains.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924, \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Placement evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Assessment of entry behaviour to fix the learner's position in the instructional sequence.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Formative evaluation<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Monitoring-type evaluation during instruction, aimed at improving teaching-learning quality.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Diagnostic evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Deep probe into persistent difficulties unresolved by formative correctives; leads to remedial plans.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0938\u0941\u0932\u091d\u0940 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a; \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Summative evaluation<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>End-of-course evaluation of the final product; basis of certification; no remedial teaching after it.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930; \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">External evaluation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Examiners invited from outside; teacher and examiner are never the same; eliminates bias.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0938\u0947; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Internal evaluation<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Teacher is the examiner; class, unit, weekly and monthly tests; enables remedial teaching.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915; \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908, \u0938\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Taxonomy<\/span>\u091f\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0938\u094b\u0928\u0949\u092e\u0940<\/span><\/b>The study of classification; in education, the systematic classification of aims and objectives.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Cognitive domain<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/b>Objectives developing intellectual abilities \u2014 knowing, understanding, thinking, problem solving.<\/span>\u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e, \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Affective domain<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/b>Objectives developing emotions, values, attitudes, interests and appreciation.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Psychomotor domain<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/b>Objectives developing manipulative and motor skills; requires psychological readiness.<\/span>\u0939\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0947\u0936\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f; \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Convergent thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/b>Guilford's term for the ability to give the correct answer to standard questions using logic.<\/span>\u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u2014 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Divergent thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/b>Spontaneous, free-flowing generation of many original ideas about a topic in a short time.<\/span>\u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Critical thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/b>Reasonable reflective thinking focused on what to believe and what not to believe.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Learning set<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/b>Harlow's concept \u2014 having \"learned how to learn\", which transfers positively to similar problems.<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u2014 \"\u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e\", \u091c\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Attitude<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/b>A positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, events, activities or ideas (Zimbardo, 1999).<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 (\u091c\u093c\u093f\u092e\u094d\u092c\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u094b, 1999)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Likert scale<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>Balanced attitude scale summing responses to multiple items; also called the Summative Scale.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u0932\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Thurstone scale<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>The first official attitude-measurement method (1928), using numerically valued statements.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f (1928), \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Interest inventory<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span><\/b>Career-assessment tool developed by E. K. Strong (1927) to identify a person's interest areas.<\/span>\u0908.\u0915\u0947. \u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917 (1927) \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Self-concept<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f<\/span><\/b>How we assess ourselves as individuals; comprises self-image, self-esteem and the ideal self.<\/span>\u0939\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Performance assessment<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/b>Testing that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer from a list.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-7\">\n 11.12<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Tool<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The instrument through which evidence is collected \u2014 a test, inventory, scale or schedule.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Technique<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>The method or manner in which evidence is collected \u2014 observation, interview, self-reporting.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Teacher-made test<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test constructed by the class teacher for her own pupils, without try-out or norms.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941, \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Standardized test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>An expert-built test with uniform directions, established norms and reported reliability and validity.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Criterion-referenced test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test interpreting a score against a fixed standard; reports mastery or non-mastery.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Norm-referenced test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test interpreting a score against the performance of a reference group; reports rank or percentile.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092f\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Norms<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span><\/b>The average performance of a defined reference group, used to give meaning to a raw score.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Content validity<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which items adequately sample the whole syllabus and all objectives.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Predictive validity<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which present scores forecast performance on a future criterion.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Construct validity<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which a test really measures the psychological trait it claims to measure.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Split-half method<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>Reliability found by correlating odd and even items, corrected by the Spearman\u2013Brown formula.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Discriminating power<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The ability of a test or item to separate the able from the less able.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u092e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Achievement test<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test of how much has been learnt after a period of instruction; backward-looking.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092d\u0942\u0924\u094b\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Aptitude test<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test of the capacity to acquire a skill with training; forward-looking.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Speed test<\/span>\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Easy items with a strict time limit; measures the rate of work.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e; \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Power test<\/span>\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Items of rising difficulty with liberal time; measures the level of ability reached.<\/span>\u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Blueprint<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/span><\/b>A two-way table of objectives against content units showing the marks allotted to each cell.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Item analysis<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Examination of each item after try-out for its difficulty value and discrimination index.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Difficulty value (P)<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 (P)<\/span><\/b>The percentage of examinees answering an item correctly; a higher P means an easier item.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924; P \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Discrimination index (D)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 (D)<\/span><\/b>The difference between correct responses of the upper and lower groups, divided by group size.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Distractor<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/span><\/b>A wrong alternative in a multiple-choice item; a good distractor is drawn from pupils' real errors.<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a; \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Halo effect<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/b>The examiner's general impression of a pupil influencing the marks given on a particular answer.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Diagnostic test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>An easy, sub-skill-wise test that locates the exact point at which learning breaks down.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u0932, \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u091f\u0942\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Task analysis<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Breaking a skill into the logical sequence of sub-skills a pupil must master.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Remedial teaching<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Targeted re-teaching of the failed sub-skill by a method different from the one that failed.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e, \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-6\">\n 11.13<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Psychological test<\/span>\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>An objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour (Anastasi).<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a (\u090f\u0928\u093e\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0938\u0940)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Mental age (MA)<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 (MA)<\/span><\/b>The age level at which a child performs on an intelligence scale; Binet's key invention.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0906\u092f\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Intelligence Quotient (IQ)<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f (IQ)<\/span><\/b>Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 100 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Deviation IQ<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/span><\/b>A standard score with mean 100 and SD 15 or 16, used in place of the ratio IQ in modern tests.<\/span>100 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 15 \u092f\u093e 16 SD \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u091c\u094b \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924-IQ \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">'g' factor<\/span>'g' \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/b>Spearman's general factor, common to all mental tasks and largely inborn.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915, \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936\u0924\u0903 \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u091c\u093e\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">'s' factor<\/span>'s' \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/b>Spearman's specific factor, peculiar to a particular task and acquired through experience.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Primary mental abilities<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/b>Thurstone's seven group factors: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, space, memory, reasoning, perceptual speed.<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915: \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939, \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Multiple intelligences<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>Gardner's view that there are several relatively independent intelligences, not one general ability.<\/span>\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0928\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0924 \u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Performance test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test requiring actual manipulation of objects, with no language element \u2014 e.g. Kohs Block Design.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0930\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u094d\u0938 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915 \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Culture-fair test<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test designed so that no cultural or educational group is favoured; usually non-verbal.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u093e\u092d \u0928 \u0926\u0947; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Bhatia Battery<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/span><\/b>The Indian performance battery (1955) of five sub-tests, the most used in India.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 (1955), \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Thurstone scale<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>Attitude scale of equal-appearing intervals in which judges assign scale values to statements.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940-\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Guttman scale<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u091f\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>Cumulative attitude scale in which agreeing with one item implies agreement with all milder ones.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0932\u094d\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Bogardus Social Distance Scale<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>Measures attitude to a social group by the closeness of relationship the respondent will accept.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u0909\u0938 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Personality<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/b>The dynamic organization within the individual of the psycho-physical systems determining his unique adjustment (Allport).<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u094b-\u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 (\u0911\u0932\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Personality inventory<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span><\/b>A self-report list of statements about oneself, objectively scored \u2014 e.g. MMPI, 16 PF, EPI.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 MMPI, 16 PF, EPI\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Rorschach test<\/span>\u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Projective test of ten symmetrical ink blots (Rorschach, 1921).<\/span>\u0926\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u0940-\u0927\u092c\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (\u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e, 1921)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">TAT<\/span>TAT<\/span><\/b>Thematic Apperception Test (Morgan and Murray, 1935) \u2014 stories told about ambiguous pictures.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (\u092e\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0930\u0947, 1935) \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Situational test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Places the subject in a contrived but realistic situation and observes his actual behaviour.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Sociometry<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/b>Mapping who chooses whom within a group, to reveal leaders, isolates and cliques.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e, \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Open book examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/b>An examination in which candidates may consult books and notes while answering.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094b\u091f\u094d\u0938 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Take-home examination<\/span>\u0917\u0943\u0939-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/b>An open book form in which the paper is answered at home over several days.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0918\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0908 \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Semester system<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/b>Division of the academic year into two independent terms, each with its own courses and examination.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">CGPA<\/span>CGPA<\/span><\/b>Cumulative Grade Point Average \u2014 the weighted average of grade points across all semesters.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u2014 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Question bank<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>A stored collection of pre-tested items from which papers are drawn, raising objectivity.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0943\u0939\u0940\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">PARAKH<\/span>PARAKH<\/span><\/b>The national assessment centre established under NEP 2020.<\/span>NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-10\">\n 11.14<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms and Formula Sheet<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n Formula Sheet<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Every formula in this unit, in one place<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Statistic<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Formula<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Remember<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>M = \u03a3f<\/em>X \/ N<\/td><td>\u03a3x = 0 always \u2014 use as a check<\/span>\u03a3x \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 0 \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Median<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Md = L + [(N\/2 \u2212 cf<\/em>)\/f<\/em>] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/td><td>L is the exact<\/em> lower limit<\/span>L \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/em> \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Mode<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Mo = L + [(f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub>)\/(2f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>2<\/sub>)] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/td><td>Cross-check: Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a: Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Range<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>R = H \u2212 L<\/td><td>Uses only two scores<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Quartile deviation<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Q = (Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub>) \/ 2<\/td><td>Goes with the median<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Average deviation<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>AD = \u03a3|x| \/ N<\/td><td>Signs ignored<\/span>\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Standard deviation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>\u03c3 = \u221a(\u03a3f<\/em>x\u00b2 \/ N)<\/td><td>Variance = \u03c3\u00b2; goes with the mean<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 = \u03c3\u00b2; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Pearson's r<\/span>\u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>r = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a(\u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2)<\/td><td>Interval data, linear relation<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947, \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Spearman's \u03c1<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>\u03c1 = 1 \u2212 [6\u03a3D\u00b2 \/ N(N\u00b2 \u2212 1)]<\/td><td>Ranks; \u03a3D must be 0<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901; \u03a3D \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Percentile<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Pp<\/sub> = L + [(pN\/100 \u2212 cf<\/em>)\/f<\/em>] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/td><td>p = 50 gives the median<\/span>p = 50 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Percentile rank<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>PR = [(cf<\/em> + ((X \u2212 L)\/i<\/em>)f<\/em>) \/ N] \u00d7 100<\/td><td>Answer is a percentage<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Skewness<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Sk = 3(M \u2212 Md) \/ \u03c3<\/td><td>+ = too hard; \u2212 = too easy<\/span>+ = \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928; \u2212 = \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Kurtosis<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Ku = Q \/ (P90<\/sub> \u2212 P10<\/sub>)<\/td><td>0.263 = normal<\/span>0.263 = \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Z-score<\/span>Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Z = (X \u2212 M) \/ \u03c3<\/td><td>Mean 0, SD 1<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0, SD 1<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>T-score<\/span>T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>T = 50 + 10Z<\/td><td>Mean 50, SD 10; always positive<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50, SD 10; \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc Three numbers to memorize outright: 68.26 \u2013 95.44 \u2013 99.73<\/strong> (areas under the normal curve at \u00b11\u03c3, \u00b12\u03c3, \u00b13\u03c3) and 0.263<\/strong> (kurtosis of a normal curve).<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0905\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902: 68.26 \u2013 95.44 \u2013 99.73<\/strong> (\u00b11\u03c3, \u00b12\u03c3, \u00b13\u03c3 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932) \u0924\u0925\u093e 0.263<\/strong> (\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e)\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Statistics<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/b>The science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analysing and interpreting numerical data.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Descriptive statistics<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/b>Describes the group actually measured and claims nothing beyond it.<\/span>\u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928, \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Inferential statistics<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/b>Generalizes from a sample to the population from which it was drawn.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Frequency distribution<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>A tabular arrangement of scores into class intervals showing how many cases fall in each.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Exact limits<\/span>\u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/b>The true boundaries of a class, extending half a unit beyond the written limits.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u091c\u094b \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Ogive<\/span>\u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The cumulative frequency curve, S-shaped, used to read medians, quartiles and percentiles.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930, S-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Central tendency<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/b>A single value representing the point round which the scores cluster.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Variability \/ dispersion<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \/ \u0905\u092a\u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The extent to which scores stray from the centre of the distribution.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u091f\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Variance<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The square of the standard deviation, \u03c3\u00b2 \u2014 the mean of the squared deviations.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917, \u03c3\u00b2 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Correlation<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/b>The relationship between two sets of scores from the same group, expressed from \u22121 to +1.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u22121 \u0938\u0947 +1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Coefficient of determination<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>r\u00b2, the proportion of variance shared by the two variables.<\/span>r\u00b2, \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Percentile<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/b>A point on the score scale below which a stated percentage of cases lies.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Percentile rank<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/b>The percentage of cases lying below a given score.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Quartiles<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915<\/span><\/b>The three points dividing a distribution into four equal parts: Q\u2081 = P\u2082\u2085, Q\u2082 = median, Q\u2083 = P\u2087\u2085.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: Q\u2081 = P\u2082\u2085, Q\u2082 = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, Q\u2083 = P\u2087\u2085\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Skewness<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Departure from symmetry; positive means a right tail, negative a left tail.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928; \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b, \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092c\u093e\u0908\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Kurtosis<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Degree of peakedness; 0.263 is normal (mesokurtic).<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e; 0.263 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f (\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Leptokurtic<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/b>More peaked than normal; homogeneous group, low variability.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Platykurtic<\/span>\u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/b>Flatter than normal; heterogeneous group, high variability.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Normal probability curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/b>The bell-shaped, symmetrical, asymptotic curve in which mean, median and mode coincide.<\/span>\u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0940 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Asymptotic<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0940<\/span><\/b>Approaching the base line without ever touching it.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930-\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Derived score<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>A raw score re-expressed as its distance from its own mean in SD units.<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 SD-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Z-score<\/span>Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>(X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3; a standard score with mean 0 and SD 1.<\/span>(X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 1 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">T-score<\/span>T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>50 + 10Z; a standard score with mean 50 and SD 10, always positive.<\/span>50 + 10Z; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 10 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Stanine<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928<\/span><\/b>A nine-point standard scale with mean 5 and SD 2.<\/span>\u0928\u094c-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 5 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 2\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-7\">\n 11.15<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The consistency, stability and dependability of the scores a test yields.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0947\u092e\u0902\u0926\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">True score<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>The component of an obtained score representing the pupil's real standing on the trait.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Error score<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>The component caused by chance factors \u2014 noise, fatigue, guessing, a lenient examiner.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u2014 \u0936\u094b\u0930, \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928, \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Coefficient of stability<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>Reliability found by the test\u2013retest method; consistency over time.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e; \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Coefficient of equivalence<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>Reliability found by correlating two parallel forms of a test.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Split-half method<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>Reliability from one administration by correlating odd-numbered against even-numbered items.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Spearman\u2013Brown formula<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/b>rtt<\/sub> = 2rhh<\/sub>\/(1 + rhh<\/sub>); corrects the split-half coefficient for test length.<\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 2rhh<\/sub>\/(1 + rhh<\/sub>); \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Kuder\u2013Richardson formulae<\/span>\u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/b>K\u2013R 20 and K\u2013R 21; estimate reliability from item consistency in a single administration.<\/span>K\u2013R 20 \u090f\u0935\u0902 K\u2013R 21; \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Cronbach's alpha<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e<\/span><\/b>The general index of internal consistency; in effect the average of all possible split-half coefficients.<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915; \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure, and nothing else.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0914\u0930 \u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Criterion<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/b>The outside standard against which a test is validated \u2014 examination marks, ratings, later success.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Concurrent validity<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Agreement of test scores with a criterion available at present.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Predictive validity<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which present scores forecast a future criterion.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Face validity<\/span>\u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Whether the test merely looks appropriate; the weakest form, but it affects motivation.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Grading<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/b>Reporting achievement in broad letter categories instead of exact numerical marks.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Absolute grading<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/b>Grades fixed by predetermined mark ranges; criterion-referenced.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Relative grading<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/b>Grades fixed by position in the group using \u03c3-distances; norm-referenced.<\/span>\u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Grade inflation<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/b>The drift towards ever-higher grades where internal assessment is unmoderated.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u0947-\u0938\u0947-\u090a\u0901\u091a\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Credit<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f<\/span><\/b>A unit measuring the volume of learning \u2014 one hour of theory or two of practical per week per semester.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u093e \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u094b \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">SGPA \/ CGPA<\/span>SGPA \/ CGPA<\/span><\/b>\u03a3(Credit \u00d7 Grade Point) \u00f7 \u03a3Credits, for one semester or cumulatively \u2014 a weighted mean.<\/span>\u03a3(\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u00d7 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941) \u00f7 \u03a3\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f, \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">CBCS<\/span>CBCS<\/span><\/b>Choice Based Credit System \u2014 core, elective and foundation courses chosen by the student.<\/span>\u091a\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0907\u0938 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u092e \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0915\u094b\u0930, \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Cumulative record card<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/b>A permanent, continuously maintained record of all significant information about a pupil.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940, \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Item bank<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>A stored collection of pre-tested items with their difficulty and discrimination indices.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Adaptive testing<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Computer-based testing in which each next item is chosen according to the answer just given.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Multimedia<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/b>The integrated use of text, audio, images, animation, video and interactivity in one presentation.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f, \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0935\u0940\u0921\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-11\">\n 11.16<\/span>\n <h3>Abbreviations Used Throughout<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Each abbreviation is also expanded where it first appears in the text. This table is placed here for quick reference while revising, and covers all five units.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"abbr-grid\">\n <div>\n <table>\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Abbr.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Full form<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">AD<\/td><td>Average Deviation (Mean Deviation)<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">ANOVA<\/td><td>Analysis of Variance<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">ANCOVA<\/td><td>Analysis of Covariance<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CA<\/td><td>Chronological Age<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CAT<\/td><td>Children\u2019s Apperception Test<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CBCS<\/td><td>Choice Based Credit System<\/span>\u091a\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0907\u0938 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u092e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CCE<\/td><td>Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CGPA<\/td><td>Cumulative Grade Point Average<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CLT<\/td><td>Cognitive Learning Theory<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CRC<\/td><td>Cumulative Record Card<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CRT<\/td><td>Criterion-Referenced Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CV<\/td><td>Coefficient of Variation<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">DAT<\/td><td>Differential Aptitude Test<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">df<\/td><td>Degrees of Freedom<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">EPI<\/td><td>Eysenck Personality Inventory<\/span>\u0906\u0907\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">ICT<\/td><td>Information and Communication Technology<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">IQ<\/td><td>Intelligence Quotient<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">K\u2013R<\/td><td>Kuder\u2013Richardson (formulae 20 and 21)<\/span>\u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 (\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 20 \u090f\u0935\u0902 21)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">MA<\/td><td>Mental Age<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">MEME<\/td><td>Multiple Entry and Multiple Exit<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">MMPI<\/td><td>Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0928\u0947\u0938\u094b\u091f\u093e \u092e\u0932\u094d\u091f\u0940\u092b\u093c\u0947\u091c\u093c\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NCF<\/td><td>National Curriculum Framework<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NCFSE<\/td><td>National Curriculum Framework for School Education<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <\/div>\n <div>\n <table>\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Abbr.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Full form<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NEP<\/td><td>National Education Policy<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NIOS<\/td><td>National Institute of Open Schooling<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NPC<\/td><td>Normal Probability Curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NRT<\/td><td>Norm-Referenced Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NTA<\/td><td>National Testing Agency<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">PARAKH<\/td><td>Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">QD<\/td><td>Quartile Deviation<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">RPwD<\/td><td>Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Act, 2016)<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0917\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930 (\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e, 2016)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SD (\u03c3)<\/td><td>Standard Deviation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SEm<\/sub><\/td><td>Standard Error of Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SEM<\/sub><\/td><td>Standard Error of the Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SGPA<\/td><td>Semester Grade Point Average<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SOI<\/td><td>Structure of Intellect (Guilford)<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e (\u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SPSS<\/td><td>Statistical Package for the Social Sciences<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0948\u0915\u0947\u091c \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930 \u0938\u094b\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u0902\u0938\u0947\u091c\u093c<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SWAYAM<\/td><td>Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u092e\u0902\u091a<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">TAT<\/td><td>Thematic Apperception Test<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">TTCT<\/td><td>Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking<\/span>\u091f\u0949\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0938 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u090f\u091f\u093f\u0935 \u0925\u093f\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">UDL<\/td><td>Universal Design for Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092d\u094c\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">UGC<\/td><td>University Grants Commission<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">WAIS<\/td><td>Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u090f\u0921\u0932\u094d\u091f \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">WISC<\/td><td>Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0921\u094d\u0930\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">WPPSI<\/td><td>Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u090f\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-10\">\n 11.17<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Define measurement and state the question it answers.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State the three essentials of any measurement.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between physical and mental measurement.<\/span>\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is meant by the validity and reliability of a test?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Write the evaluation equation and explain each of its terms.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is scaling? Distinguish comparative from non-comparative scaling.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name Cronbach's three functions of measurement.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a checklist? How does it differ from a rating scale?<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092f\u0939 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is evaluation called \"continuous and comprehensive\"?<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \"\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any four purposes of assessment.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Differentiate between external and internal evaluation.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the Likert scale? Name its five standard responses.<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the forced choice method and why is it used?<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name and explain the three biases that limit Likert scales.<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an interest inventory? Who developed it and when?<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u092c \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>List the five categories of the psychomotor domain according to R. H. Dave.<\/span>\u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the three methods of performance assessment.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why was \"Knowledge\" replaced by \"Remembering\" in the revised taxonomy?<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \"\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\" \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \"\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\" \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e?<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Explain the concept and nature of measurement. Discuss the definitions given by Thorndike, Bradfield, Guilford and Gronlund.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964 \u0925\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0921\u093e\u0907\u0915, \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0921\u092b\u093c\u0940\u0932\u094d\u0921, \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u0932\u0902\u0921 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss in detail the characteristics of a good measuring tool.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Evaluation is broader than measurement.\" Justify this statement with a full comparison of the two.<\/span>\"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0907\u0938 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the different methods and tools of educational measurement.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain Cronbach's three functions of measurement with suitable examples.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the need and importance of measurement and evaluation in education, with special reference to CCE.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u0903 CCE \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain placement, formative, diagnostic and summative evaluation, bringing out clearly when each is used.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u092c \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare formative and summative evaluation on at least five points.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u092e-\u0938\u0947-\u0915\u092e \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the role of the teacher in an evaluation programme.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a taxonomy of educational objectives? Explain Bloom's three domains and their interrelationship.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the six levels of the cognitive domain with suitable classroom examples.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the five thinking skills required in cognitive learning.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the three theoretical approaches to problem solving, and explain how Harlow's learning-set concept resolves the controversy between them.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0932\u091d\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the five categories of the affective domain and the techniques used to measure attitude.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the psychomotor domain and discuss performance assessment as a method of assessing it.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the 2001 revision of Bloom's taxonomy and explain the rationale behind the changes.<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 2001 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the guidance functions of evaluation and their relevance in the present school system.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-9\">\n 11.18<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Distinguish between a tool and a technique of evaluation.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Give any four points of difference between a teacher-made and a standardized test.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a norm? Name any three types of norms.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Define criterion-referenced testing with one example.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the four types of validity.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the four methods of determining reliability.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is objectivity called the foundation of reliability?<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Differentiate between an achievement test and an aptitude test.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a power test? How does it differ from a speed test?<\/span>\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092f\u0939 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a blueprint and why is it prepared?<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Write the formulae for difficulty value and discrimination index, explaining each symbol.<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>An item has RU<\/sub> = 18, RL<\/sub> = 12, NU<\/sub> = NL<\/sub> = 25. Compute P and D and state whether the item should be retained.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 RU<\/sub> = 18, RL<\/sub> = 12, NU<\/sub> = NL<\/sub> = 25 \u0939\u0948\u0964 P \u090f\u0935\u0902 D \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is an item with a negative discrimination index rejected?<\/span>\u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any three merits of the essay-type question.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a distractor? What makes a good distractor?<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the halo effect in the scoring of essay answers.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is task analysis in the construction of a diagnostic test?<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Give any three uses of a diagnostic test.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Compare teacher-made and standardized tests, discussing the merits and limitations of each and the situations in which each is appropriate.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain criterion-referenced and norm-referenced testing with examples, and state the situations in which each should be preferred.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss in detail the essential qualities of a good measuring instrument.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is validity? Describe its types and the factors that affect it.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of validity.\" Discuss.<\/span>\"\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964\" \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Classify educational tests on different bases and explain each class with examples.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an achievement test? Discuss its functions in the school system.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the steps in the construction and standardization of an achievement test.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is item analysis? Explain difficulty value and discrimination index with a worked example, and state the criteria for accepting or rejecting an item.<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare essay-type and objective-type items on the basis of objectivity, content sampling, scoring and the abilities each can test.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the merits and demerits of multiple-choice, true\u2013false, matching and completion items.<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>How can the reliability of essay examinations be improved? Suggest concrete measures.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948? \u0920\u094b\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a diagnostic test? Describe the steps in its construction and its usefulness to the teacher.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between achievement and diagnostic tests, and describe the types of diagnostic tests.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Diagnosis without remediation is futile.\" Discuss with reference to the diagnostic\u2013remedial cycle.<\/span>\"\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u2013\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-8\">\n 11.19<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Define a psychological test after Anastasi and explain the two key words in the definition.<\/span>\u090f\u0928\u093e\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Give any three definitions of intelligence.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Write the IQ formula and explain each term.<\/span>IQ \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A child of CA 12 has MA 9. Find his IQ and classify it.<\/span>12 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 9 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 IQ \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is chronological age capped at about 16 in the IQ formula?<\/span>IQ \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 16 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the deviation IQ?<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between 'g' and 's' factors.<\/span>'g' \u090f\u0935\u0902 's' \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name Thurstone's seven primary mental abilities.<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between individual and group intelligence tests.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a performance test? Give two examples.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0926\u094b \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a culture-fair test and why is it needed?<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the special feature of the Wechsler scales?<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any three limitations of intelligence testing.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the Bogardus Social Distance Scale.<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Define personality after Allport.<\/span>\u0911\u0932\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why can projective tests not easily be faked?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091b\u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is sociometry?<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the three forms of the open book examination.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a question bank and how does it reform examination?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is CGPA?<\/span>CGPA \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>What is intelligence? Discuss the main theories of intelligence and show how each affects the design of an intelligence test.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the concept of IQ, its computation and its classification, with examples.<\/span>IQ \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Classify intelligence tests and describe the principal scales in each class.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the educational uses and the limitations of intelligence testing.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the techniques of attitude measurement, comparing the Thurstone and Likert scales.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is personality? Describe the main techniques of personality assessment with their merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare inventories with projective techniques as tools of personality measurement.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Critically examine the defects of the present examination system in India.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the reforms suggested for the examination system, with reference to the recommendations of the major commissions and NEP 2020.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an open book examination? Describe its forms and evaluate its merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"The open book examination shifts the burden from the candidate's memory to the examiner's skill.\" Discuss.<\/span>\"\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0921\u093e\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare the annual and semester systems and state which is preferable for Indian universities, with reasons.<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the merits and demerits of the semester system in higher education.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"What is not examined ceases to be taught.\" Discuss this statement with reference to examination reform and the three domains of educational objectives.<\/span>\"\u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-12\">\n 11.20<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer & Numerical<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly or compute (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Define statistics and distinguish its two branches.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094b \u0936\u093e\u0916\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What are the exact limits and midpoint of the class 65\u201369?<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 65\u201369 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between a histogram and a bar diagram.<\/span>\u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an ogive and what is it used for?<\/span>\u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Find the mean of 12, 15, 18, 20, 25, 30.<\/span>12, 15, 18, 20, 25, 30 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Find the median of 7, 3, 9, 5, 11, 8.<\/span>7, 3, 9, 5, 11, 8 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State the empirical relation between mean, median and mode.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0906\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is the sum of deviations from the mean always zero?<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compute the SD of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10.<\/span>2, 4, 6, 8, 10 \u0915\u093e SD \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is variance? How is it related to the SD?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e SD \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>In what circumstances is the quartile deviation preferred to the standard deviation?<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Given \u03a3D\u00b2 = 10 and N = 5, compute Spearman's \u03c1.<\/span>\u03a3D\u00b2 = 10 \u090f\u0935\u0902 N = 5 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"An r of 0.50 means 50 per cent agreement.\" Comment.<\/span>\"0.50 \u0915\u093e r 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is r = \u22120.85 a stronger relationship than r = +0.40?<\/span>r = \u22120.85, r = +0.40 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State the relation between P25<\/sub>, P50<\/sub>, P75<\/sub> and the quartiles.<\/span>P25<\/sub>, P50<\/sub>, P75<\/sub> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What does a negatively skewed distribution indicate about a test?<\/span>\u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Give the value of kurtosis for a normal curve and name the three types.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>List any four characteristics of the normal probability curve.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Convert a raw score of 68 into Z and T, given M = 60 and \u03c3 = 4.<\/span>M = 60 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u03c3 = 4 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 68 \u0915\u094b Z \u090f\u0935\u0902 T \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is the T-score preferred to the Z-score for reporting results?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>What is statistics? Discuss its need and importance in measurement and evaluation.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the steps in constructing a frequency distribution, and describe the methods of graphical representation with their uses.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Define the measures of central tendency, give their formulae, and state when each should be used.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u092c \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare the mean, median and mode on the bases of computation, effect of extreme scores, stability and further algebraic use.<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is variability? Describe its measures with their merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"The standard deviation is the most reliable measure of variability.\" Discuss, explaining why it replaced the average deviation.<\/span>\"\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is correlation? Explain the product-moment and rank-difference methods with a worked example of each.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the interpretation of the coefficient of correlation and the cautions to be observed in using it.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain percentiles and percentile ranks with their formulae, and discuss their use in reporting results.<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What are skewness and kurtosis? Explain their types and their educational interpretation.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the characteristics of the normal probability curve and its applications in education.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why are most human traits normally distributed? Explain, and state when a distribution would not<\/em> be normal.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u092c \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What are derived scores? Explain the Z-score and the T-score, and show with an example how they make two subjects comparable.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A pupil scores 80 in Science (M = 70, \u03c3 = 5) and 65 in English (M = 50, \u03c3 = 10). In which subject has he done better? Justify statistically.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 80 (M = 70, \u03c3 = 5) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 65 (M = 50, \u03c3 = 10) \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e? \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-9\">\n 11.21<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer & Numerical<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly or compute (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Define reliability and explain the true-score model X = T + E.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 X = T + E \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>How does the length of a test affect its reliability, and why?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why does a homogeneous group lower the reliability coefficient?<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the four methods of determining reliability and the type of consistency each measures.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the interval problem in the test\u2013retest method?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Write the Spearman\u2013Brown formula and explain each symbol.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>If rhh<\/sub> = 0.80, find the reliability of the whole test.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f rhh<\/sub> = 0.80 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is Cronbach's alpha and what does it assume?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Define validity and name its five types.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between concurrent and predictive validity.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>How is content validity established?<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a criterion? Give two examples used in validation.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0926\u094b \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any four factors affecting validity.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Reliability sets the ceiling on validity.\" Explain.<\/span>\"\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between absolute and relative grading.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compute SGPA for credits 4, 4, 3, 1 with grade points 9, 7, 8, 10.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f 4, 4, 3, 1 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 9, 7, 8, 10 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 SGPA \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is grade inflation and what causes it?<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>List any six items of information recorded on a cumulative record card.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091b\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an item bank and how does it improve examination?<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any three limitations of computerized evaluation.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>What is reliability? Discuss in detail the factors affecting the reliability of a test.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the four methods of determining the reliability coefficient, with the merits and limitations of each.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the split-half method and the use of the Spearman\u2013Brown formula with a worked example.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0940, \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is validity? Describe its types and explain how each is established.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the factors affecting the validity of a test and the measures a teacher can take to improve it.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of validity.\" Discuss fully, with illustrations.<\/span>\"\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964\" \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare reliability and validity on the bases of meaning, method of determination, expected size of coefficient and importance.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is grading? Discuss its types, merits and demerits, and state whether it should replace marks.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the credit system, the computation of SGPA and CGPA, and the advantages of the CBCS.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940, SGPA \u090f\u0935\u0902 CGPA \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e CBCS \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093e\u092d\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a cumulative record card? Describe its contents and discuss its uses in guidance and evaluation.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the issues and problems arising from grading, the credit system and the cumulative record card.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the uses of the computer in evaluation and examine its limitations.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is multimedia? Discuss its educational value and its limitations.<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"The computer computes, but it cannot evaluate.\" Discuss with reference to the concept of evaluation developed in Unit 1.<\/span>\"\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964\" \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-6\">\n 11.22<\/span>\n <h3>DEDU504 Syllabus Map<\/span>DEDU504 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Every topic named in the ten syllabus items, with the section covering it. Where two sections are given, the first is the principal treatment and the second extends or applies it.<\/span>\n \u0926\u0938 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0917\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u094b \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Item<\/span>\u092e\u0926<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Syllabus topic<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Covered in<\/span>\u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement and evaluation: concept, need, scope; difference and relevance<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a71.1 \u00b7 \u00a71.2 \u00b7 \u00a71.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Educational testing and assessment: concept, context, issues and current trends<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a71.4 \u00b7 \u00a71.5 \u00b7 \u00a71.6<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a71.7<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/strong><\/td><td>Characteristics of a good test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Planning for different types of test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.7 \u00b7 \u00a72.8<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Validity \u2014 types, methods and usability<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.2 \u00b7 \u00a72.3 \u00b7 \u00a72.6<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Reliability \u2014 types, methods and usability<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.4 \u00b7 \u00a72.5 \u00b7 \u00a72.6<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/strong><\/td><td>Test construction<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9 \u00b7 \u00a73.1\u2013\u00a73.7<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Test standardization<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.8 \u00b7 \u00a73.9<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Item analysis: item difficulty, discrimination index<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Effectiveness of distractors<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9 \u00b7 \u00a79.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Development of norms of a test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9 \u00b7 \u00a74.11<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/strong><\/td><td>Conversion of raw scores into standard scores, Z-scores, T-scores<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.12<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>C-scores<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.13<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Stanine scores<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.12 \u00b7 \u00a74.13<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Percentiles and percentile rank<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.11<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Interpretation of test scores: qualitative and quantitative<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.14<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/strong><\/td><td>Criterion referenced test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a75.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Norm referenced test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a75.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Factors influencing test scores: nature of test, psychological, environmental<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a75.2<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/strong><\/td><td>Integrated approach of evaluation<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a76.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Marking system: need, problems and components<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a76.2<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Grading \u2014 need, problems, components and methods<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a76.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Methods of feedback for students<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a76.4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/strong><\/td><td>Semester system vs annual system<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a77.2 \u00b7 \u00a77.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Continuous assessment<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a77.3 \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Portfolio assessment<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.8 \u00b7 \u00a76.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Question bank<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9 \u00b7 \u00a77.4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Use of computer in evaluation<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a77.9 \u00b7 \u00a77.10 \u00b7 \u00a77.8<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/strong><\/td><td>Achievement test: concept, types and construction<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a78.1 \u00b7 \u00a73.9<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Diagnostic test: concept and construction, remedial teaching<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a78.2 \u00b7 \u00a78.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Objective type test: advantages and limitations<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a79.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/strong><\/td><td>Short answer type test: advantages and limitations<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a79.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Essay type test: advantages and limitations<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a79.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/strong><\/td><td>Formative and summative evaluation<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.1 \u00b7 \u00a71.4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement of attitude<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement of aptitude<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement of personality<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement of intelligence<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.2<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n How This Document Is Ordered<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0926\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0947\u091c\u093c \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Chapters 1 to 10 follow the ten syllabus items exactly, in order.<\/strong> The heading of each chapter reproduces the wording of the syllabus item it covers, so a chapter number and a syllabus number are always the same number.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 1 \u0938\u0947 10 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0926\u0938 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e, \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Chapter 4 carries the statistical apparatus<\/strong> \u2014 central tendency, variability, correlation, the normal curve and percentiles \u2014 because syllabus item 4 asks for score conversion, and no score can be converted without them.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 4 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926 4 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Chapter 3 opens with the taxonomy of objectives<\/strong>, since a blueprint cannot be drawn without objectives, and the blueprint is the first step of test construction.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 3 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Chapter 9 serves syllabus items 8 and 9 together<\/strong>, because objective, short-answer and essay items are compared against one another in a single treatment rather than described separately.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 9 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926 8 \u090f\u0935\u0902 9 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0932\u0918\u0941-\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Chapter 11 gathers the apparatus<\/strong> \u2014 objectives, summaries, key terms, the formula sheet, abbreviations, the question bank and further reading \u2014 so that revision material sits in one place rather than being scattered through the text.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 11 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936, \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u2014 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0940 \u0928 \u0930\u0939\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc Every cross-reference in the text has been renumbered to the new scheme, so a \u00a7 reference always points to where the topic now stands.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u0908 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u00a7 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0907\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u092c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-12\">\n 11.23<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Measurement and Evaluation<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Bloom, B. S. (ed.). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I \u2014 Cognitive Domain.<\/em> New York: David McKay, 1956.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S. and Masia, B. B. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II \u2014 Affective Domain.<\/em> New York: David McKay, 1964.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Anderson, L. W. and Krathwohl, D. R. (eds.). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.<\/em> New York: Longman, 2001.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Gronlund, N. E. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching.<\/em> New York: Macmillan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Ebel, R. L. and Frisbie, D. A. Essentials of Educational Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New York: Harper & Row.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Garrett, H. E. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Thorndike, R. L. and Hagen, E. Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: John Wiley.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Freeman, F. S. Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Oxford & IBH.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Aggarwal, J. C. Essentials of Examination System: Evaluation, Tests and Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Singh, A. K. Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.<\/em> Patna: Bharati Bhawan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>NCERT. National Curriculum Framework 2005<\/em> and CCE source books, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-10\">\n 11.24<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Tests and Construction<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Gronlund, N. E. and Linn, R. L. Measurement and Assessment in Teaching.<\/em> New York: Macmillan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Ebel, R. L. and Frisbie, D. A. Essentials of Educational Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Thorndike, R. L. and Hagen, E. Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: John Wiley.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New York: Harper & Row.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Anastasi, A. and Urbina, S. Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Pearson.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Aggarwal, J. C. Essentials of Examination System: Evaluation, Tests and Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Singh, A. K. Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.<\/em> Patna: Bharati Bhawan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Garrett, H. E. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>NCERT. Source Book on Assessment<\/em> and CCE manuals, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-9\">\n 11.25<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Psychological Testing<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Anastasi, A. and Urbina, S. Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Pearson.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Freeman, F. S. Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Oxford & IBH.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New York: Harper & Row.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Guilford, J. P. The Nature of Human Intelligence.<\/em> New York: McGraw-Hill.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Gardner, H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.<\/em> New York: Basic Books.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Allport, G. W. Pattern and Growth in Personality.<\/em> New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Singh, A. K. Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.<\/em> Patna: Bharati Bhawan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Aggarwal, J. C. Essentials of Examination System: Evaluation, Tests and Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>Government of India. National Education Policy 2020<\/em>, Ministry of Education, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>NCERT. National Curriculum Framework 2005<\/em> and NCFSE 2023<\/em>, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>Report of the Education Commission 1964\u201366 (Kothari Commission<\/em>) and Report of the Secondary Education Commission 1952\u201353 (Mudaliar Commission<\/em>).<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-13\">\n 11.26<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Statistics<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Garrett, H. E. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Guilford, J. P. and Fruchter, B. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: McGraw-Hill.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Ferguson, G. A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: McGraw-Hill.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Gupta, S. P. Statistical Methods.<\/em> New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Best, J. W. and Kahn, J. V. Research in Education.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Koul, Lokesh. Methodology of Educational Research.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Mangal, S. K. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Singh, A. K. Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.<\/em> Patna: Bharati Bhawan.<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-10\">\n 11.27<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Reliability and Validity<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Anastasi, A. and Urbina, S. Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Pearson.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Ebel, R. L. and Frisbie, D. A. Essentials of Educational Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Gronlund, N. E. and Linn, R. L. Measurement and Assessment in Teaching.<\/em> New York: Macmillan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New York: Harper & Row.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Garrett, H. E. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Thorndike, R. L. and Hagen, E. Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: John Wiley.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Aggarwal, J. C. Essentials of Examination System: Evaluation, Tests and Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Mangal, S. K. and Mangal, U. Essentials of Educational Technology.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>University Grants Commission (UGC). Guidelines on the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)<\/em>, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>Government of India. National Education Policy 2020<\/em>, Ministry of Education, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n Course Complete<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <h5 class=\"sub\">EDCN 804E \u2014 the whole course in five sentences<\/span>EDCN 804E \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Unit 1<\/strong> established why<\/em> we measure \u2014 measurement quantifies, evaluation adds a value judgement, and both serve objectives drawn from the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0939\u092e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Unit 2<\/strong> supplied the instruments<\/em> \u2014 teacher-made and standardized tests, the achievement test and its blueprint, item analysis, and the diagnostic test that follows when achievement fails.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 2<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/em> \u0926\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Unit 3<\/strong> turned to the person<\/em> \u2014 intelligence, attitude and personality testing \u2014 and then to the institution<\/em>, with the defects of the examination system and the reforms proposed for it.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 3<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Unit 4<\/strong> gave the arithmetic<\/em> \u2014 frequency distributions, central tendency, variability, correlation, percentiles, the normal curve and derived scores.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/em> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923, \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Unit 5<\/strong> used that arithmetic to judge the instrument itself<\/em> \u2014 reliability, validity and their relationship \u2014 and closed with the trends that are reshaping evaluation: grading, credits, the cumulative record, the computer and multimedia.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e<\/em> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947 \u0930\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc The single thread running through all five units: a measurement is only as good as the objective it serves and the instrument that produced it<\/strong> \u2014 and judging that instrument honestly is the whole business of this course.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930: \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <\/section>\n\n\n \n<\/main>\n<\/div>\n\n<button class=\"to-top\" id=\"toTop\" aria-label=\"Back to top\">\u2191<\/button>\n\n<script>\n(function () {\n 'use strict';\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 LANGUAGE TOGGLE \u2500\u2500 *\/\n var langToggle = document.getElementById('langToggle');\n var optEn = document.getElementById('optEn');\n var 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var(--border); color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6; }\n .data-table td.narrow { font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 12px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--blue); }\n .data-table tr:nth-child(even) td { background: #f9fbfd; }\n .data-table td strong { color: var(--navy); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 NUMBERED STACK \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .num-stack { counter-reset: ns; list-style: none; margin: 16px 0 24px; }\n .num-stack li {\n counter-increment: ns; position: relative;\n padding: 12px 16px 12px 56px; margin-bottom: 7px;\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-left: 4px solid var(--blue);\n border-radius: 6px; font-size: 13.5px; line-height: 1.65;\n }\n .num-stack li::before {\n content: counter(ns);\n position: absolute; left: 12px; top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%);\n width: 30px; height: 30px; border-radius: 50%;\n background: var(--navy); color: #fff;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 12px;\n }\n .num-stack.roman li::before { content: counter(ns, upper-roman); font-size: 10.5px; }\n .num-stack.alpha li::before { content: counter(ns, lower-alpha); }\n .num-stack li strong { color: var(--navy); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 FEATURE GRID \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .feat-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(auto-fit, minmax(230px, 1fr)); gap: 12px; margin: 16px 0 24px; }\n .feat-card {\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-radius: 10px; padding: 14px 16px 14px 46px;\n position: relative; font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6;\n border-left: 4px solid var(--teal);\n }\n .feat-card .fc-num {\n position: absolute; left: 10px; top: 14px;\n width: 26px; height: 26px; border-radius: 50%;\n background: var(--teal); color: #fff;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 11px;\n }\n .feat-card strong { color: var(--navy); display: block; margin-bottom: 3px; font-size: 13px; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 LADDER (hierarchical taxonomy levels) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .ladder { margin: 18px 0 26px; }\n .rung {\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 54px 1fr; gap: 16px;\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-radius: 10px; padding: 16px 18px; margin-bottom: 8px;\n align-items: start; transition: transform 0.15s, border-color 0.15s;\n }\n .rung:hover { transform: translateX(3px); border-color: var(--blue); }\n .rung .rung-step {\n width: 54px; text-align: center;\n }\n .rung .rung-num {\n display: block; width: 40px; height: 40px; margin: 0 auto 4px;\n border-radius: 10px; color: #fff;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 15px;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n }\n .rung .rung-tier { font-size: 8.5px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.08em; text-transform: uppercase; color: var(--muted); }\n .rung h5 { font-size: 14.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin-bottom: 5px; }\n .rung h5 .revised { font-size: 11px; font-weight: 600; color: var(--purple); font-style: italic; }\n .rung p { font-size: 13px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.65; margin: 0 0 6px; text-align: justify; }\n .rung .rung-eg {\n margin-top: 8px; padding: 8px 12px;\n background: #f7fbff; border-left: 3px solid var(--sky);\n border-radius: 0 5px 5px 0; font-size: 12px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6;\n }\n .rung .rung-eg b { color: var(--blue); text-transform: uppercase; font-size: 10px; letter-spacing: 0.08em; display: block; margin-bottom: 3px; }\n .rung:nth-child(1) .rung-num { background: var(--teal); }\n .rung:nth-child(2) .rung-num { background: var(--sky); }\n .rung:nth-child(3) .rung-num { background: var(--blue); }\n .rung:nth-child(4) .rung-num { background: var(--gold); }\n .rung:nth-child(5) .rung-num { background: var(--amber); }\n .rung:nth-child(6) .rung-num { background: var(--plum); }\n .rung:nth-child(1) { border-left: 4px solid var(--teal); }\n .rung:nth-child(2) { border-left: 4px solid var(--sky); }\n .rung:nth-child(3) { border-left: 4px solid var(--blue); }\n .rung:nth-child(4) { border-left: 4px solid var(--gold); }\n .rung:nth-child(5) { border-left: 4px solid var(--amber); }\n .rung:nth-child(6) { border-left: 4px solid var(--plum); }\n @media (max-width: 560px) { .rung { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } .rung .rung-step { text-align: left; } .rung .rung-num { margin: 0 0 4px; } }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 DOMAIN CARDS (3 domains) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .domain-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(3, 1fr); gap: 14px; margin: 18px 0 26px; }\n .domain-card {\n border: 2px solid var(--border); border-radius: 14px;\n padding: 20px 18px; text-align: center; background: #fff;\n position: relative; transition: transform 0.18s, box-shadow 0.18s;\n }\n .domain-card:hover { transform: translateY(-3px); box-shadow: 0 6px 18px rgba(20,36,63,0.10); }\n .domain-card.cog { border-color: var(--blue); background: linear-gradient(180deg, #eef4fc 0%, #fff 62%); }\n .domain-card.aff { border-color: var(--plum); background: linear-gradient(180deg, #fdf0f5 0%, #fff 62%); }\n .domain-card.psy { border-color: var(--teal); background: linear-gradient(180deg, #eefbf7 0%, #fff 62%); }\n .domain-card .dm-icon {\n width: 54px; height: 54px; border-radius: 50%;\n margin: 0 auto 10px; display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-size: 25px; color: #fff;\n }\n .domain-card.cog .dm-icon { background: var(--blue); }\n .domain-card.aff .dm-icon { background: var(--plum); }\n .domain-card.psy .dm-icon { background: var(--teal); }\n .domain-card h5 { font-size: 15px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin-bottom: 4px; }\n .domain-card .dm-gandhi {\n display: inline-block; font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700;\n letter-spacing: 0.1em; text-transform: uppercase;\n padding: 2px 10px; border-radius: 10px; margin-bottom: 8px; color: #fff;\n }\n .domain-card.cog .dm-gandhi { background: var(--blue); }\n .domain-card.aff .dm-gandhi { background: var(--plum); }\n .domain-card.psy .dm-gandhi { background: var(--teal); }\n .domain-card p { font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6; margin: 0; text-align: center; }\n .domain-card .dm-levels {\n margin-top: 10px; padding-top: 10px; border-top: 1px dashed var(--border);\n font-size: 11px; color: var(--muted); line-height: 1.5;\n }\n @media (max-width: 720px) { .domain-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 ENRICHMENT BOX (beyond the textbook) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .enrich-box {\n border: 2px dashed var(--purple); border-radius: 12px;\n padding: 22px 24px; margin: 22px 0 26px;\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, #faf6ff 0%, #fff 70%);\n position: relative;\n }\n .enrich-stamp {\n position: absolute; top: -11px; left: 20px;\n background: var(--purple); color: #fff;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.1em;\n text-transform: uppercase; padding: 3px 12px; border-radius: 4px;\n }\n .enrich-box h4 { margin-top: 6px !important; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 SCALE STRIP (nominal\u2192ratio) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .scale-strip { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(4, 1fr); gap: 0; margin: 16px 0 18px; }\n .scale-step {\n position: relative; padding: 16px 14px; text-align: center;\n background: #fff; border: 2px solid var(--border); border-radius: 10px;\n margin: 0 5px;\n }\n .scale-step:nth-child(1) { border-color: var(--teal); background: linear-gradient(180deg,#eefbf7 0%,#fff 70%); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(2) { border-color: var(--sky); background: linear-gradient(180deg,#eaf6ff 0%,#fff 70%); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(3) { border-color: var(--amber); background: linear-gradient(180deg,#fffaef 0%,#fff 70%); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(4) { border-color: var(--plum); background: linear-gradient(180deg,#fdf0f5 0%,#fff 70%); }\n .scale-step .ss-num {\n display: inline-block; font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700; color: #fff;\n padding: 2px 8px; border-radius: 3px; margin-bottom: 6px;\n }\n .scale-step:nth-child(1) .ss-num { background: var(--teal); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(2) .ss-num { background: var(--sky); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(3) .ss-num { background: var(--amber); }\n .scale-step:nth-child(4) .ss-num { background: var(--plum); }\n .scale-step h6 { font-size: 13px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin-bottom: 4px; }\n .scale-step p { font-size: 11.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.5; margin: 0; text-align: center; }\n .scale-step:not(:last-child)::after {\n content: '\u203a'; position: absolute; right: -10px; top: 50%;\n transform: translateY(-50%); font-size: 22px; color: #b8c8d8; font-weight: 700; z-index: 2;\n }\n @media (max-width: 780px) {\n .scale-strip { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, 1fr); row-gap: 12px; }\n .scale-step:nth-child(2)::after { display: none; }\n }\n @media (max-width: 460px) {\n .scale-strip { grid-template-columns: 1fr; }\n .scale-step::after { display: none; }\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .cyp-box {\n background: linear-gradient(95deg, #fffaef 0%, #fff 70%);\n border: 1.5px solid #f0d58a; border-left: 4px solid var(--amber);\n border-radius: 0 10px 10px 0; padding: 18px 22px; margin: 22px 0;\n }\n .cyp-title {\n font-size: 10.5px; font-weight: 700; text-transform: uppercase;\n letter-spacing: 0.12em; color: var(--amber); margin-bottom: 12px;\n }\n .cyp-q {\n border-bottom: 1px dashed #f0d58a; padding: 8px 0;\n }\n .cyp-q:last-child { border-bottom: none; }\n .cyp-q summary {\n cursor: pointer; font-size: 13.5px; font-weight: 600; color: var(--navy);\n list-style: none; display: flex; gap: 10px; align-items: flex-start;\n }\n .cyp-q summary::-webkit-details-marker { display: none; }\n .cyp-q summary::before {\n content: 'Q'; flex-shrink: 0;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700;\n background: var(--amber); color: #fff; padding: 2px 7px; border-radius: 3px; margin-top: 3px;\n }\n .cyp-q[open] summary { color: var(--amber); }\n .cyp-q .cyp-a {\n margin: 8px 0 4px 34px; padding: 10px 14px;\n background: #fff; border-left: 3px solid var(--teal); border-radius: 0 5px 5px 0;\n font-size: 13px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.7;\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 GLOSSARY \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .glossary { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(auto-fit, minmax(280px, 1fr)); gap: 10px; margin: 16px 0 24px; }\n .gloss-item {\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-left: 4px solid var(--sky); border-radius: 8px;\n padding: 12px 15px; font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.6;\n }\n .gloss-item b { display: block; color: var(--navy); font-size: 13px; margin-bottom: 3px; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 QUESTION BANK \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .qbank { margin: 16px 0 24px; }\n .qbank-head {\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 10px; margin: 18px 0 10px;\n }\n .qbank-head .qb-pill {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.08em;\n padding: 4px 12px; border-radius: 12px; color: #fff; text-transform: uppercase;\n }\n .qbank-head .qb-pill.short { background: var(--teal); }\n .qbank-head .qb-pill.long { background: var(--plum); }\n .qbank-head h5 { font-size: 13.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin: 0; }\n .qbank ol { margin: 0 0 0 24px; }\n .qbank ol li { font-size: 13.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.75; padding: 4px 0; }\n .qbank ol li::marker { color: var(--blue); font-weight: 700; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 EXAM TIP \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .exam-tip {\n background: linear-gradient(95deg, #f2fdfa 0%, #fff 70%);\n border: 1.5px solid #7fd3c5; border-radius: 10px;\n padding: 14px 18px; margin: 16px 0 22px;\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 40px 1fr; gap: 14px; align-items: start;\n }\n .exam-tip .et-icon {\n width: 40px; height: 40px; border-radius: 10px;\n background: var(--teal); color: #fff;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center; font-size: 19px;\n }\n .exam-tip .et-body { font-size: 13px; color: #1a4a3f; line-height: 1.68; }\n .exam-tip .et-body strong { color: var(--teal); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 PROCESS FLOW (step chain) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .flow-wrap { margin: 18px 0 26px; }\n .flow-note {\n font-size: 12.5px; color: var(--muted); font-style: italic;\n background: #f7fbff; border-left: 3px solid var(--sky);\n padding: 8px 14px; border-radius: 0 6px 6px 0; margin-bottom: 14px;\n }\n .flow-steps { position: relative; padding-left: 4px; }\n .flow-steps::before {\n content: ''; position: absolute; left: 23px; top: 18px; bottom: 18px;\n width: 2px; border-radius: 2px;\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, var(--teal) 0%, var(--sky) 35%, var(--blue) 70%, var(--navy) 100%);\n }\n .flow-step {\n position: relative; display: grid; grid-template-columns: 48px 1fr;\n gap: 16px; align-items: start; margin-bottom: 9px;\n }\n .flow-step .fs-num {\n position: relative; z-index: 1;\n width: 38px; height: 38px; border-radius: 50%; margin-left: 5px;\n background: #fff; border: 2.5px solid var(--blue); color: var(--blue);\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 13px;\n box-shadow: 0 0 0 5px #fff;\n }\n .flow-step .fs-body {\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border);\n border-left: 4px solid var(--blue); border-radius: 8px;\n padding: 11px 16px; font-size: 13.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.65;\n transition: transform 0.15s, border-color 0.15s, box-shadow 0.15s;\n }\n .flow-step:hover .fs-body {\n transform: translateX(4px); border-color: var(--sky);\n box-shadow: 0 3px 12px rgba(20,36,63,0.07);\n }\n .flow-step .fs-body strong { color: var(--navy); }\n .flow-step .fs-body .fs-sub { display: block; margin-top: 3px; font-size: 12px; color: var(--muted); }\n .flow-step:nth-child(1) .fs-num { border-color: var(--teal); color: var(--teal); }\n .flow-step:nth-child(1) .fs-body { border-left-color: var(--teal); }\n .flow-step:nth-child(2) .fs-num { border-color: var(--sky); color: var(--sky); }\n .flow-step:nth-child(2) .fs-body { border-left-color: var(--sky); }\n .flow-step:last-child .fs-num { background: var(--navy); border-color: var(--navy); color: #fff; }\n .flow-step:last-child .fs-body {\n border-left-color: var(--navy);\n background: linear-gradient(95deg, #f3f6fb 0%, #fff 65%);\n }\n @media (max-width: 520px) {\n .flow-step { grid-template-columns: 40px 1fr; gap: 12px; }\n .flow-steps::before { left: 19px; }\n .flow-step .fs-num { width: 32px; height: 32px; font-size: 11.5px; margin-left: 3px; }\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 SPLIT LIST (breaks run-on enumerations inside callouts \/ rung-eg) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .split-list { list-style: none; margin: 9px 0 0; display: flex; flex-direction: column; gap: 6px; }\n .split-list li {\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 22px 1fr; gap: 8px; align-items: start;\n font-size: 12.5px; line-height: 1.62; color: #2c3e50;\n padding: 7px 11px; background: rgba(255,255,255,0.85);\n border: 1px solid rgba(0,0,0,0.05); border-left: 2.5px solid var(--sky);\n border-radius: 0 5px 5px 0;\n }\n .split-list li .sl-tag {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 10px; font-weight: 700;\n color: var(--blue); text-align: center; padding-top: 1px;\n }\n .callout.amber .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--amber); }\n .callout.amber .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--amber); }\n .callout.red .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--red); }\n .callout.red .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--red); }\n .callout.teal .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--teal); }\n .callout.teal .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--teal); }\n .callout.purple .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--purple); }\n .callout.purple .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--purple); }\n .exam-tip .split-list li { border-left-color: var(--teal); background: #fff; }\n .exam-tip .split-list li .sl-tag { color: var(--teal); }\n .rung-eg .split-list { margin-top: 6px; }\n .rung-eg .split-list li { background: #fff; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 KEY\u2013VALUE BLOCK (Examples: \/ Tools: \/ Features:) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .kv-block { display: flex; flex-direction: column; gap: 8px; margin-top: 9px; }\n .kv-row {\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 92px 1fr; gap: 11px; align-items: start;\n font-size: 12.5px; line-height: 1.62; color: #2c3e50;\n }\n .kv-row .kv-key {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 9px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.08em; text-transform: uppercase;\n color: #fff; background: var(--blue); padding: 4px 6px; border-radius: 10px;\n text-align: center; margin-top: 1px;\n }\n .kv-row:nth-child(2) .kv-key { background: var(--teal); }\n .kv-row:nth-child(3) .kv-key { background: var(--amber); }\n @media (max-width: 520px) {\n .kv-row { grid-template-columns: 1fr; gap: 4px; }\n .kv-row .kv-key { justify-self: start; padding: 3px 10px; }\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 SKILL MAP (overview cards) + UNIFORM SKILL HEADERS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .skill-map { display: grid; grid-template-columns: repeat(5, 1fr); gap: 10px; margin: 18px 0 8px; }\n .skill-chip {\n display: block; text-align: center; padding: 14px 10px 13px;\n background: #fff; border: 1.5px solid var(--border); border-top: 3px solid var(--blue);\n border-radius: 10px; transition: transform 0.18s, box-shadow 0.18s, border-color 0.18s;\n }\n .skill-chip:hover { transform: translateY(-3px); box-shadow: 0 6px 16px rgba(20,36,63,0.10); }\n .skill-chip .sc-num {\n display: inline-block; font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.1em; text-transform: uppercase;\n color: #fff; background: var(--blue); padding: 2px 9px; border-radius: 10px; margin-bottom: 7px;\n }\n .skill-chip .sc-icon { display: block; font-size: 20px; margin-bottom: 5px; }\n .skill-chip h6 { font-size: 12.5px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); line-height: 1.3; margin-bottom: 4px; }\n .skill-chip p { font-size: 10.5px; color: var(--muted); line-height: 1.45; margin: 0; text-align: center; }\n .skill-chip.s1 { border-top-color: var(--teal); } .skill-chip.s1 .sc-num { background: var(--teal); }\n .skill-chip.s2 { border-top-color: var(--sky); } .skill-chip.s2 .sc-num { background: var(--sky); }\n .skill-chip.s3 { border-top-color: var(--blue); } .skill-chip.s3 .sc-num { background: var(--blue); }\n .skill-chip.s4 { border-top-color: var(--amber); } .skill-chip.s4 .sc-num { background: var(--amber); }\n .skill-chip.s5 { border-top-color: var(--plum); } .skill-chip.s5 .sc-num { background: var(--plum); }\n @media (max-width: 820px) { .skill-map { grid-template-columns: repeat(2, 1fr); } }\n @media (max-width: 430px) { .skill-map { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } }\n\n .skill-head {\n display: grid; grid-template-columns: 46px 1fr; gap: 14px; align-items: center;\n margin: 34px 0 14px; padding-bottom: 10px;\n border-bottom: 2px solid var(--border); scroll-margin-top: 20px;\n }\n .skill-head .sh-num {\n width: 46px; height: 46px; border-radius: 12px;\n display: flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 17px; color: #fff;\n background: var(--blue);\n }\n .skill-head h5 { font-size: 16px; font-weight: 700; color: var(--navy); margin: 0; }\n .skill-head .sh-tag { display: block; font-size: 12px; color: var(--muted); margin-top: 3px; line-height: 1.45; }\n .skill-head.s1 { border-bottom-color: #7fd3c5; } .skill-head.s1 .sh-num { background: var(--teal); }\n .skill-head.s2 { border-bottom-color: #a6d8f2; } .skill-head.s2 .sh-num { background: var(--sky); }\n .skill-head.s3 { border-bottom-color: #a8c4e4; } .skill-head.s3 .sh-num { background: var(--blue); }\n .skill-head.s4 { border-bottom-color: #f0d58a; } .skill-head.s4 .sh-num { background: var(--amber); }\n .skill-head.s5 { border-bottom-color: #e0aac4; } .skill-head.s5 .sh-num { background: var(--plum); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 RECAP BOX (dotted, sets a revision block apart) \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .recap-box {\n border: 2px dotted var(--teal); border-radius: 12px;\n padding: 26px 24px 20px; margin: 34px 0 28px;\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, #f2fdfa 0%, #fff 55%);\n position: relative;\n }\n .recap-stamp {\n position: absolute; top: -11px; left: 20px;\n background: var(--teal); color: #fff;\n font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700; letter-spacing: 0.1em;\n text-transform: uppercase; padding: 3px 12px; border-radius: 4px;\n }\n .recap-box > h5.sub { margin-top: 2px !important; color: var(--teal); }\n .recap-box .data-table { margin-bottom: 6px; }\n .recap-box .recap-foot {\n font-size: 12px; color: var(--muted); font-style: italic;\n padding-top: 10px; border-top: 1px dashed #7fd3c5; margin-top: 4px;\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 GRAPH THUMBNAILS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .graph-thumb {\n width: 100%; max-width: 150px; height: auto; display: block;\n background: #fbfdff; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 6px; padding: 4px;\n }\n .graph-thumb text { font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 7px; fill: var(--muted); }\n td.thumb-cell { width: 160px; vertical-align: middle; }\n @media (max-width: 720px) { td.thumb-cell { width: 110px; } }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 PREVIOUS-YEAR MCQ BOX \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .mcq-box {\n background: linear-gradient(180deg, #fff9ef 0%, #fff 60%);\n border: 1.5px solid #f0d58a; border-left: 4px solid var(--amber);\n border-radius: 10px; padding: 20px 22px 16px; margin: 26px 0 30px;\n }\n .mcq-title {\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 9px; flex-wrap: wrap;\n font-family: 'Crimson Pro', serif; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 700;\n color: var(--amber); margin-bottom: 4px;\n }\n .mcq-src {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 9px; font-weight: 700;\n letter-spacing: 0.06em; text-transform: uppercase; color: #fff;\n background: var(--amber); padding: 3px 9px; border-radius: 10px;\n }\n .mcq-note { font-size: 12px; color: var(--muted); font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 12px; }\n details.mcq-q {\n background: #fff; border: 1px solid var(--border); border-radius: 7px;\n margin-bottom: 9px; overflow: hidden;\n }\n details.mcq-q summary {\n cursor: pointer; padding: 11px 15px; font-size: 13.5px; font-weight: 600;\n color: var(--navy); list-style: none; line-height: 1.55;\n display: flex; gap: 9px; align-items: flex-start;\n }\n details.mcq-q summary::-webkit-details-marker { display: none; }\n details.mcq-q summary::before {\n content: '\u25b8'; color: var(--amber); font-size: 12px; flex-shrink: 0; padding-top: 2px;\n transition: transform 0.18s;\n }\n details.mcq-q[open] summary::before { transform: rotate(90deg); }\n details.mcq-q summary:hover { background: #fffaf2; }\n .mcq-num {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 10.5px; font-weight: 700;\n color: #fff; background: var(--navy); padding: 2px 7px; border-radius: 4px;\n flex-shrink: 0; margin-top: 1px;\n }\n .mcq-opts { padding: 0 15px 4px 38px; }\n .mcq-opts li {\n font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.65; margin-bottom: 3px; list-style: none;\n }\n .mcq-ans {\n margin: 8px 15px 14px 38px; padding: 11px 14px;\n background: #f2fdfa; border-left: 3px solid var(--teal); border-radius: 0 6px 6px 0;\n font-size: 12.5px; line-height: 1.7; color: #1a4a3f;\n }\n .mcq-ans b { color: var(--teal); }\n .mcq-ans .mcq-ref {\n display: block; margin-top: 6px; padding-top: 6px; border-top: 1px dashed #7fd3c5;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 10.5px; color: var(--muted);\n }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 ABBREVIATION TABLE \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .abbr-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr; gap: 0 26px; margin: 18px 0 28px; }\n @media (max-width: 900px) { .abbr-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } }\n .abbr-grid table { width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 10px; font-size: 12.5px; }\n .abbr-grid thead th {\n background: var(--navy); color: #fff; text-align: left; padding: 8px 12px;\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-size: 9.5px; font-weight: 700;\n letter-spacing: 0.07em; text-transform: uppercase;\n }\n .abbr-grid tbody tr { border-bottom: 1px solid var(--border); }\n .abbr-grid tbody tr:nth-child(even) { background: #f8fbfe; }\n .abbr-grid tbody tr:hover { background: #eef5fd; }\n .abbr-grid td { padding: 7px 12px; vertical-align: top; line-height: 1.55; }\n .abbr-grid td.ab {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace; font-weight: 700; font-size: 11.5px;\n color: var(--blue); white-space: nowrap; width: 78px;\n }\n .abbr-grid td.ab sub { font-size: 9px; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 PROS \/ CONS PANELS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .pc-grid { display: grid; grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr; gap: 20px; margin: 22px 0 30px; }\n @media (max-width: 860px) { .pc-grid { grid-template-columns: 1fr; } }\n .pc-panel { border-radius: 11px; padding: 17px 20px 15px; border: 1.5px solid; }\n .pc-panel.pro { background: linear-gradient(180deg, #f1fdf9 0%, #fff 55%); border-color: #a3dbcc; }\n .pc-panel.con { background: linear-gradient(180deg, #fff6f4 0%, #fff 55%); border-color: #f0bcb4; }\n .pc-panel.neu { background: linear-gradient(180deg, #f5f8fd 0%, #fff 55%); border-color: #b9cde6; }\n .pc-head {\n display: flex; align-items: center; gap: 8px;\n font-family: 'Crimson Pro', serif; font-size: 15.5px; font-weight: 700;\n padding-bottom: 9px; margin-bottom: 11px; border-bottom: 1px dashed;\n }\n .pc-panel.pro .pc-head { color: var(--teal); border-color: #b6e3d6; }\n .pc-panel.con .pc-head { color: var(--red); border-color: #f3ccc6; }\n .pc-panel.neu .pc-head { color: var(--blue); border-color: #cbdcef; }\n .pc-head .pc-ico {\n width: 21px; height: 21px; border-radius: 50%; flex-shrink: 0;\n display: inline-flex; align-items: center; justify-content: center;\n font-size: 11px; color: #fff; font-family: 'DM Sans', sans-serif;\n }\n .pc-panel.pro .pc-ico { background: 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2px solid transparent;\n transition: all 0.15s; line-height: 1.45;\n }\n .toc-sub li a .sub-num {\n font-family: 'JetBrains Mono', monospace;\n font-size: 10.5px; color: var(--muted);\n flex-shrink: 0; min-width: 30px;\n }\n .toc-sub li a:hover { background: #f5f7fa; color: var(--blue); }\n .toc-sub li a.active { background: #eef4ff; border-left-color: var(--blue); color: var(--blue); font-weight: 600; }\n .toc-sub li.endmatter a { color: var(--purple); }\n .toc-sub li.endmatter a:hover { background: #faf6ff; }\n .toc-sub li.endmatter a.active { background: #faf6ff; border-left-color: var(--purple); color: var(--purple); }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 CHAPTER TABS \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .chapter-content { display: none; }\n .chapter-content.active { display: block; animation: fadeIn 0.25s ease; }\n @keyframes fadeIn { from { opacity: 0; transform: translateY(4px); } to { opacity: 1; transform: translateY(0); } }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 PLACEHOLDER \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .placeholder {\n border: 2px dashed var(--border); border-radius: 14px;\n padding: 48px 32px; text-align: center; background: #fcfdff; margin-top: 20px;\n }\n .placeholder .ph-icon { font-size: 40px; display: block; margin-bottom: 12px; opacity: 0.6; }\n .placeholder h4 { font-size: 16px; color: var(--navy); margin: 0 0 8px !important; }\n .placeholder p { font-size: 13.5px; color: var(--muted); text-align: center; max-width: 460px; margin: 0 auto 14px; }\n .placeholder .ph-list { display: inline-block; text-align: left; font-size: 12.5px; color: #2c3e50; line-height: 1.9; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 BACK TO TOP \u2500\u2500 *\/\n .to-top {\n position: fixed; right: 22px; bottom: 22px; z-index: 50;\n width: 42px; height: 42px; border-radius: 50%;\n background: var(--navy); color: #fff; border: none;\n font-size: 17px; cursor: pointer; opacity: 0;\n pointer-events: none; transition: opacity 0.25s;\n box-shadow: 0 4px 14px rgba(20,36,63,0.3);\n }\n .to-top.show { opacity: 1; pointer-events: auto; }\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 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.cyp-q { }\n .cyp-q .cyp-a { display: block !important; }\n .rung:hover, .domain-card:hover { transform: none; }\n body { font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5; }\n .section-heading-block { page-break-after: avoid; }\n .rung, .def-card, .callout, .formula-card, .cyp-box { page-break-inside: avoid; }\n .flow-step, .split-list li, .kv-row, .exam-tip { page-break-inside: avoid; }\n .flow-steps::before { -webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact; }\n }\n<\/style>\n<link rel=\"preconnect\" href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\">\n<link href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Crimson+Pro:wght@400;600;700&family=DM+Sans:wght@400;500;600;700&family=JetBrains+Mono:wght@400;600;700&family=Noto+Sans+Devanagari:wght@400;600;700&display=swap\" rel=\"stylesheet\">\n<style>\n \/* \u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550\u2550 SHARED HERO \u2014 applies to all notes pages 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opacity=\"0.8\" fill=\"none\">\n <path d=\"M 15 70 l 0 -8 M 11 66 l 8 0\"\/>\n <path d=\"M 295 130 l 0 -6 M 292 127 l 6 0\"\/>\n <\/g>\n <\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<div class=\"breadcrumb-bar\">\n <div class=\"breadcrumb-inner\">\n <a href=\"#\">Home<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/a>\n \u203a<\/span>\n <a href=\"#\">Notes<\/span>\u0928\u094b\u091f\u094d\u0938<\/span><\/a>\n \u203a<\/span>\n Measurement & Evaluation in Education<\/span>\n \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span>\n\n <div class=\"lang-toggle-bar\">\n <div class=\"lang-toggle-btn\" id=\"langToggle\" role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-label=\"Switch language\">\n <div class=\"lang-option active\" id=\"optEn\">English<\/div>\n <div class=\"lang-option\" id=\"optHi\">\u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940<\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"layout\">\n\n \n <aside class=\"sidebar\">\n <div class=\"toc-card\">\n <div class=\"toc-card-title\">\n Table of Contents<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter active\" data-chap=\"1\">\n I<\/span>\n \n Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u1-0\">1.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-2\">1.1<\/span>Concept of Measurement and Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-21\">1.2<\/span>The Missing Middle Term: Measurement \u2192 Assessment \u2192 Evaluation<\/span>\u091b\u0942\u091f\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u2192 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u2192 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-31\">1.3<\/span>Need for Measurement and Evaluation in Education<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-41\">1.4<\/span>Assessment OF, FOR and AS Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-63\">1.5<\/span>Perspectives of Assessment: Behaviourism \u2192 Cognitivism \u2192 Constructivism<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923: \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u2192 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u2192 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-44\">1.6<\/span>Issues and Concerns in Assessment and Evaluation<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-3\">1.7<\/span>Different Types of Measuring Scales<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-5\">1.8<\/span>Role of Teachers in an Evaluation Programme<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"2\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n II<\/span>\n \n Characteristics of a Good Test<\/span>\n \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u5-0\">2.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-22\">2.1<\/span>Essential Qualities of Good Measuring Instruments<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-3\">2.2<\/span>Validity: Concept and Uses<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e: \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-31\">2.3<\/span>Determining the Validity Coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-2\">2.4<\/span>Reliability: Concept and Factors Affecting It<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e: \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-21\">2.5<\/span>Methods of Determining the Reliability Coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-32\">2.6<\/span>Relation between Validity and Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-3\">2.7<\/span>Education Tests<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-31\">2.8<\/span>Other Tools and Techniques of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"3\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n III<\/span>\n \n Test Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u2-0\">3.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-6\">3.1<\/span>Taxonomy of Educational Objectives<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-6a\">3.2<\/span>The Cognitive Domain<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-6b\">3.3<\/span>The Affective Domain<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-6c\">3.4<\/span>The Psychomotor Domain<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-61\">3.5<\/span>Specification of Objectives & Steps in the Evaluation Process<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-62\">3.6<\/span>The Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-51\">3.7<\/span>Writing Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-2\">3.8<\/span>Teacher-made and Standardized Tests<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-41\">3.9<\/span>Construction of Achievement Tests and Standardization<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"4\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n IV<\/span>\n \n Scores and Their Interpretation<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u4-0\">4.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-2\">4.1<\/span>Statistical Treatment of Data<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-21\">4.2<\/span>The Vocabulary of Inferential Statistics<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-3\">4.3<\/span>Frequency Distribution and Graphical Representation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-4\">4.4<\/span>Measures of Central Tendency<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-44\">4.5<\/span>Measures of Variability (Dispersion)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e (\u0905\u092a\u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923) \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-45\">4.6<\/span>Short-Cut Methods and the Combined Mean<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-5\">4.7<\/span>Coefficient of Correlation<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-51\">4.8<\/span>Choosing the Right Coefficient, and Prediction from Correlation<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-61\">4.9<\/span>Skewness and Kurtosis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-7\">4.10<\/span>Normal Probability Curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-6\">4.11<\/span>Percentile and Percentile Rank<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-8\">4.12<\/span>Derived Scores: Z-score, Standard Score and T-score<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915: Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-82\">4.13<\/span>C-Scores and the Eleven-Point Scale<\/span>C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-83\">4.14<\/span>Interpretation of Test Scores: Qualitative and Quantitative<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928: \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-81\">4.15<\/span>Further Statistics and Research Methodology<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"5\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n V<\/span>\n \n Referencing and Factors Affecting Scores<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u2-21\">5.1<\/span>Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Tests<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-5\">5.2<\/span>Factors Influencing Test Scores<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"6\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n VI<\/span>\n \n Evaluation Systems, Marking and Grading<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u6-0\">6.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-1\">6.1<\/span>Integrated Approach of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-2\">6.2<\/span>Marking System: Need, Problems and Components<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940: \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-4\">6.3<\/span>Trends in Evaluation: Grading, Credit System and Cumulative Record Card<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-3\">6.4<\/span>Methods of Feedback for Students<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"7\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n VII<\/span>\n \n Examination Reform and Technology<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u3-0\">7.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-4\">7.1<\/span>Examination System: Current Strategies<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-43\">7.2<\/span>Semester System<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-4\">7.3<\/span>Continuous Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-41\">7.4<\/span>Reforms in the Examination System<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-42\">7.5<\/span>Open Book Examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-41\">7.6<\/span>Issues and Problems<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-42\">7.7<\/span>Inclusive and Equitable Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0932\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-43\">7.8<\/span>Recent Trends, ICT-Supported Evaluation and the National Education Policy 2020<\/span>\u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, ICT-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-5\">7.9<\/span>Computer in Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-51\">7.10<\/span>Multimedia in Education<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"8\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n VIII<\/span>\n \n Achievement and Diagnostic Tests<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u2-4\">8.1<\/span>Measurement of Achievement<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-5\">8.2<\/span>Diagnostic Test: Construction and Usefulness<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923: \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-51\">8.3<\/span>Types of Diagnostic Tests<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"9\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n IX<\/span>\n \n Types of Test Items<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u2-42\">9.1<\/span>Relative Merits and Demerits of Different Test Items<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"10\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n X<\/span>\n \n Formative, Summative and Psychological Measurement<\/span>\n \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u1-4\">10.1<\/span>Placement, Diagnostic, Formative and Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-2\">10.2<\/span>Testing in Intelligence<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-3\">10.3<\/span>Attitude and Personality Tests<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-31\">10.4<\/span>Aptitude, Interest and Creativity Tests<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"11\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n REV<\/span>\n \n Revision and Reference<\/span>\n \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u1-1\">11.1<\/span>Objectives: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-1\">11.2<\/span>Objectives: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-1\">11.3<\/span>Objectives: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-1\">11.4<\/span>Objectives: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-1\">11.5<\/span>Objectives: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-7\">11.6<\/span>Summary: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-6\">11.7<\/span>Summary: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-5\">11.8<\/span>Summary: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-9\">11.9<\/span>Summary: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-6\">11.10<\/span>Summary: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-8\">11.11<\/span>Key Terms: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-7\">11.12<\/span>Key Terms: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-6\">11.13<\/span>Key Terms: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-10\">11.14<\/span>Key Terms and Formula Sheet<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-7\">11.15<\/span>Key Terms: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-11\">11.16<\/span>Abbreviations Used Throughout<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-10\">11.17<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-9\">11.18<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-8\">11.19<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-12\">11.20<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-9\">11.21<\/span>Questions and Exercises: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-6\">11.22<\/span>DEDU504 Syllabus Map<\/span>DEDU504 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u1-12\">11.23<\/span>Further Reading: Measurement and Evaluation<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u2-10\">11.24<\/span>Further Reading: Tests and Construction<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u3-9\">11.25<\/span>Further Reading: Psychological Testing<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u4-13\">11.26<\/span>Further Reading: Statistics<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u5-10\">11.27<\/span>Further Reading: Reliability and Validity<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <\/div>\n <\/aside>\n\n <main class=\"article\">\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content active\" data-chap=\"1\" id=\"c1\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 1<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Measurement and Evaluation: Concept, Need, Scope, Difference and Relevance; Educational Testing and Assessment; Scales of Measurement<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928: \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e; \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \ud83d\udccf<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Core Distinction<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092d\u0947\u0926<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">How much? vs How good?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e? \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e?<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Measurement quantifies; evaluation judges worth<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \ud83c\udfaf<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">Bloom's Domains<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\">3<\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Cognitive (6) \u2022 Affective (5) \u2022 Psychomotor (5)<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (6) \u2022 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (5) \u2022 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (5)<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-0\">\n 1.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Measurement is an essential component of the learning system<\/strong> and carries greater administrative utility<\/strong> in education than evaluation does.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Evaluation, by contrast, is useful in modifying and improving<\/strong> the learning system and the instructional procedure.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Measurement is more precise and objective<\/strong> in approach than evaluation.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Measurement is always of a quality, attribute or variable<\/strong> of a thing or person. It converts variables into quantities from which inferences are drawn \u2014 e.g. intelligence is quantified as IQ<\/strong>; achievement is quantified as scores<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b IQ<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-2\">\n 1.1<\/span>\n <h3>Concept of Measurement and Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Concept of Measurement<\/span>\u0915. \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Working Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Measurement<\/strong> is the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some object are determined. In a learning context it means applying a standard scale or measuring device<\/strong> to an object, a series of objects, events or conditions, according to practices accepted by those skilled in using that device. In short, it is \"the assignment of one of a set of numbers to each of a set of persons or objects according to certain established rules.\"<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0936\u0943\u0902\u0916\u0932\u093e, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u0936\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u0936\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915-\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \"\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964\"<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>?<\/span>\n Measurement answers the question \"how much\"<\/strong> \u2014 how great or how small, how much more than or how much less than.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>\n Common misconception:<\/strong> that measurement happens only with tapes and scales. In fact ranking contestants in a debate<\/strong> or rating human behaviour<\/strong> is equally measurement.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f:<\/strong> \u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092b\u093c\u0940\u0924\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093e\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u03a3<\/span>\n Measurement involves quantification<\/strong> \u2014 indicating to what extent a particular attribute is present in a particular object.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Definitions by scholars<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">E. L. ThorndikeFoundational premise<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Anything that exists at all exists in some quantity; and anything that exists in some quantity is capable of being measured<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948; \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Encyclopedia of Educational ResearchRefined statement<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n To measure means \"to observe or determine the magnitude of a variant.\"<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964\"<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">James M. BradfieldSymbol-based view<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The process of assigning symbols to the dimension of phenomenon<\/strong> in order to characterize the status of the phenomenon as precisely as possible.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">J. P. GuilfordRule-based view<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The \"assignment of numerals to objects or events according to certain rules.\"<\/strong><\/span>\n \"\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964\"<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Norman E. GronlundOutcome view<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Measurement results are some score or numerical value<\/strong> and quantitative descriptions of the pupils.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three essentials of any measurement<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack roman\">\n <li>\n Identification and definition<\/span>\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong> \u2014\n of the quantity, attribute or variable that is to be measured.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/li>\n <li>\n Determining operations<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong> \u2014\n the set of operations by which the attribute or variable may be made perceivable<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span>\n <\/li>\n <li>\n Translation procedure<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong> \u2014\n establishing a set of procedures for translating observations into quantitative statements of degree, extent or amount<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0936, \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Two types of measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Physical Measurement<\/span>\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Of objects that have absolute existence<\/strong> \u2014 height, weight of rice, etc.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u091a\u093e\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0926\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Measurement is direct<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>All tools start from an absolute zero<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Always accurate and quantitative<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A fixed set of tools<\/strong> exists worldwide.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u092d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Mental \/ Psychological \/ Educational Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \/ \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \/ \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Always relative<\/strong>; there is no absolute zero<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong>; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Measurement is indirect<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. intelligence via an intelligence test, inferred from responses.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Tests are subjective in nature<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Both qualitative and quantitative<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>No fixed tools<\/strong> \u2014 the same tool may not suit different types of persons.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Educational measurement \u2014 what it does<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The application of the principles of measurement in the field of education. In the school system it is the quantitative assessment of student performance<\/strong> on a given test.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Used to compare performance<\/strong> between students and to indicate their strengths and weaknesses<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0907\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Helps in classifying students into homogeneous groups<\/strong>, assigning educational and vocational guidance, and providing remedial measures to low achievers<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947, \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928-\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Tests used:<\/strong> intelligence, achievement, attitude, aptitude, interest inventory, personality. Methods used:<\/strong> observation, interview, checklist, rating scale, examinations, cumulative record card, anecdotal record.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923:<\/strong> \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\/\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901:<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915, \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Ebel's six competencies for teachers in measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0908\u092c\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0939 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">i<\/span>Administer properly<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Know how to administer a test properly, efficiently and fairly.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924, \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">ii<\/span>Interpret scores<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Interpret test scores correctly and fully \u2014 but with recognition of their limitations.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">iii<\/span>Select a test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Select a standardized test that will be effective in a particular situation.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">iv<\/span>Plan and write<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Plan a test and write the test questions to be included in it.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">v<\/span>Uses and limits<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong>Know the educational uses as well as the limitations of educational tests.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">vi<\/span>Judge quality<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/span><\/strong>Know the criteria by which test quality is judged and how to secure evidence relating to them.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u091f\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Ten characteristics of a good measuring tool<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0938 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n \n To measure psychological traits soundly, the instrument must be free of personal errors, variable errors, constant errors and interpretative errors<\/strong>. It should be:<\/span>\n \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\">\n <li>Valid<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the truthfulness<\/em> of a test; the extent to which it measures what it actually intends to measure. A numerical reasoning test is valid only if it really measures reasoning ability.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/em>; \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reliable<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the consistency<\/em> or faithfulness of the instrument. If Ram scores 50 in a Class VI English test and scores 50 again on re-administration a few days later, the test is reliable.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/em> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0930\u093e\u092e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e VI \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 50 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Objective<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 two aspects: (a) item objectivity<\/em> \u2014 items must have one definite answer, so different examiners award the same marks; (b) scoring objectivity<\/em> \u2014 whoever scores it, the test fetches the same score. Hence avoid ambiguous, double-barrelled, double-negative and essay-type items.<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937: (\u0915) \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u2014 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0902; (\u0916) \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f, \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0928\u093e\u0932\u0940, \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u0947-\u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0928 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Usable \/ practicable<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \/ \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the degree to which teachers and school administrators can successfully use it.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Comprehensive and precise<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 items free from ambiguity; directions for items, administration and scoring clearly stated.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easy to administer<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 complicated or time-and-labour-heavy directions cause users to lag behind. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)<\/em> is a good test but very difficult to administer.<\/span>\u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u090f\u0921\u0932\u094d\u091f \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 (WAIS)<\/em> \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Economical<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 less time-consuming; cost reasonable enough for schools to afford.<\/span>\u0915\u092e \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e; \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0935\u0939\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easy to score<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 clear, simple scoring procedure with an adequate scoring key supplied.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f, \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0915\u0941\u0902\u091c\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easily available<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 some well-known standardized tests are not easily available, and therefore have less usability<\/em>.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u092e<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Good get-up \/ appearance<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u093e\u091c-\u0938\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093e<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 quality of paper, typography and printing, letter size, spacing, pictures and diagrams, binding, and space for pupils' responses.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e, \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091f\u0902\u0915\u0923, \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932, \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916, \u091c\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0926\u0938\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h4>B. Nature of Evaluation<\/span>\u0916. \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Working Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Evaluation<\/strong> is an act or process that assigns \"value\"<\/strong> to a measure. When we evaluate, we make a judgement about the suitability, desirability or worth<\/strong> of a thing. In teaching\u2013learning it is a continuous process<\/strong> concerned with far more than formal academic achievement \u2014 it assesses the student's progress towards stated objectives, the efficiency of teaching<\/strong> and the effectiveness of the curriculum<\/strong>, across the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0915\u094b \"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\"<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0939\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e, \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">J. M. BradfieldValue-standard view<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The assignment of symbols to phenomenon in order to characterize the worth or value of the phenomenon<\/strong>, usually with reference to some social, cultural and scientific standards.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Wright StoneScope view<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930-\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n A relatively new technical term introduced to designate a more comprehensive concept of measurement<\/strong> than is implied in conventional tests and examinations.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0928\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0926 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">HannaBehaviour-change view<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The process of gathering and interpreting evidence on change in the behaviour<\/strong> of all students as they progress through school.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The Evaluation Equation \u2014 memorize this<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Evaluation = Quantitative Description (Measurement)<\/em> and \/ or Qualitative Description (Non-measurement)<\/em> + Value Judgement<\/em><\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 = \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 (\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928)<\/em> \u0914\u0930 \/ \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 (\u0905-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928)<\/em> + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Classroom sequence: the teacher gives a test<\/b> \u2192 awards numerals to answer papers (this step is measurement<\/b>, purely quantitative) \u2192 then arranges pupils as first, second, third according to achievement (this step is evaluation<\/b>). Evaluation is therefore philosophical and subjective<\/b>; measurement is precise and objective<\/b>.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e: \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/b> \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2192 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u092f\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/b> \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u2192 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e, \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f, \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u092f\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/b> \u0939\u0948)\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/b> \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/b>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Eleven characteristics of evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>It is a systematic process<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>It measures the effectiveness of learning experiences<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>It measures how far instructional objectives<\/strong> have been achieved.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>It uses tools<\/strong> \u2014 tests, observation, interview.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>It is a continuous process<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>It is a subjective judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>It is philosophical<\/strong> in nature.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>It includes quantitative description, qualitative description and value judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">9<\/span>It gets its data from measurement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">10<\/span>It not only determines magnitude but also adds meaning<\/strong> to measurement.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">11<\/span>It involves values and purposes<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Exam Add-on \u2014 Comparison Table<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0928 \u2014 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Measurement vs. Evaluation \u2014 consolidated<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Compiled from the points scattered across \u00a71.0 and \u00a71.1 \u2014 this exact contrast is the most frequently asked short question from this unit.<\/span>\n \u00a71.0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Question answered<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>How much?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e?<\/span><\/td><td>How good \/ how worthwhile?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \/ \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0928?<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Nature<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Precise, objective<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/td><td>Philosophical, subjective<\/span>\u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Description<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Quantitative only<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>Quantitative + qualitative + value judgement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 + \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Scope<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Narrow \u2014 a single trait at a time<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>Broad \u2014 whole personality, teaching, curriculum<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Utility<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>More administrative<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>Modifies and improves the learning system<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Dependence<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Independent of evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Draws its data from measurement<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Product<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A score or numerical value<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>A judgement, grade or rank order<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Evaluation from the educational angle \u2014 what can be evaluated<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack roman\">\n <li>The school site<\/strong> \u2014 location, building, hygienic condition, strength of students and teachers.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u0932<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u092d\u0935\u0928, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0936\u093e, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The school programme<\/strong> \u2014 syllabus, co-curricular activities, guidance programmes.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Teaching methods<\/strong> \u2014 with reference to aims, purposes, suitability and efficacy.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u2014 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902, \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The total programme of instruction<\/strong> \u2014 across cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>School administration<\/strong> \u2014 discipline, control, management, organization.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Textbooks<\/strong> and other course materials.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Students' growth.<\/strong><\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n \n <h5 class=\"sub\">Steps in the evaluation process (hierarchy)<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923 (\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e)<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83d\udcd0 The text presents these as a hierarchy read upward<\/strong> \u2014 objectives are fixed first, evaluation comes last. Each step is possible only because the one above it has been settled.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udcd0 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Identification and definition of general objectives<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n The broad aims of the course or curriculum.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Identification and definition of specific objectives<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n The general aims broken down unit by unit.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Specification of desired student behaviour<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928\u0964<\/span>\n Objectives restated in observable, behavioural terms.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0915\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Selecting appropriate teaching points<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928\u0964<\/span>\n The content through which the behaviour will be developed.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Planning of appropriate learning experiences<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n The classroom activities that let the pupil react actively.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 6<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Evaluating.<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/strong><\/span>\n Judging how far the behaviour specified at step 3 has actually been produced.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u091a\u0930\u0923 3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-21\">\n 1.2<\/span>\n <h3>The Missing Middle Term: Measurement \u2192 Assessment \u2192 Evaluation<\/span>\u091b\u0942\u091f\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u2192 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u2192 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a71.1 contrasted measurement with evaluation directly. Most modern writing places a third term between them \u2014 assessment<\/strong> \u2014 which has a narrower meaning than evaluation but a broader meaning than measurement<\/strong>. Examiners increasingly ask for all three.<\/span>\n \u00a71.1 \u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u0964 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u090f\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0938\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u2014 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">AERA (American Educational Research Association) et al., 1999Assessment<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n A systematic procedure for collecting information<\/strong> that can be used to make inferences about the characteristics of people or objects \u2014 a process of gathering evidence and making judgements relating to outcomes.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947 \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Etymology<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span>Why the word matters<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n The word assess<\/em> derives from \"to sit beside\"<\/strong> or \"to assist the judge\"<\/strong> \u2014 the assessor gathers the data and shapes it into interpretable form; the judgement itself comes afterwards<\/strong>. That is exactly why assessment stops short of evaluation.<\/span>\n assess<\/em> \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \"\u092a\u093e\u0938 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \"\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0927\u0940\u0936 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Gay, 1991Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n A systematic process of collecting and analysing data<\/strong> in order to determine whether, and to what degree, objectives have been or are being achieved. It leads to decision making.<\/strong><\/span>\n \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong>, \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Evaluation as the umbrella term \u2014 three equivalent statements<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Evaluation = Measurement + Value Judgement<\/em> Evaluation = Assessment + Value Judgement<\/em> Evaluation = Measurement + Assessment + Value Judgement<\/em><\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 = \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/em> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 = \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/em> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 = \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 + \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Evaluation is the umbrella<\/b>: measurement sits innermost, assessment surrounds it, evaluation surrounds both. Without value judgement there is no evaluation<\/b> \u2014 which matches the equation already given in \u00a71.1.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u091b\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/b> \u0939\u0948: \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/b> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Worked example \u2014 the same pupil read at all three levels<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n \n \"Ramesh scored 65 marks in Mathematics in the final examination, which is above-average performance, but he did not do well on items related to mensuration. Ramesh has improved significantly compared with his half-yearly examination.\"<\/em><\/span>\n \"\u0930\u092e\u0947\u0936 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 65 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f, \u091c\u094b \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u093e\u0964 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u092e\u0947\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em><\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>M<\/span>Measurement<\/strong> \u2014 \"scored 65 marks\". Pure quantification, nothing more.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \"65 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f\"\u0964 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>A<\/span>Assessment<\/strong> \u2014 \"above-average performance\" and \"did not do well on mensuration\". Interpretation of the number and identification of the weak area.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928\" \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\"\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>E<\/span>Evaluation<\/strong> \u2014 \"has improved significantly compared with his half-yearly examination\". A judgement of worth against a standard.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\"\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>Three assumptions underlying all educational assessment<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Constructs exist<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/strong>Psychological and educational constructs exist \u2014 there are always traits available to be measured. (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2002)<\/em><\/span>\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 (\u0915\u094b\u0939\u0947\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0932\u093f\u0915, 2002)<\/em><\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Constructs can be measured<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/strong>Cronbach (1990): if a thing exists, it exists in some amount; if it exists in some amount, it can be measured.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 (1990): \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948; \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>But measurement is imperfect<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Our measurement is never perfect \u2014 every educational measure carries error. This is the basis of the true-score model of \u00a72.4.<\/span>\u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u00a72.4 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd2c<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Process of measurement \u2014 Thorndike & Christ (2010).<\/strong> The three steps are the \"three essentials\" of \u00a71.1, with step 2 given a name worth quoting: identifying and defining the attribute<\/strong> \u2192 determining the set of operations to isolate and display it<\/strong> (this is operationalizing the attribute<\/em>, or giving an operational definition<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. \"in this study, IQ means the score obtained on standard test XYZ\") \u2192 quantifying the attribute<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0925\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0921\u093e\u0907\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0907\u0938\u094d\u091f (2010)\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u00a71.1 \u0915\u0947 \"\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\" \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091a\u0930\u0923 2 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0930\u0923-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u2192 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> (\u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/em> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \"\u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 IQ \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 XYZ \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\") \u2192 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-31\">\n 1.3<\/span>\n <h3>Need for Measurement and Evaluation in Education<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The process of evaluation consists of three aspects<\/strong>, each compensating for the limits of the previous one:<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u093f\u091b\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Numbers<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Quantitative Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Performance measured through tests \u2014 teacher-made, standardized, etc. Achievement depends not only on the nature of the test but also on the pupil's physical and mental health, level of preparation and motivation<\/strong> during the test. Marks obtained in terminal examinations, expressed as an aggregate percentage, are the typical example.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0906\u0926\u093f \u2014 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Limitation<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/b>It gives the overall achievement level<\/strong> but does not<\/strong> reveal an individual child's performance or the difficulties he or she faces \u2014 hence it must be supplemented by qualitative assessment<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0924\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Records<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Qualitative Assessment<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Observation by teachers<\/strong> and the records they maintain on various facets of student personality and school performance. A systematic statement by a teacher about special achievement, exceptional ability in a non-scholastic area, or exceptional behaviour<\/strong> illustrates this.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0917\u0948\u0930-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Judgement<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Teachers' Opinion<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u093e\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n Opinions formed from conclusions drawn out of both<\/strong> quantitative measures and qualitative description of behaviour. This gives a comprehensive picture<\/strong> of the student's progress. Though an evaluation in an informal setting<\/strong>, it conveys information about performance on vital issues.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0930\u093e\u092f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092a\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Importance of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 (CCE) \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>In the modern era it does not suffice to be good only in academics<\/strong>. Activities in scholastic and non-scholastic<\/strong> areas must both be evaluated regularly.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0941\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Regular evaluation monitors individual progress<\/strong> and shows each student's achievement level in both areas throughout the year<\/strong>, and checks whether curricular objectives have been achieved.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Objectives target all three domains<\/strong>, because they are complementary<\/strong> \u2014 the absence of any one creates a sense of lack in an individual's life.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0942\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Assessment across all three domains is what makes evaluation \"comprehensive\"<\/strong>; learning being a result of continuous formal and informal experience is what makes it \"continuous\"<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\"<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \"\u0938\u0924\u0924\"<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Modifications observed may relate to the development of intellect, emotions and practical skills<\/strong>; objective records of such changes must be maintained from time to time.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Techniques may be formal or informal<\/strong> \u2014 written examination, observation tests, group work, individual assignments, oral or written questioning individually or in a group.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The National Curriculum Framework<\/strong> prescribes social qualities that all children need to develop regardless of academic aptitude<\/strong> \u2014 a student weak academically may excel in arts, humanities, sports, athletics or music. Confidence gained there may inspire greater effort in curricular studies.<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e<\/strong> \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0915\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0932\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0940, \u0916\u0947\u0932, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2605<\/span>The key insight:<\/strong> through this evaluation system, students finally understand that their competition is with themselves, not with others<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f:<\/strong> \u0907\u0938 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">How CCE empowers teachers<\/span>CCE \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack alpha\">\n <li>They get pointers on how to improve the evaluation procedure<\/strong> itself.<\/span>\u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>They can formulate ways to help students master competencies they are falling behind in<\/strong>, through planned remedial steps.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u0926\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u093f\u091b\u0921\u093c \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>They can select and deploy audio-visual and other media<\/strong>, especially for subjects that cannot be understood by theoretical learning alone.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f-\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>They are encouraged to take important decisions regarding the learning process, efficiency, quality assurance and accountability<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u0906\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u0935\u093e\u092c\u0926\u0947\u0939\u0940<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf Why CCE matters for the Indian education system \u2014 four reasons<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 CCE \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u2014 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>1<\/span>To make sure learning in schools is not just rote method<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0928 \u0930\u0939\u0947<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>To ensure the examination system is more flexible<\/strong> and tests a wider range of capabilities<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>To make sure the curriculum enriches the individual as a whole<\/strong>, besides promoting academic learning.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>To ensure classroom knowledge is relevant to life outside<\/strong> as well.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0940 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 CCE and the components of evaluation<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 CCE \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>39<\/span>Which of the following are the components of evaluation? 1. Qualitative descriptions 2. Quantitative descriptions 3. Value judgments 4. Graphical descriptions<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/b> Evaluation comprises quantitative description (measurement), qualitative description (assessment) and value judgement. Graphical description is only a way of presenting data, not a component of evaluation.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 (\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928), \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 (\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.3, \u00a71.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>84<\/span>Which of the following best defines Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Evaluation of learner performance in cognitive and non-cognitive aspects throughout the teaching-learning process<\/li>\n <li>(b) Evaluation of performance by teachers, students and parents<\/li>\n <li>(c) Evaluation with the help of periodic tests by the teachers<\/li>\n <li>(d) Evaluation with the help of structured tools at regular intervals<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a)<\/b> The two words carry the definition: \"continuous\" means throughout the teaching-learning process, and \"comprehensive\" means both scholastic (cognitive) and non-scholastic (non-cognitive) aspects.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902: \"\u0938\u0924\u0924\" \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092d\u0930, \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 (\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 (\u0905-\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.3 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>85<\/span>Statement-I: A sound assessment system incorporates both cognitive and non-cognitive aspects spread over the total span of instructional time. Statement-II: Learner assessment should be holistic.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Both correct and II explains I<\/li>\n <li>(b) Both correct but II does not explain I<\/li>\n <li>(c) I correct, II incorrect<\/li>\n <li>(d) I incorrect, II correct<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) Both correct and II explains I<\/b> Statement I describes exactly what CCE requires, and Statement II \u2014 that assessment should be holistic \u2014 is the underlying principle that explains why. NEP 2020 states the same in requiring 360-degree assessment.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 I \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b CCE \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928 II \u2014 \u0915\u093f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 NEP 2020 \u092d\u0940 360-\u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.3, \u00a77.8 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-41\">\n 1.4<\/span>\n <h3>Assessment OF, FOR and AS Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n This three-way classification has largely replaced the bare formative\/summative pair in current writing, and it maps directly onto \u00a710.1 above. The descriptors follow the New South Wales Education Standards Authority (NSWESA)<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\/\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u00a710.1 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942 \u0938\u093e\u0909\u0925 \u0935\u0947\u0932\u094d\u0938 \u090f\u091c\u0941\u0915\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0902\u0921\u0930\u094d\u0921\u094d\u0938 \u0905\u0925\u0949\u0930\u093f\u091f\u0940 (NSWESA)<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"domain-grid\">\n <div class=\"domain-card cog\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\ud83c\udfc1<\/div>\n OF learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Assessment of Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Achievement judged against predefined outcomes and standards<\/strong>, at the end of a unit, term or semester, to grade or rank<\/strong>. Provides evidence to parents, teachers and outside groups.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">= Summative assessment \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/span>= \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"domain-card aff\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\ud83d\udd04<\/div>\n FOR learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Assessment for Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Carried on during<\/strong> teaching to improve teaching and enhance learning<\/strong>. Frequent, often unstructured. Reflects the belief that all students can improve<\/strong>, and gives feedback that motivates rather than merely marks.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">= Formative assessment \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/span>= \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"domain-card psy\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\ud83e\ude9e<\/div>\n AS learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Assessment as Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Learners assess themselves<\/strong>, identify their own knowledge gaps and choose their learning strategy. Assessment itself becomes a tool for new learning<\/strong>, and the pupil takes responsibility for his own learning<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0915\u092e\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0928\u090f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">Self- and peer assessment \u00b7 Self-regulated learning<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The bearing of this on the CCE question.<\/strong> The insight stated in \u00a71.3 \u2014 that under CCE the student's \"competition is with themselves, not with others\"<\/em> \u2014 is precisely what assessment AS learning<\/strong> formalizes. Cited alongside that line, the trio turns a textbook sentence into a well-supported argument.<\/span>\n CCE \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0964<\/strong> \u00a71.3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f CCE \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \"\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\"<\/em> \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0943\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-63\">\n 1.5<\/span>\n <h3>Perspectives of Assessment: Behaviourism \u2192 Cognitivism \u2192 Constructivism<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923: \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u2192 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u2192 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a73.1 A presented Cognitive Learning Theory on its own. Placing it between the perspective that preceded it and the one that followed makes that section far easier to argue in an essay answer.<\/span>\n \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Before Cognitive Learning Theory<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Behaviourist perspective<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Learning is shown by change in observable behaviour<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The environment shapes behaviour<\/strong>; contiguity and reinforcement<\/strong> are central.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0917\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>; \u0938\u0928\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Competence is achieved by breaking tasks into small steps<\/strong> and reinforcing each step \u2014 think of a child's delight at getting \"good\" or \"fair\".<\/span>\u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \"\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e\" \u092f\u093e \"\u0920\u0940\u0915\" \u092a\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Assessment focus: the observable end product<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">\u2192<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n After Cognitive Learning Theory<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Constructivist perspective<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Knowledge is actively constructed by the individual<\/strong>; learning is an adaptive process built on experience<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The learner as a passive recipient<\/strong> is replaced by the learner as a situated, active knowledge constructor<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f-\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Knowledge cannot be transferred uniformly<\/strong> \u2014 a teacher teaches one content to the whole class, yet each pupil processes it through his own experience. Hence teaching and learning are not synonymous<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0915\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Assessment focus: the understanding of the learner<\/strong>, not surface knowledge and the ability to recall facts.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930: \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u091d<\/strong>, \u0938\u0924\u0939\u0940 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Where the Cognitive Learning Theory of \u00a73.1 A sits.<\/strong> CLT<\/strong> is the bridge<\/strong>: it kept the behaviourists' concern with what the learner does, but moved the explanation inside the head \u2014 to insight, goals, meaningful wholes and the organization of experience<\/strong>. Constructivism then took the final step, making the learner's previous experience the deciding factor<\/strong> in what is learnt. Notice that \u00a73.1 A's own instruction \u2014 \"begin with meaningful wholes\"<\/em> and \"match the student's level of thought\"<\/em> \u2014 is already constructivist in spirit.<\/span>\n \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> CLT<\/strong> \u0938\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u093e, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u0917\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f, \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0915\u0964 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0915\u0926\u092e \u0909\u0920\u093e\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u2014 \"\u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\"<\/em> \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\"<\/em> \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-44\">\n 1.6<\/span>\n <h3>Issues and Concerns in Assessment and Evaluation<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The whole debate can be framed as five questions<\/strong> that any assessment system must answer. They give a ready-made structure for a long answer on \"issues in evaluation\", and each one connects to a section already covered.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\" \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0922\u093e\u0901\u091a\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n What is to be assessed?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f?<\/span><\/strong>\n Only scholastic achievement, or also attitudes, values, interests, health and social skills? The narrower the answer, the more the affective and psychomotor domains<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 are neglected \u2014 and what is not assessed ceases to be taught.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092d\u0940? \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u00a73.1 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0906\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n What criteria should assess process and product?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921?<\/span><\/strong>\n Should we judge only the final product<\/strong> \u2014 the answer script \u2014 or also the process<\/strong> by which the pupil reached it? Performance assessment and portfolios (\u00a73.1 C) assess process; the conventional paper assesses only product.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u092e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u2014 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0947\u0902, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u093e? \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b (\u00a73.1 \u0917) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Who will apply the criteria and award marks or grades?<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0926\u0947?<\/span><\/strong>\n The external examiner, the class teacher, the pupil himself or his peers? This is the internal versus external<\/strong> question of \u00a710.1 and the argument for self and peer assessment<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940? \u092f\u0939 \u00a710.1 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n How will the scores or grades be interpreted?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b?<\/span><\/strong>\n Against a fixed criterion<\/strong> or against the group<\/strong>? This is exactly the criterion-referenced versus norm-referenced distinction of \u00a75.1, and it decides whether all pupils may pass.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937? \u092f\u0939 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a75.1 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n What are the sources of error in examination?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/strong>\n Error enters through the question paper<\/strong> (poor sampling, ambiguity), the examinee<\/strong> (anxiety, health, guessing), the examiner<\/strong> (subjectivity, halo effect, fatigue) and the conditions<\/strong> of administration \u2014 precisely the error component E<\/strong> of the true-score model in \u00a72.4.<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> (\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u093e), \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940<\/strong> (\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928), \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/strong> (\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935, \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a72.4 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0936 E<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-3\">\n 1.7<\/span>\n <h3>Different Types of Measuring Scales<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What is \"scaling\"?<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \"\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917\" \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/div>\n In the social sciences, scaling refers to the process of measuring<\/strong>. Scaling techniques are used to estimate individual levels of a trait \u2014 for example level of extraversion, or level of satisfaction.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0939\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Method 1<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Comparative Scaling<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Items are directly compared with each other<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Example: \"Do you prefer Beverage A or Beverage B?\"<\/em><\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923: \"\u0906\u092a \u092a\u0947\u092f A \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u092a\u0947\u092f B?\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Yields insight into relative preference<\/strong> within a market or group.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Method 2<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Non-comparative Scaling<\/span>\u0905-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Each item is scaled independently of the others<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Questions are more subjective<\/strong> in nature.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Example: \"State the exact reason for preferring one beverage over another.\"<\/em><\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923: \"\u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0947\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Extended Note \u2014 The Four Levels<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940 \u2014 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>The four levels of measurement (Stevens' scales)<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 (\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0940\u0935\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901)<\/span><\/h4>\n \n University papers almost always ask for these four levels, set out by S. S. Stevens in 1946. They underlie every statistic in Units 4 and 5, since the scale a variable is measured on decides which statistic may legitimately be applied to it. Mnemonic: N-O-I-R<\/strong> (French for \"black\").<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0940\u0935\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0928\u0947 1946 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930: N-O-I-R<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n N<\/span>\n <h6>Nominal<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n Labels only \u2014 no order. Gender, roll number, subject stream. Only counting<\/em> and mode<\/em> are permissible.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/em> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n O<\/span>\n <h6>Ordinal<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n Rank order, but unequal intervals<\/em>. Merit position, Likert agreement, grades A\/B\/C. Median<\/em> and rank correlation apply.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/em>\u0964 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 A\/B\/C\u0964 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n I<\/span>\n <h6>Interval<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932<\/span><\/h6>\n Equal intervals but arbitrary zero<\/em>. Achievement scores, IQ, temperature in \u00b0C. Mean, standard deviation and correlation<\/em> apply.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0924<\/em>\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, IQ, \u00b0C \u0924\u093e\u092a\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/em> \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n R<\/span>\n <h6>Ratio<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/h6>\n Equal intervals plus a true zero<\/em>. Height, weight, reaction time. All statistics apply.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/em>\u0964 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0964 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udca1<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Link this back to \u00a71.1:<\/strong> the reason mental measurement has no absolute zero<\/strong> is precisely that educational and psychological data sit at the interval<\/strong> level, not the ratio level. A student scoring 0 in mathematics does not have zero mathematical ability. Physical measurement<\/strong>, by contrast, is ratio<\/strong>-level \u2014 which is why the text calls it \"always accurate\".<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u00a71.1 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093f\u090f:<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 0 \u092a\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong>-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \"\u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\" \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Functions of Measurement \u2014 Cronbach (1949)<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 (1949)<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Lee J. Cronbach classified all applications of mental measurement under three main functions<\/strong>:<\/span>\n \u0932\u0940 \u091c\u0947. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Predict<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Prognosis Function<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n Tests reveal differences among people's present performance<\/strong>; all decisions built on them involve prediction<\/strong>. Measurement supplies the extent of a variable for the specific purpose of predicting future behaviour<\/strong>. It carries the administrative<\/strong> functions \u2014 classification, selection, promotion and gradation of students. Guidance and counselling services also rest on this function.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0947\u0935\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The IQ test given in school to predict academic performance; a counsellor helping a college student choose the best curriculum or job.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e IQ \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Diagnose<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Diagnosis Function<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n Where prognosis reveals the student's level<\/strong>, diagnosis identifies the weakness in student learning<\/strong>. Remedial instruction<\/strong> is prepared on its basis. It too implies prediction, but is listed separately because the diagnostic function establishes a cause\u2013effect relationship<\/strong>, whereas prediction implies only a simple relationship. It is the function through which the instructional procedure is improved<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u2013\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Verify<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Research Function<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h5>\n Verification of scientific hypotheses<\/strong>. Its use is less frequent<\/strong> than prediction and diagnosis, because a measure is usually taken as a completely valid measure of a human characteristic. The investigator must treat test scores as an accurate quantification of a real and useful variable<\/strong>. Measurement gives a more objective and dependable basis for comparison<\/strong> than rough impressions, so valid generalizations<\/strong> follow from accurate measurement.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Methods of Measurement \u2014 the eight instruments<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0906\u0920 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Both physical and mental measurement need tools. The method varies with the nature of the variable<\/strong> and the purpose of measurement<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u091a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Method<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it is and when it is used<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">i<\/td>\n <td>Tests<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A set of questions to be answered or tasks to be performed, used to assess an ability or trait. Items are placed in increasing order of difficulty<\/strong> and administration is standardized<\/strong> to ensure maximum objectivity. Types: achievement, intelligence, attitude, aptitude, personality, creativity.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930: \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">ii<\/td>\n <td>Inventories<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Different inventories for different traits \u2014 interest inventories<\/strong> measure interest, personality inventories<\/strong> measure personality traits.<\/span>\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/strong> \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">iii<\/td>\n <td>Observation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>For traits that can hardly be measured objectively by tests \u2014 honesty, punctuality, persistence, truthfulness<\/strong>. May be participant<\/strong> or non-participant<\/strong>; observation schedules and other instruments aid accuracy.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e, \u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">iv<\/td>\n <td>Interview<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Face-to-face interaction between an interviewee and one or more interviewers. Reaches things an individual does not wish to express otherwise<\/strong>; a congenial atmosphere and good rapport help draw out inner feelings.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0906\u092e\u0928\u0947-\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e<\/strong>; \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">v<\/td>\n <td>Checklist<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A series of items needing a response; presence or absence indicated by Yes\/No<\/strong> (\u2713 or \u2717). Popular for appraising school buildings, textbooks, outcomes and instructional procedures.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0943\u0902\u0916\u0932\u093e; \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0939\u093e\u0901\/\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> (\u2713 \u092f\u093e \u2717) \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092d\u0935\u0928, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">vi<\/td>\n <td>Rating Scales<\/span>\u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Psychological traits are relative concepts<\/strong>, so watertight compartments are hard to make. Opinions of teachers, parents, friends or judges are taken along a scale of 5, 7, 9 or 11 points<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. very good, good, average, below average, poor. Used to evaluate personality traits, tests, school courses and practices.<\/span>\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u093e\u092f 5, 7, 9 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e 11 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e, \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e, \u0914\u0938\u0924, \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947, \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">vii<\/td>\n <td>Attitude Scales<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Attitude is the bent of mind or feeling<\/strong> towards an object, idea, institution, belief, subject or person. Attitude scales measure this trait objectively and with accuracy.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">viii<\/td>\n <td>Projective Techniques<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Very ambiguous and subjective<\/strong>; they reflect the sub-conscious and pre-conscious mind<\/strong>. Example: the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)<\/strong> for personality. Anecdotal record cards<\/em> and cumulative record cards<\/em> are also used in educational measurement.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong>; \u092f\u0947 \u0905\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923: \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (TAT)<\/strong>\u0964 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/em> \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Scales of Measurement<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>45<\/span>Which one of the following measurement scales has an absolute zero point?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Ordinal<\/li>\n <li>(b) Nominal<\/li>\n <li>(c) Interval<\/li>\n <li>(d) Ratio<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) Ratio<\/b> Only the ratio scale has a true or absolute zero, which is why all four arithmetical operations are permissible on it. The interval scale has an arbitrary zero \u2014 0\u00b0C does not mean no temperature.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 0\u00b0C \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0924\u093e\u092a \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>97<\/span>Consider the following pairs: 1. Weight in kilograms a student can lift \u2014 Ratio Scale; 2. Number assigned consecutively to students as they complete a test \u2014 Ordinal Scale. Which pair(s) is\/are correctly matched?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Both 1 and 2<\/b> Weight has a true zero, so it is ratio. Numbering students by order of finishing gives rank order without equal intervals, so it is ordinal.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>98<\/span>Consider the following pairs: 1. Number of items a student answers correctly out of 20 \u2014 Ratio Scale; 2. Numbers assigned to groups solving a problem by different methods \u2014 Nominal Scale. Which is\/are correctly matched?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Both 1 and 2<\/b> A count of correct items has an absolute zero (zero correct means none), so it is ratio. Numbers used only as labels for groups carry no order or magnitude, so they are nominal.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 (\u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u090f\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902), \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>53<\/span>Which one of the following variables does not fall into a continuous series?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Age<\/li>\n <li>(b) Time<\/li>\n <li>(c) Class size<\/li>\n <li>(d) Weight<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Class size<\/b> Age, time and weight can take any value however small the subdivision, so they are continuous. Class size is a count \u2014 a class cannot have 34.7 pupils \u2014 so it is discrete.<\/span>\u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 34.7 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7, \u00a74.3 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-5\">\n 1.8<\/span>\n <h3>Role of Teachers in an Evaluation Programme<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udd17 The central relationship<\/span>\ud83d\udd17 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/div>\n Teaching remains central to both learning and assessment. There is an interrelatedness<\/strong> between teaching objectives (ends)<\/strong>, learning experiences (means)<\/strong> and assessment (evidence of what is taught and learnt)<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 (\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f)<\/strong>, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 (\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928)<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 (\u091c\u094b \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f)<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Assessment is the process of determining \u2014<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0907\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack roman\">\n <li>The extent to which an objective is achieved<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The effectiveness of the learning experiences<\/strong> provided in the classroom.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>How well the goals of teaching<\/strong> have been accomplished.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u0924\u0930\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>In assessment one must know where students were at the beginning<\/strong> in order to determine what changes are occurring. It involves obtaining a record of changes<\/strong> by appropriate methods of appraisal, judging how good the changes are<\/strong> in light of the evidence, and ensuring change is ushered into teaching technology and learning technology<\/strong> alike.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0925\u0947<\/strong>, \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Assessment therefore enters at the planning stage<\/strong>, when teaching objectives are identified \u2014 and at every point of learning it attempts to discover the effectiveness of the learning situation in evoking the desired changes.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e-\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092a\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2605<\/span>Its purpose is to improve learning \u2014 not merely to measure achievement.<\/strong> At its highest it brings out factors inherent in student growth: proper attitudes and habits, manipulative skills, appreciations and understanding, in addition to the conventional acquisition of knowledge.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u0947\u0902, \u0939\u0938\u094d\u0924-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932, \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Four essential steps of the educational process<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Identification of educational objectives.<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Determination of the experiences<\/strong> students must have to attain those objectives.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Knowing the pupils well enough<\/strong> to design appropriate experiences.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Assessing the degree<\/strong> to which pupils attain those objectives.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Teaching objectives = the changes we wish to produce in the child<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f = \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u0939\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Knowledge<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>The knowledge children acquire \u2014 the pupil knows<\/em> something of which he was ignorant before.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u092d\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Skills & abilities<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong>He can solve<\/em> problems he could not solve before and can do<\/em> what he could not do before.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0925\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Interests<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong>The interests children develop.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Attitudes<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong>The attitudes children manifest \u2014 he revises<\/em> his attitudes desirably towards things.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/em> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccb A statement of classroom objectives does two things<\/span>\ud83d\udccb \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0926\u094b \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>It serves as a basis for classroom procedures<\/strong> that should provide suitable experiences to children.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>It serves as a guide in seeking evidence<\/strong> to determine the extent to which classroom work has accomplished what it set out to do.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0915<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0915\u093f \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Learning experiences \u2014 three selection criteria<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u2014 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/h5>\n \n A learning experience is not synonymous with the content of instruction or what the teacher does<\/strong>. Learning results from the active reaction of the pupil<\/strong> to the stimulus situation the teacher creates \u2014 a pupil learns what he does<\/em>. Changes in thinking, concepts, attitudes and interests come about gradually<\/strong>; no single experience produces the change. Many experiences, one reinforcing another<\/strong>, repeated in increasing complexity in a meaningful sequence over time, produce a cumulative effect<\/strong>. Ask:<\/span>\n \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>\u0964 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0936\u0903<\/strong> \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935, \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f<\/strong>, \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093f\u090f:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\">\n <li>Are they directly related to the goals<\/strong>?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Are they meaningful and satisfying<\/strong> to the learners?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0937\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Are they appropriate to the maturity<\/strong> of the learners?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0935\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h4>Why to Assess \u2014 fourteen purposes<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u091a\u094c\u0926\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Purpose<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Explanation<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td>Assess achievement<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Examinations discover whether or not the child has acquired a certain amount of knowledge or skill.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td>Measure personality<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>They test the power of clear thinking, quickness of mind, calmness and perseverance<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0927\u0948\u0930\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td>Measure teacher and school efficiency<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>They give authorities an occasion to measure teacher efficiency and institutional efficiency, and let teachers know whether their methods are appropriate.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td>Help in diagnosis<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Help parents know their children's progress; discover specific weak points of an individual or class so both teacher and taught can remove these defects.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td>Act as an incentive<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Stimulation to work hard; objectives placed before students develop habits of constant hard work.<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0926\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td>Help in prognosis<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Examinations have prognostic value \u2014 the aptitudes<\/strong> of students are determined.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><td>Uniformity of standard<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>External<\/strong> examinations facilitate uniformity of standards attained by students of different institutions.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0932\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td>Help in guidance<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Facilitate grouping individuals for teaching by bringing together those of more or less the same attainment.<\/span>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0932\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td>Fitness for higher courses<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Determine capacity and fitness to pursue higher general or professional study; such tests are called entrance or qualifying examinations<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0939\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0939\u0932\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td>Selection by competition<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Conducted to select the best candidates for public service appointments or for awarding prizes and scholarships.<\/span>\u0932\u094b\u0915 \u0938\u0947\u0935\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">11<\/td><td>Study of every subject<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Students study all subjects \u2014 including the so-called \"dull ones\" \u2014 for fear of examinations.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e\u0915\u0925\u093f\u0924 \"\u0928\u0940\u0930\u0938\" \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td>Parents' point of view<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Provide an opportunity to know where their wards stand and whether money spent is being utilized properly.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0916\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0927\u0928 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">13<\/td><td>Certify competency<\/span>\u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A technological society needs qualified doctors, engineers and scientists; the examination system certifies their presence, even if inadequately.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u091a\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092d\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">14<\/td><td>Link schools with the world<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Examinations fulfil an important role in linking schools with each other and with the world.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"2\" id=\"c2\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 2<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Characteristics of a Good Test<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Characteristics of a Good Test; Planning for Different Types of Test; Validity and Reliability \u2014 Types, Methods and Usability<\/span>\n \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901; \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928; \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \u2696\ufe0f<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Governing Rule<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:13px;\">Necessary but not sufficient<\/span>\u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Reliability is the precondition of validity \u2014 never the guarantee of it<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \ud83d\udd17<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">Built on Unit 4<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">r \u00b7 \u03c3 \u00b7 NPC<\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Every coefficient here is a Pearson r; every grade band is a \u03c3-distance<\/span>\u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-0\">\n 2.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n This unit completes the course by returning to two ideas first met in Unit 1 \u00a71.1 and listed among the essential qualities of a good instrument in Unit 2 \u00a72.1 \u2014 reliability and validity<\/strong>. There they were described in words. Here they are computed as numbers<\/strong>, using the correlation of Unit 4.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 2 \u00a72.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Every coefficient in this unit \u2014 of reliability and of validity alike \u2014 is a coefficient of correlation<\/strong>, computed by exactly the product-moment formula learnt in \u00a74.7. Nothing new has to be learnt about the arithmetic; only about what is being correlated with what<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b \u092f\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u00a74.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n The second half turns from the instrument<\/strong> to the system<\/strong>: the modern trends of grading, the credit system and the cumulative record card<\/strong>, the problems they raise, and the place of the computer and multimedia<\/strong> in evaluation.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0927 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0909\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0920\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-22\">\n 2.1<\/span>\n <h3>Essential Qualities of Good Measuring Instruments<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Unit 1 \u00a71.1 listed ten characteristics of a good measuring tool. Of those, four are primary or technical qualities<\/strong> \u2014 the instrument is worthless without them \u2014 and the rest are secondary or practical<\/strong> qualities that decide whether it will actually be used.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0938 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0917\u094c\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Primary<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span> \u2014 does it measure what it claims to measure?<\/span>\u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The truthfulness<\/strong> of a test. It is the most important single quality<\/strong>, because a test that measures the wrong thing consistently is still useless. Validity is specific to a purpose<\/strong> \u2014 a test valid for measuring arithmetic is not thereby valid for measuring reasoning.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Four types<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>Content validity<\/strong> \u2014 do the items adequately sample the whole syllabus and all the objectives? Judged by experts against a blueprint.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Criterion-related validity<\/strong> \u2014 how well do scores agree with an outside criterion? Concurrent<\/em> if the criterion is available now, predictive<\/em> if it lies in the future.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940<\/em>, \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Construct validity<\/strong> \u2014 does the test really measure the psychological trait (intelligence, anxiety, attitude) it names?<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 (\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f) \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>d<\/span>Face validity<\/strong> \u2014 does it look<\/em> appropriate to the person taking it? The weakest form, but it affects motivation and acceptance.<\/span>\u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Primary<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span> \u2014 does it measure consistently?<\/span>\u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The consistency, stability and dependability<\/strong> of scores. If the same pupils are tested again under the same conditions, a reliable test returns substantially the same scores. Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition<\/strong> for validity.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Four methods of determining it \u2014 treated fully in Unit 5<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>Test\u2013retest<\/strong> \u2014 the same test given twice to the same group.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Parallel \/ equivalent forms<\/strong> \u2014 two matched forms of the test given to the same group.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \/ \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Split-half<\/strong> \u2014 odd and even items scored separately and correlated, then corrected by the Spearman\u2013Brown formula.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>d<\/span>Rational equivalence<\/strong> \u2014 the Kuder\u2013Richardson formulae, computed from a single administration.<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Primary<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Objectivity<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/span> \u2014 is it free of the scorer's judgement?<\/span>\u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Two aspects, exactly as in Unit 1: item objectivity<\/strong> \u2014 every item admits of one definite correct answer; and scoring objectivity<\/strong> \u2014 the same paper fetches the same score no matter who marks it or when. Objectivity is the foundation of reliability<\/strong>: a subjectively scored test can never be highly reliable.<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0901\u0924\u093f: \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940, \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0964 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Primary<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Norms<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span> \u2014 can a raw score be given meaning?<\/span>\u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n A norm<\/strong> is the average or typical performance of a clearly defined reference group, against which an individual raw score is interpreted. Common types: age norms, grade norms, percentile norms and standard-score norms<\/strong>. Norms must be based on a large, representative sample<\/strong> and must be revised periodically<\/strong>, since a norm established a generation ago no longer describes today's pupils.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930: \u0906\u092f\u0941-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0940\u0922\u093c\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0906\u091c \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">5<\/span>Secondary<\/span>\u0917\u094c\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Usability \/ Practicability<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \/ \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n The degree to which teachers and administrators can actually use the instrument. It covers ease of administration, ease of scoring, ease of interpretation, time economy, cost, availability<\/strong> and even the get-up<\/strong> of the printed test. A technically superb test that takes three hours and costs a fortune will not be used.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u093f\u0924\u093e, \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0924, \u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u091c-\u0938\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u0932\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0901\u0917\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">6<\/span>Secondary<\/span>\u0917\u094c\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Comparability & Discriminating Power<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n Comparability<\/strong> means scores from equivalent forms or successive administrations can be placed on the same scale, which requires equivalent forms and established norms. Discriminating power<\/strong> is the ability of the test \u2014 and of each item in it \u2014 to separate the able from the less able<\/strong>. A test on which everyone scores alike discriminates nothing and yields no information.<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u092e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u092c \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The relationship in one sentence \u2014 very frequently asked.<\/strong> A test can be reliable without being valid<\/strong> (a wrongly calibrated weighing machine gives the same wrong weight every time), but it cannot be valid without being reliable<\/strong> (if the reading changes at random, it cannot be measuring anything truly). Hence: reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition of validity<\/strong>. This is developed statistically in Unit 5 \u00a72.6.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u2014 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> (\u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948), \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> (\u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u091a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e)\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u00a72.6 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Qualities of a good test<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>65<\/span>Which of the following are characteristics of a good test? 1. Reliability 2. Validity 3. Objectivity 4. Practicability (Usability)<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) All four<\/b> All four are qualities of a good measuring instrument \u2014 validity, reliability and objectivity being primary or technical, and usability the chief secondary or practical quality. Norms, comparability and discriminating power complete the list.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0917\u094c\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915, \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-3\">\n 2.2<\/span>\n <h3>Validity: Concept and Uses<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e: \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Concept<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Validity<\/strong> is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure<\/strong>, and measures nothing else. It is the truthfulness<\/strong> of the instrument, and the single most important quality<\/strong> a test can possess \u2014 for a test that measures the wrong thing perfectly consistently is still worthless.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0914\u0930 \u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n Two properties to remember.<\/strong> Validity is specific to a purpose<\/strong> \u2014 a test valid for measuring arithmetic is not thereby valid for measuring reasoning; one must always ask \"valid for what<\/em>?\" And validity is a matter of degree, not of kind<\/strong> \u2014 a test is more or less valid, never simply valid or invalid.<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \"\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f<\/em> \u0935\u0948\u0927?\" \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u092e \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Types of validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Type<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>The question it answers<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it is established<\/span>\u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Content validity<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Do the items adequately sample the whole syllabus and all the objectives<\/strong> intended?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By expert judgement against the blueprint<\/strong> of \u00a73.9 \u2014 not by any statistical coefficient. Most important for achievement tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Concurrent validity<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Do the scores agree with an outside criterion available now<\/strong>?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By correlating the test with an established test or present performance<\/strong>. Used to validate a short new test against a long accepted one.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0928\u090f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0902\u092c\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Predictive validity<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Do present scores forecast future performance<\/strong>?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By correlating test scores with a criterion obtained later<\/strong>. This is the statistical form of the prognosis function<\/strong> of \u00a71.7; essential for entrance and aptitude tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u00a71.7 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Construct validity<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Does the test really measure the psychological construct<\/strong> it names \u2014 intelligence, anxiety, attitude?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By accumulating varied evidence over time \u2014 correlations with related and unrelated measures, factor analysis, group differences. The hardest and slowest to establish.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u0940\u092e\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Face validity<\/span>\u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Does the test look<\/strong> appropriate to the person taking it?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/td>\n <td>By inspection only. The weakest form<\/strong> and not true validity at all \u2014 but it affects motivation and acceptance<\/strong>, so it cannot be ignored in practice.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>Factors affecting validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Unclear directions<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936<\/span><\/strong>If pupils misunderstand what is asked, the test measures comprehension of instructions rather than the trait.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936-\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Difficult vocabulary<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/strong>A hard word in a mathematics item turns it into a reading test \u2014 a classic threat to validity.<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0920\u0928-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0915\u091f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Inadequate sampling<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/strong>If the items miss whole units of the syllabus, content validity collapses however reliable the test is.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u0926 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0922\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Improper arrangement<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Items not in increasing order of difficulty, or a paper too long for the time, distort what is measured.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Identifiable answer patterns<\/span>\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>The verbal clues and giveaway distractors of \u00a79.1 let pupils score without knowing the content.<\/span>\u00a79.1 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0917\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Low reliability<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>A test whose scores fluctuate at random cannot be measuring anything consistently, so it cannot be valid.<\/span>\u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Faulty criterion<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/strong>The validity coefficient can be no better than the criterion it is measured against \u2014 a poor criterion makes a good test look invalid.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Nature of the group<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>A test valid for one age, class or cultural group may be quite invalid for another \u2014 the culture-fairness problem of \u00a710.2.<\/span>\u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a710.2 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Types of validity<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>55<\/span>Which one of the following is used to determine test performance in terms of certain psychological traits?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Content validity<\/li>\n <li>(b) Construct validity<\/li>\n <li>(c) Criterion validity<\/li>\n <li>(d) Predictive validity<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Construct validity<\/b> The words \"psychological traits\" point straight to construct validity \u2014 whether the test really measures the construct it names, such as intelligence, anxiety or attitude. It is established by accumulating varied evidence over time.<\/span>\"\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\" \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>99<\/span>Consider: 1. A test for recruitment to a post should have high predictive validity. 2. Predictive validity underlines the suitability of candidates to be selected for a training.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Both 1 and 2<\/b> Both are correct. Recruitment and selection for training are decisions about future<\/em> performance, and predictive validity is precisely the extent to which present scores forecast a future criterion \u2014 the statistical form of the prognosis function.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092d\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/em> \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.2 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-31\">\n 2.3<\/span>\n <h3>Determining the Validity Coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The validity coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n rxy<\/sub> = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2 ) where X = test scores and Y = criterion scores<\/span><\/span>\n rxy<\/sub> = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2 ) \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 X = \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e Y = \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n It is the product-moment r of \u00a74.7, unchanged<\/b> \u2014 only the two things being correlated are different. In reliability we correlate the test with itself<\/b>; in validity we correlate the test with an outside criterion<\/b>. The criterion<\/b> may be marks in the annual examination, teachers' ratings, performance on an established test, or later success in a course or job. Because the coefficient can never exceed the quality of the criterion, choosing a sound criterion is the whole difficulty of validation.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u00a74.7 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 r \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u090f\u0901 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0947<\/b> \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947<\/b>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/b> \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092f\u093e \u0928\u094c\u0915\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udcca<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Why validity coefficients are always lower than reliability coefficients.<\/strong> A reliability coefficient correlates a test with itself<\/em>, so agreement is naturally high \u2014 0.80 to 0.95<\/strong> is expected. A validity coefficient correlates it with something outside<\/em> itself, which is influenced by many other factors, so 0.40 to 0.60 is regarded as good<\/strong> and anything above 0.70 as excellent. Do not mistake a validity coefficient of 0.55 for a poor result \u2014 judged against the right standard it is a strong one.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0947<\/em> \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 0.80 \u0938\u0947 0.95<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0915\u0940<\/em> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 0.40 \u0938\u0947 0.60 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e 0.70 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 0.55 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0928 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-2\">\n 2.4<\/span>\n <h3>Reliability: Concept and Factors Affecting It<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e: \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Concept<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Reliability<\/strong> is the consistency, stability and dependability<\/strong> of the scores a test yields. A reliable test gives substantially the same result on repeated application<\/strong> to the same individuals under the same conditions. In the language of \u00a71.1, it is the faithfulness<\/em> of the instrument \u2014 a reliable weighing machine gives the same reading each time the same object is placed on it.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0947\u092e\u0902\u0926\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a71.1 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The theory behind reliability \u2014 the true-score model<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u2014 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Obtained Score = True Score + Error Score X = T + E<\/span><\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 = \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 + \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 X = T + E<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Every score a pupil obtains contains a true<\/b> component \u2014 his real standing on the trait \u2014 and an error<\/b> component caused by chance factors: a noisy room, a lucky guess, a headache, a lenient examiner. Reliability is the proportion of the obtained variance that is true variance.<\/b> A perfectly reliable test would have E = 0. Because no educational test achieves this, every score should be read as an estimate<\/b>, not an exact quantity \u2014 the point made in \u00a71.1 when Cohen and Swerdlik's third assumption was noted: our measurement is never perfect<\/em>.<\/span>\n \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/b> \u0905\u0902\u0936, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0936\u094b\u0930\u0917\u0941\u0932 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0938\u094c\u092d\u093e\u0917\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u093f\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0926, \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/b> \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 E = 0 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/b> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u0947\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0925\u0940: \u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Factors affecting reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Factor<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Effect on reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Length of the test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The longer the test, the higher the reliability.<\/strong> More items sample the content better and let chance errors cancel out. This is why the split-half coefficient must be corrected upward by the Spearman\u2013Brown formula \u2014 it was computed on a half-length test.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0964<\/strong> \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Range of the group<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The wider the spread of ability<\/strong>, the higher the reliability. A heterogeneous group yields a large \u03c3 and so a high r; a selected, homogeneous group depresses reliability<\/strong> \u2014 the leptokurtic distribution of \u00a74.9.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915<\/strong>, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u03c3 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a r \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u00a74.9 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Difficulty of items<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Items that are too easy or too hard<\/strong> produce little spread of scores and so lower reliability. Items of moderate difficulty (P = 40\u201360 per cent)<\/strong> discriminate best \u2014 precisely the criterion of \u00a73.9.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0926 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 (P = 40\u201360 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924)<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a73.9 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Objectivity of scoring<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The foundation of reliability<\/strong>. A subjectively scored essay paper can never be highly reliable, because the examiner's judgement itself becomes a source of error.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935<\/strong>\u0964 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Time limit<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A speeded test<\/strong> appears more reliable than it is, because unattempted items at the end are scored as wrong for everyone alike, producing an artificially consistent pattern.<\/span>\u0917\u0924\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Conditions of administration<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Noise, poor light, uncomfortable seating, unclear instructions and inconsistent invigilation all add error variance<\/strong> and lower reliability.<\/span>\u0936\u094b\u0930, \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936, \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0915, \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u092c \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Guessing<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Chance success lowers reliability. This is the deeper reason why the true\u2013false item, with its 50 per cent guess factor<\/strong>, was criticized in \u00a79.1.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u00a79.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Examinee variables<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940-\u091a\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Health, fatigue, anxiety, motivation and practice effect vary from occasion to occasion and are a major source of error \u2014 the very factors \u00a71.3 listed as affecting achievement.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930-\u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u00a71.3 \u0928\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Reliability and its factors<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>73<\/span>The consistency with which a test measures whatever it measures is best stated as its:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Validity<\/li>\n <li>(b) Reliability<\/li>\n <li>(c) Practicability<\/li>\n <li>(d) Usability<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Reliability<\/b> Note the careful wording \u2014 \"whatever it measures\". Reliability is consistency regardless of what<\/em> is being measured; validity is the separate question of whether it measures the right thing.<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \"\u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\"\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948, \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/em> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u094b; \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>76<\/span>Consider: 1. The more heterogeneous the group, the lesser is the reliability. 2. Adding equivalent items makes a test more reliable, deleting them less. 3. Too easy or too difficult tests tend to be less reliable.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) 2 and 3 only<\/b> Statement 1 is reversed \u2014 the more<\/em> heterogeneous the group, the higher<\/em> the reliability, because a wide spread of ability produces a large \u03c3. Statements 2 and 3 are correct: length raises reliability, and items of extreme difficulty produce little spread and so lower it.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 1 \u0909\u0932\u091f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/em>, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/em>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u03c3 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0925\u0928 2 \u090f\u0935\u0902 3 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>100<\/span>The reliability coefficient of a test is 0.64. What does it indicate?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) True ability to the extent of 32%<\/li>\n <li>(b) 40%<\/li>\n <li>(c) 64%<\/li>\n <li>(d) 80%<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) 64%<\/b> The reliability coefficient is<\/em> the proportion of obtained variance that is true variance, so 0.64 means 64% of the variance is true and 36% is error. Note the trap: unlike correlation generally, a reliability coefficient is not<\/strong> squared to be interpreted.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948<\/em>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 0.64 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 64% \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 36% \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964 \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-21\">\n 2.5<\/span>\n <h3>Methods of Determining the Reliability Coefficient<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n All four methods do the same thing: they obtain two sets of scores from the same individuals<\/strong> and correlate them by the product-moment formula of \u00a74.7. They differ only in how the second set is obtained<\/strong> \u2014 and that difference decides what kind of consistency each one measures.<\/span>\n \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0935\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u00a74.7 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Over time<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Test\u2013Retest Method<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span> \u2192 coefficient of stability<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The same test<\/strong> is given twice to the same group<\/strong> after a suitable interval, and the two sets of scores are correlated. It answers: does the test give the same result on a different day?<\/em><\/span>\u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">The interval problem<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>!<\/span>If the gap is too short<\/strong>, memory and practice effect<\/strong> inflate the coefficient \u2014 pupils simply repeat their earlier answers.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>If the gap is too long<\/strong>, real growth, maturation and further learning<\/strong> deflate it \u2014 the pupils are no longer the same people.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0935\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092c \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The usual compromise is two to four weeks<\/strong>. Note that this method needs two administrations<\/strong>, which is its practical drawback.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u091d\u094c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939<\/strong>\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u092e\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Across forms<\/span>\u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Parallel \/ Equivalent Forms Method<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \/ \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span> \u2192 coefficient of equivalence<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Two forms of the test<\/strong> \u2014 matched in content, difficulty, length and format but with different items \u2014 are given to the same group, usually on the same occasion, and correlated. It answers: would a different sample of items give the same result?<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908, \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0917\u093e?<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Merit and difficulty<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/b>Merit:<\/strong> it eliminates the memory effect entirely, and is considered the best single index<\/strong> of reliability. Difficulty:<\/strong> constructing two genuinely equivalent forms is extremely laborious<\/strong> \u2014 and if they are not truly equivalent, the low coefficient reflects the forms rather than the test.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923:<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908:<\/strong> \u0926\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u091a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Within the test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Split-Half Method<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span> \u2192 coefficient of internal consistency<\/span>\u2192 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The test is given once<\/strong>, then split into two halves<\/strong> \u2014 normally odd-numbered items against even-numbered items<\/strong>, since splitting first-half against second-half would confound difficulty and fatigue. The two half-scores are correlated, and the result is then stepped up<\/strong>, because it was computed on a test of only half the true length.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0906\u0927\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Item by item<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u0935\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Rational Equivalence \/ Kuder\u2013Richardson Method<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \/ \u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/h5>\n Reliability is estimated from a single administration<\/strong> by examining the consistency of responses to every individual item<\/strong>, rather than to halves. The best-known formulae are K\u2013R 20<\/strong> and the simpler K\u2013R 21<\/strong>; the general form used today is Cronbach's alpha (\u03b1)<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 K\u2013R 20<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0930\u0932 K\u2013R 21<\/strong>; \u0906\u091c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e (\u03b1)<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Note on its meaning<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/b>It avoids the arbitrariness of where<\/em> to split the test, since it is in effect the average of all possible split-half coefficients<\/strong>. But it assumes the test is measuring one single trait<\/strong> \u2014 applied to a paper covering several unrelated topics, it will underestimate reliability.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0938 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/em> \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0947\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Spearman\u2013Brown Prophecy Formula \u2014 used with the split-half method<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n rtt<\/sub> = 2 rhh<\/sub> \/ ( 1 + rhh<\/sub> )<\/span>\n rtt<\/sub> = 2 rhh<\/sub> \/ ( 1 + rhh<\/sub> )<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n rhh<\/sub><\/b> = correlation between the two halves \u00b7 rtt<\/sub><\/b> = reliability of the whole test. The formula corrects for length<\/b>. Since reliability rises with the length of a test, the half-test coefficient always understates<\/b> the reliability of the full test, and must be stepped up. The name \"prophecy\" comes from its wider use: it can also predict what the reliability would become<\/b> if the test were lengthened two, three or four times.<\/span>\n rhh<\/sub><\/b> = \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u00b7 rtt<\/sub><\/b> = \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928<\/b> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/b> \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \"\u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0925\u0928\" \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u093e: \u092f\u0939 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094b, \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092f\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u0940<\/b>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Split-half reliability<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n \n A 60-item test is administered once. The odd-numbered items and the even-numbered items are scored separately and correlated, giving rhh<\/sub> = 0.75<\/strong>. Find the reliability of the whole test.<\/span>\n 60-\u092a\u0926\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b rhh<\/sub> = 0.75<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 2(0.75) \/ (1 + 0.75) = 1.50 \/ 1.75<\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 2(0.75) \/ (1 + 0.75) = 1.50 \/ 1.75<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 0.857 \u2248 0.86<\/strong><\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 0.857 \u2248 0.86<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The full 60-item test has a reliability of 0.86<\/strong> \u2014 appreciably higher than the 0.75 obtained on the 30-item halves. On the interpretation table of \u00a74.7 this is a very high<\/strong> coefficient, which is exactly what a standardized test should show.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 60-\u092a\u0926\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e 0.86<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 30-\u092a\u0926\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 0.75 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0964 \u00a74.7 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u093f \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Method<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Administrations<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Forms<\/span>\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Type of consistency measured<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Chief source of error<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Test\u2013retest<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Stability over time<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Memory and practice; real change in the pupil<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Parallel forms<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1 or 2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Equivalence of item samples<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Non-equivalence of the two forms<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Split-half<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Internal consistency<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Arbitrary choice of where to split<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Kuder\u2013Richardson<\/span>\u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Item homogeneity<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Assumes the test measures a single trait<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Methods and the Spearman\u2013Brown formula<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>40<\/span>Split-Half method is used for determining which one of the following characteristics of a test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Validity<\/li>\n <li>(b) Reliability<\/li>\n <li>(c) Usability<\/li>\n <li>(d) Objectivity<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Reliability<\/b> The split-half method correlates odd-numbered against even-numbered items from a single administration, giving the coefficient of internal consistency \u2014 one of the four methods of determining reliability.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.5 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>104<\/span>The reliability coefficient of a test is 0.6. What will it be if the test length is doubled? (Spearman\u2013Brown)<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 0.6<\/li>\n <li>(b) 0.65<\/li>\n <li>(c) 0.75<\/li>\n <li>(d) 0.9<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) 0.75<\/b> r = (n \u00d7 r)\/[1 + (n \u2212 1)r] with n = 2 gives (2 \u00d7 0.6)\/(1 + 0.6) = 1.20\/1.60 = 0.75. Lengthening a test always raises reliability, because more items sample the content better and chance errors cancel out.<\/span>r = (n \u00d7 r)\/[1 + (n \u2212 1)r] \u092e\u0947\u0902 n = 2 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 (2 \u00d7 0.6)\/(1 + 0.6) = 1.20\/1.60 = 0.75\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.5, \u00a74.15 D \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>105<\/span>A test has reliability 0.50. How much should the test length be increased to obtain reliability 0.75?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1.5 times<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 times<\/li>\n <li>(c) 2.5 times<\/li>\n <li>(d) 3 times<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 3 times<\/b> Rearranging Spearman\u2013Brown for n: n = [r\u2099(1 \u2212 r)] \/ [r(1 \u2212 r\u2099)] = [0.75(1 \u2212 0.50)] \/ [0.50(1 \u2212 0.75)] = 0.375\/0.125 = 3. The test must be made three times as long.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0915\u094b n \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930: n = [r\u2099(1 \u2212 r)] \/ [r(1 \u2212 r\u2099)] = [0.75(1 \u2212 0.50)] \/ [0.50(1 \u2212 0.75)] = 0.375\/0.125 = 3\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 D \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-32\">\n 2.6<\/span>\n <h3>Relation between Validity and Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u2696\ufe0f The rule in one sentence \u2014 the most examined statement in this unit<\/span>\u2696\ufe0f \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of validity.<\/strong> A test can be reliable without being valid<\/strong>, but it cannot be valid without being reliable<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:10px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Why reliability is necessary:<\/strong> if a test's scores fluctuate at random, it is not measuring anything consistently, and what measures nothing consistently cannot be measuring the right thing.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902:<\/strong> \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0930\u0939\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Why it is not sufficient:<\/strong> a wrongly calibrated weighing machine gives the same wrong weight every time. It is perfectly reliable and completely invalid.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902:<\/strong> \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Numerically:<\/strong> validity can never exceed the square root of reliability, so a test with reliability 0.64 can have a validity of at most 0.80. Reliability sets the ceiling on validity.<\/strong><\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947:<\/strong> \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940, \u0905\u0924\u0903 0.64 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e 0.80 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n The Target Analogy \u2014 draw this in the answer sheet<\/span>\u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0907\u090f<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Four possible tests, shown as four targets<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Pattern of shots<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Reliable?<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f?<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Valid?<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927?<\/span><\/th>\n <th>The test it represents<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Scattered all over the target<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0947<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td>\n <td>A worthless test \u2014 inconsistent and measuring nothing in particular.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Tightly grouped, but far off centre<\/span>\u0938\u0918\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0930<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Yes<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td>\n <td>The key case.<\/strong> Consistent but measuring the wrong thing \u2014 the wrongly calibrated weighing machine.<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Scattered, but averaging round the centre<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0947, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0938\u092a\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Only by accident<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Cannot be trusted for any individual pupil, however well the group average comes out.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0906\u090f, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f2fdfa;\">\n <td>Tightly grouped at the centre<\/strong><\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0918\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Yes<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Yes<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The good test<\/strong> \u2014 consistent, and consistently measuring the right thing.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n \n Notice that no row shows a test that is valid but unreliable<\/strong> \u2014 that combination is impossible, and that impossibility is<\/em> the rule.<\/span>\n \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0940<\/em> \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 The validity\u2013reliability relationship<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e\u2013\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>69<\/span>Consider: 1. A test cannot be valid unless it is reliable. 2. A test that has some validity for one purpose is always valid for another purpose. 3. A reliable test may not necessarily be valid.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(d) 2 only<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) 1 and 3<\/b> This single question tests the whole rule. Statement 1 is the \"necessary\" half and statement 3 the \"not sufficient\" half \u2014 both correct. Statement 2 is false because validity is specific to a purpose<\/em>: valid for what, and for whom?<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0925\u0928 1 \"\u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\" \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928 3 \"\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\" \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940\u0964 \u0915\u0925\u0928 2 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/em> \u0939\u0948: \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0948\u0927?<\/span>\u00a72.6 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-3\">\n 2.7<\/span>\n <h3>Education Tests<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n An educational test<\/strong> is a systematic procedure for measuring a sample of behaviour that represents an educational outcome. Tests are classified along several independent lines \u2014 by what they measure, by how they are administered, by how they are scored, by what they are referenced to, and by the medium they use<\/strong>. A single test carries a label from each line: a class arithmetic paper is an achievement, group, power, criterion-referenced, verbal, teacher-made<\/em> test.<\/span>\n \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915, \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924, \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/em> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Classification by what is measured<\/span>\u0915. \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it measures and when it is used<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">i<\/td>\n <td>Achievement test<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measures what has already been learnt<\/strong> after a period of instruction. Backward-looking. The commonest test in school. Example:<\/em> the annual mathematics examination.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092d\u0942\u0924\u094b\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">ii<\/td>\n <td>Aptitude test<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measures the capacity to acquire<\/strong> a skill with training \u2014 the potential, not the present attainment. Forward-looking. Example:<\/em> a mechanical or clerical aptitude test used in vocational guidance.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">iii<\/td>\n <td>Intelligence test<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measures general mental ability<\/strong> \u2014 reasoning, comprehension, abstract thinking \u2014 expressed as an IQ<\/strong>. Treated fully in Unit 3.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u2014 \u091c\u094b IQ<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">iv<\/td>\n <td>Diagnostic test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Locates the specific point of weakness<\/strong> in a pupil's learning so that remedial teaching can be planned. Discussed in \u00a78.2.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u0947\u0964 \u00a78.2 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">v<\/td>\n <td>Prognostic test<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Predicts the likely success<\/strong> of a pupil in a subject before he begins it \u2014 used to decide placement in a stream or course.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">vi<\/td>\n <td>Personality, interest and attitude tests<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measure non-cognitive<\/strong> traits \u2014 temperament, likes, dispositions. Inventories, rating scales and projective techniques are used. Treated in Unit 3.<\/span>\u0905-\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092d\u093e\u0935, \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2194\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Achievement vs. aptitude \u2014 the classic two-mark question.<\/strong> Both may use very similar items. The difference is one of direction and purpose<\/strong>: achievement looks backward<\/em> and asks \"how much has been learnt?\"<\/strong>; aptitude looks forward<\/em> and asks \"how much can be learnt?\"<\/strong> Achievement is tied to a specific taught syllabus; aptitude is not.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0926\u094b-\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0964<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0926 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0947-\u091c\u0941\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947<\/em> \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e?\"<\/strong>; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/em> \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0901\u0927\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Other bases of classification<\/span>\u0916. \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Individual vs. Group<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/strong>One examinee at a time (Stanford\u2013Binet) versus many at once (a class test). Individual tests give richer observation; group tests are economical.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 (\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921\u2013\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947) \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 (\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923)\u0964 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Speed vs. Power<\/span>\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>A speed<\/strong> test has easy items and a tight time limit \u2014 it measures rate of work. A power<\/strong> test has items of rising difficulty and generous time \u2014 it measures depth of ability.<\/span>\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0926\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Verbal vs. Non-verbal vs. Performance<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Language-based; picture- and figure-based; or requiring actual manipulation of objects. Non-verbal and performance tests suit the illiterate and the very young.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924; \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924; \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947\u0964 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u093f \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Oral vs. Written vs. Practical<\/span>\u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/strong>By mode of response \u2014 the viva-voce, the written paper, and the laboratory or workshop examination.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915\u0940, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0936\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Objective vs. Essay<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong>By scoring method \u2014 one definite answer versus an extended written response judged by the examiner. Compared in detail in \u00a79.1.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u00a79.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Teacher-made vs. Standardized<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/strong>By authorship and rigour of construction \u2014 the distinction developed in \u00a73.8.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u092f\u093f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u00a73.8 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u092d\u0947\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Types of educational test<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>82<\/span>The main purpose of measuring aptitude is to assess the:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Past performance only<\/li>\n <li>(b) Future performance<\/li>\n <li>(c) Present performance only<\/li>\n <li>(d) Both past and present performances<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Future performance<\/b> Aptitude looks forward and asks \"how much can be learnt?\"; achievement looks backward and asks \"how much has been learnt?\" This direction-and-purpose distinction is the whole answer.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"; \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e?\" \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.7 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>57<\/span>Match List I (General test) with List II (Learning measured): A. Content-oriented achievement test B. School-oriented aptitude test C. Culture-oriented verbal aptitude test D. Culture-oriented non-verbal aptitude test \u2014 1. Verbal, numerical and general problem solving abilities derived from culture 2. Knowledge of school subjects 3. Abstract reasoning based on picture classification 4. Arithmetic reasoning<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 2 1 4 3<\/li>\n <li>(b) 3 4 1 2<\/li>\n <li>(c) 3 1 4 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) 2 4 1 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3<\/b> An achievement test measures knowledge of school subjects (2). A school-oriented aptitude test predicts through school-type work such as arithmetic reasoning (4). A culture-oriented verbal aptitude test draws on verbal and numerical abilities acquired from the culture (1). A non-verbal one uses picture classification and abstract reasoning (3).<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (2)\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (4)\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 (1)\u0964 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (3)\u0964<\/span>\u00a72.7, \u00a710.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-31\">\n 2.8<\/span>\n <h3>Other Tools and Techniques of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The test is only one instrument among many, and it reaches only what a pupil can write down<\/em>. The affective and psychomotor domains of \u00a73.1, and everything CCE calls \"non-scholastic\", need the tools and techniques set out below. Recall the distinction from \u00a73.0: a tool<\/strong> is the instrument, a technique<\/strong> is the manner of using it.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916<\/em> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a73.1 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092c \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 CCE \"\u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915\" \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u00a73.0 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f: \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Observation<\/span>\u0915. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Observation<\/strong> is the technique of studying behaviour as it occurs<\/strong>, without asking the subject anything. It is the only way to reach habits, skills, social behaviour and attitudes that a pupil either cannot report or would not report honestly.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092f\u093e \u0924\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Participant vs. non-participant<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/span><\/strong>In participant<\/strong> observation the observer joins the group and shares its life; in non-participant<\/strong> he stays outside and watches. Participation gives depth but risks losing objectivity.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0916\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094b\u0916\u093f\u092e \u092d\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Structured vs. unstructured<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong>Structured<\/strong> observation uses a prepared schedule listing exactly which behaviours to record; unstructured<\/strong> records whatever appears significant.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0902; \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Records natural behaviour<\/strong>; needs no language, so it suits young children and the illiterate; reaches the affective and psychomotor domains; can be used where the subject is unwilling or unable to speak.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092c\u094b\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0941\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u094b \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Limitations<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong>Subjective<\/strong> \u2014 two observers may record the same episode differently; time-consuming<\/strong>; the observer sees only a small sample of behaviour; and pupils who know they are watched behave differently<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u2014 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong>; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Rating scales<\/span>\u0916. \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/h4>\n \n A rating scale<\/strong> records a judge's estimate of the degree<\/strong> to which a trait is present. Where a checklist asks only \"present or absent?\", a rating scale asks \"how much?<\/strong>\"<\/span>\n \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/strong> \u0907\u0938 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \"\u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924?\" \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e?<\/strong>\"<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Type<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it works<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Numerical<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The judge assigns a number on a fixed range \u2014 \"rate punctuality from 1 to 5\". Simple and easily scored, but the numbers mean different things to different judges.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \"\u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u0915\u094b 1 \u0938\u0947 5 \u0924\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093f\u090f\"\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Graphic<\/span>\u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A printed line runs from one extreme to the other with descriptive cues along it, and the judge marks a point anywhere on the line. The commonest form.<\/strong><\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0924\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Descriptive<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Each point on the scale is a full sentence describing the behaviour<\/strong> at that level, which greatly improves objectivity. This is the parent of the modern rubric<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Ranking<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Pupils are placed in order on the trait rather than rated individually. Easy for small groups, impossible for large ones, and it yields only ordinal data.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0932\u0917-\u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u0932, \u092c\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f The six errors of rating \u2014 every one is examinable<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0939 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Halo effect.<\/strong> A general impression of the pupil colours the rating of every separate trait \u2014 a well-behaved child is rated high in intelligence too. The commonest and most serious error.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0964<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u0930\u0902\u0917 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0941\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Error of central tendency.<\/strong> The judge avoids the extremes and puts nearly everyone in the middle categories, so the scale loses its power to discriminate.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0915\u0930 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u094b \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Generosity or leniency error.<\/strong> The judge rates everyone higher than they deserve, usually from goodwill or from unwillingness to record anything adverse. Its opposite is the severity error<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0926\u094d\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0938\u0947\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0932\u094b\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Logical error.<\/strong> Two traits that seem<\/em> related are rated alike although they are not \u2014 intelligence and industriousness, for instance.<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092a\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Proximity error.<\/strong> Traits printed next to each other<\/em> on the form receive similar ratings simply because of their position.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0940\u092a\u094d\u092f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u093e\u0938<\/em> \u091b\u092a\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092e\u093f\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>Contrast error.<\/strong> The judge rates others by contrast with himself<\/strong> \u2014 a very punctual teacher rates all pupils low on punctuality.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n Remedies:<\/strong> define each trait in behavioural terms; use descriptive<\/strong> rather than numerical points; train the raters; use several independent judges<\/strong> and average their ratings; and rate trait-wise across all pupils<\/strong> rather than pupil-wise across all traits \u2014 the same principle as question-wise marking in \u00a79.1.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f; \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0930\u0916\u093f\u090f; \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f; \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915<\/strong> \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0932\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0935\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u00a79.1 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. The remaining tools at a glance<\/span>\u0917. \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Tool<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it is and what it is for<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Checklist<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A list of behaviours or steps against which the observer records only presence or absence<\/strong> \u2014 yes\/no, done\/not done. Ideal for process assessment<\/strong> of a psychomotor skill, where the order of steps matters.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0939\u093e\u0901\/\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\/\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Questionnaire<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A set of written questions answered by the respondent in the investigator's absence<\/strong>. Economical and able to reach many people over a wide area, but useless for the illiterate and subject to a poor return rate.<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0932\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u0926\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Anecdotal record<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A short, dated, factual description of a single significant incident<\/strong>, written soon after it happens. The golden rule: record the behaviour, not the observer\u2019s interpretation of it<\/strong> \u2014 \"pushed two boys aside in the queue\", not \"is aggressive\".<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0924, \u0926\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924, \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0918\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0930\u0902\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e: \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0939\u094b, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0927\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093e\", \u0928 \u0915\u093f \"\u0906\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\"\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Rubric<\/span>\u0930\u0942\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A scoring guide that sets out the criteria<\/strong> of a task and, for each criterion, a description of every level of quality<\/strong>. It is a descriptive rating scale made public in advance, and it is what makes performance assessment<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 C) objective. Holistic<\/strong> rubrics give one overall judgement; analytic<\/strong> rubrics score each criterion separately.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 \u0917) \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Portfolio<\/span>\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A purposeful collection of a pupil's work over time<\/strong>, chosen to show effort, progress and achievement \u2014 with the pupil's own reflection on each piece. It assesses growth rather than a single moment<\/strong>, and is the tool behind NEP 2020's holistic progress card.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Sociometry<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Mapping who chooses whom<\/strong> within a group to reveal leaders, isolates, rejects and cliques; displayed as a sociogram<\/strong>. Treated in \u00a710.3.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e, \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0915\u0940, \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0902; \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u00a710.3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Case study<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>An intensive, all-round study of one pupil<\/strong>, drawing on every source \u2014 tests, observation, interview, anecdotal records, health and home data \u2014 to understand and help a problem case. It is the culmination of all the other tools.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0939\u0928, \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0923 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0943\u0939-\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"3\" id=\"c3\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 3<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 3<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Test Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Test Construction; Test Standardization; Item Analysis \u2014 Item Difficulty, Discrimination Index, Effectiveness of Distractors; Development of Norms<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923; \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u0926-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908, \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \u2696\ufe0f<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Core Pair<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:13px;\">Teacher-made vs Standardized<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Local and flexible vs. norm-backed and rigorous<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \u2705<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">Qualities of a Good Test<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\">7<\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Validity \u00b7 Reliability \u00b7 Objectivity \u00b7 Usability \u00b7 Norms \u00b7 Comparability \u00b7 Discrimination<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u00b7 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-0\">\n 3.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Unit 1 established why<\/strong> we measure and evaluate. This unit takes up the instruments<\/strong> through which it is actually done \u2014 the tools<\/strong> (tests, inventories, scales, schedules) and the techniques<\/strong> (observation, interview, self-reporting) of educational evaluation.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0928\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0939\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> (\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u0925\u0928)\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n A tool<\/strong> is the instrument<\/em> that collects the evidence; a technique<\/strong> is the method or manner<\/em> in which the evidence is collected. A rating scale is a tool; observation is a technique that may use that tool.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n The achievement test<\/strong> is the single most used tool in the school system, and the diagnostic test<\/strong> is the tool that follows it when achievement is poor. Both are treated in detail here.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n No tool is useful unless it possesses certain essential qualities<\/strong>. The reliability and validity introduced briefly in Unit 1 \u00a71.1 are taken up again here as criteria for judging an instrument<\/strong>, and their statistical computation follows in Unit 5.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u090f\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-6\">\n 3.1<\/span>\n <h3>Taxonomy of Educational Objectives<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Taxonomy<\/strong> is the study of classification. Education has objectives related to personal, social, community, national and global needs, and to various aspects of personality.<\/span>\u091f\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0938\u094b\u0928\u0949\u092e\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915, \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The first and most successful effort<\/strong> was made by the American educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom<\/strong> and co-workers, who began work in 1948<\/strong> while Bloom was teaching educational psychology at the University of Chicago<\/strong>. He proposed the classification in 1956<\/strong> \u2014 Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0947\u0902\u091c\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0928 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 1948<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u092c \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0917\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 1956<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It classifies the aims and objectives to be achieved through the curriculum of any course \u2014 knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and abilities<\/strong> that a teacher, teacher-educator or curriculum developer sets for students. It fits all subjects and courses<\/strong>, academic or technical.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udd4a\ufe0f Bloom and Mahatma Gandhi \u2014 the same insight<\/span>\ud83d\udd4a\ufe0f \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e \u0917\u093e\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/div>\n Gandhi defined education as \"the all-round drawing out of the best in child and man \u2014 body, mind and soul.\"<\/strong> This maps exactly onto Bloom's three domains: mind \u2192 intellectual (cognitive)<\/strong>; soul \u2192 emotional, spiritual and moral (affective)<\/strong>; body \u2192 skills using fingers, hands, legs, eyes, vocal cords (psychomotor)<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0917\u093e\u0902\u0927\u0940\u091c\u0940 \u0928\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \"\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u0941\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930, \u092e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0923 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0940\u0932\u0928\u0964\"<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u092e\u0928 \u2192 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 (\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915)<\/strong>; \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e \u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0906\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u0948\u0924\u093f\u0915 (\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915)<\/strong>; \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930 \u2192 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u0941\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0939\u093e\u0925\u094b\u0902, \u092a\u0948\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0928\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930-\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915)<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"domain-grid\">\n <div class=\"domain-card cog\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\ud83e\udde0<\/div>\n Mind<\/span>\u092e\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Cognitive Domain<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h5>\n About knowing<\/strong> \u2014 the intellectual aspects of personality.<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">6 levels \u00b7 Bloom et al., 1956<\/span>6 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u00b7 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0906\u0926\u093f, 1956<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"domain-card aff\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\u2764\ufe0f<\/div>\n Soul<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Affective Domain<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h5>\n About attitudes, feelings, interests, values and beliefs<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">5 levels \u00b7 Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1964<\/span>5 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u00b7 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u092f\u093e, 1964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"domain-card psy\">\n <div class=\"dm-icon\">\u270b<\/div>\n Body<\/span>\u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Psychomotor Domain<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h5>\n About doing<\/strong> \u2014 the skill aspects of personality.<\/span>\u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"dm-levels\">5 levels \u00b7 R. H. Dave, 1969 (adapted)<\/span>5 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u00b7 \u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947, 1969 (\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924)<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Two properties to remember.<\/strong> (a) Not watertight:<\/strong> the three are interrelated<\/em> and achievement in one influences achievement in another. (b) Hierarchical:<\/strong> within each domain levels run in order of increasing complexity<\/em>, and learning at a higher level depends entirely on having acquired the prerequisite knowledge and skills at the lower level. If one domain stays underdeveloped, the person has not nurtured a groomed personality. Higher-level outcomes demand more effective teaching and more sophisticated classroom techniques<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0964<\/strong> (\u0915) \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902:<\/strong> \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 (\u0916) \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915:<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0924\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Dimensions of learning \u2014 three purposes of the framework<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e \u2014 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\">\n <li>Provides a process for planning and delivering curriculum and instruction<\/strong> that integrates much of the research on effective teaching and learning.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0936\u094b\u0927 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Offers a way of integrating the major instructional models<\/strong> by showing how they connect and where the overlaps occur.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Provides a framework for organizing, describing and developing research-based teaching strategies<\/strong> that engage students in thinking leading to meaningful learning.<\/span>\u0936\u094b\u0927-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Five aspects of learning to consider while finalizing curriculum, instruction and assessment<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Attitudes and perceptions<\/strong> about learning.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Using knowledge meaningfully.<\/strong><\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Identifying productive habits of the mind<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0915 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Acquiring and integrating<\/strong> knowledge.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Extending and refining<\/strong> knowledge.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-6a\">\n 3.2<\/span>\n <h3>The Cognitive Domain<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The cognitive domain covers objectives that develop mental faculties or intellectual abilities<\/strong> \u2014 knowing, understanding, thinking and problem solving. It develops factual knowledge, conceptual understanding and all levels of thinking<\/strong>, covering the whole of mental abilities and operations. Bloom classified it in 1956<\/strong> into six categories<\/strong> arranged from simple to complex<\/strong> and concrete to abstract<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e, \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0928\u0947 1956<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u0939 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Lowest<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Knowledge<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span> \u2192 revised: Remembering<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Represents memory<\/strong> \u2014 recall and recognition of facts, concepts, principles, theories and laws. No addition or deletion<\/strong> is done; we simply recall and recognize.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092d\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c-\u0918\u091f\u093e\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e; \u0939\u092e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples from the text<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The symbol of iron is Fe \u00b7 The chemical formula of sulphuric acid is H\u2082SO\u2084 \u00b7 The laws of motion were given by Isaac Newton \u00b7 A magnet has two poles, N and S.<\/span>\u0932\u094b\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 Fe \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0917\u0902\u0927\u0915\u093e\u092e\u094d\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 H\u2082SO\u2084 \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0906\u0907\u091c\u093c\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u091a\u0941\u0902\u092c\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0927\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0935 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, N \u090f\u0935\u0902 S\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Grasp<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Understanding (Comprehension)<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span> \u2192 revised: Understanding<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Develops only after<\/em> knowledge. Learners go beyond recall and recognition<\/strong> and can then:<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/em> \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092d\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u092c:<\/span><\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-bottom:4px;\">\n <li>i<\/span>Translate, summarize or define acquired knowledge in their own words<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>ii<\/span>Describe, elaborate, extrapolate and explain phenomena, events, processes or methods.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928, \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930, \u092c\u0939\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>iii<\/span>Interpret information in their own way, give their own examples, discriminate<\/strong> between objects or concepts, classify and categorize<\/strong> on the basis of criteria, and verify and generalize<\/strong> facts.<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902\/\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/strong>, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Having understood atomic structure, the learner not only recalls protons, electrons and neutrons but can describe<\/strong> the structure and explain why an atom is neutral<\/strong> using the charges and numbers of the three fundamental particles.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0941-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u091f\u0949\u0928, \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0941 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0938\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Use<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Application<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span> \u2192 revised: Applying<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Learners apply<\/strong> a fact, concept, principle, theory or law in daily life and solve problems of varied nature under concrete and abstract situations<\/strong>. Application is impossible without knowledge and understanding \u2014 and if the learner cannot<\/strong> apply what has been acquired, it has no meaning at all<\/strong>, indicating the content was not properly understood.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0948\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0924\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>If learners know and understand the importance of natural resources, the underground water crisis and the electricity supply\u2013demand relationship, they will minimize wastage of water and electricity<\/strong> at home, in school and in society through proper and judicious use.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u092d\u0942\u091c\u0932-\u0938\u0902\u0915\u091f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u2013\u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947-\u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0947 \u0918\u0930, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091c\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0917\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Break down<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span> \u2192 revised: Analysing<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Learners develop the potential to break the whole into its components<\/strong> and detect the relationship and organization<\/strong> among them \u2014 for instance breaking a law or theory into the facts, concepts and principles on which it was built. One can analyse only with knowledge, understanding and the ability to apply<\/strong>. Three tasks are performed:<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902:<\/span><\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-bottom:4px;\">\n <li>a<\/span>Analysis of the elements<\/em> making up the whole.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Analysis of the relationships<\/em> among the constituents.<\/span>\u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Analysis of the organizational patterns<\/em> of the constituents.<\/span>\u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Newton's third law \u2014 \"to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.\" With analytical ability developed, learners can analyse the law in likely situations<\/strong> and describe each of its concepts<\/strong>, action and reaction, separately.<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u2014 \"\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0930\u093e\u092c\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">5<\/span>Build<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Synthesis<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span> \u2192 revised: Creating<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The process of putting constituents together to make a whole<\/strong> \u2014 a higher-level, complex thinking ability involving the creation of a new pattern or structure<\/strong> by manipulating constituents. It carries elements of creativity<\/strong>; developing a creative personality requires this level, and all creative people share this ability. Synthesis involves three kinds of development:<\/span>\u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f, \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948:<\/span><\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-bottom:4px;\">\n <li>a<\/span>Development of a unique communication<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Development of a plan, procedure or proposed set of operations<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Development of a set of abstract relations<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">6<\/span>Highest<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span> \u2192 revised: Evaluating<\/span>\u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924: \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n The process of judgement about the worth or value of a process or a product<\/strong>, covering all content \u2014 facts, concepts, principles, theories and laws. It is the highest and most complex<\/strong> level and involves all five earlier categories<\/strong>. It is quantitative as well as qualitative<\/strong>, leads to decision-making ability<\/strong>, and involves judgement in terms of internal as well as external criteria<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Assessment of Cognitive Learning<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Cognitive learning<\/strong> is the acquisition of knowledge and skills by the mental process<\/strong>. Cognition includes representation of physical objects and events and other information processing.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It results from listening, watching, touching or experiencing<\/strong>, and is mainly awareness towards the environment<\/strong> \u2014 the environment that gives meaning to acquired knowledge. No motor movement is needed<\/strong>; the learner is active only in a cognitive way. It includes symbols, values, beliefs and norms<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947, \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u0942\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0947\u0936\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Cognitive Learning Theory (CLT)<\/strong> explains mental processes as influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors<\/strong>. With effective<\/strong> cognitive processes learning is easier and information is stored longer; with ineffective<\/strong> ones, learning difficulties result that can appear anytime during life.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 (CLT)<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf Insight and motivation (CLT view)<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e (CLT \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f)<\/span><\/div>\n In CLT, motivation and purpose are much the same<\/strong>. The learner's goal is the end result he anticipates and desires, and the goal controls the learner's behaviour<\/strong>. The teacher's most important responsibility is to help the learner find worthwhile goals<\/strong> that are clear and realistic, recognizing and using the prominence of social and achievement motives<\/strong> in school learning. The teacher must know what is familiar<\/strong> to students and then introduce elements of novelty \u2014 but not too rapidly<\/strong>, pacing the presentation to maintain interest and attention. The teacher's management of conflicting motives<\/strong> may be an important factor in student success.<\/span>\n CLT \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0936\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u092e\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0935\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83e\udded Guiding exploration and action<\/span>\ud83e\udded \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n Cognitive theorists begin with thoughts interesting and understandable to the learner<\/strong>; in every type of instruction we start with meaningful wholes<\/strong>. Further: attention is focused on the elements and relationships that determine the correct response<\/strong>; the teacher's guidance must match the student's level of thought<\/strong> \u2014 if a student has not advanced beyond concrete thinking<\/strong>, information presented symbolically will not help<\/strong>; and the teacher helps students find purpose or order<\/strong> in learning. Concept formation may be regarded as the organization of experience<\/strong>, and the teacher's role is to clarify the critical features of both old and new experiences<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0930\u094b\u091a\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927\u0917\u092e\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u092e \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0906\u0917\u0947: \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u0928 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0917\u0940; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u090f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <h4>Five thinking skills required in cognitive learning<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n The five at a glance \u2014 each is treated in the same order below: what it is, who named it, and how it is developed or assessed.<\/span>\n \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092f\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"skill-map\">\n <a class=\"skill-chip s1\" href=\"#skill-1\">\n Skill 1<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 1<\/span><\/span>\n \ud83c\udfaf<\/span>\n <h6>Convergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n One correct answer, reached by logic<\/span>\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <a class=\"skill-chip s2\" href=\"#skill-2\">\n Skill 2<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 2<\/span><\/span>\n \ud83d\udca1<\/span>\n <h6>Divergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n Many original ideas, freely generated<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <a class=\"skill-chip s3\" href=\"#skill-3\">\n Skill 3<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 3<\/span><\/span>\n \ud83d\udd0d<\/span>\n <h6>Critical Thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n Judging what to believe and what not to<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <a class=\"skill-chip s4\" href=\"#skill-4\">\n Skill 4<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 4<\/span><\/span>\n \ud83e\udde9<\/span>\n <h6>Problem Solving<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n Overcoming obstacles to reach a solution<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u0915<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <a class=\"skill-chip s5\" href=\"#skill-5\">\n Skill 5<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 5<\/span><\/span>\n \u2696\ufe0f<\/span>\n <h6>Decision Making<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/h6>\n Selecting one course from many<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/p>\n <\/a>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s1\" id=\"skill-1\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Convergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Narrowing many facts down to the one correct answer \u2014 J. P. Guilford<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0947\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u2014 \u091c\u0947.\u092a\u0940. \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The term was introduced by the American psychologist J. P. Guilford<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0947.\u092a\u0940. \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is the ability to give the \"correct\" answer<\/strong> to standard questions that do not require much creative faculty.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \"\u0938\u0939\u0940\" \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It works by bringing facts and data together from various sources<\/strong> and then applying logic and knowledge to solve the problem.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0930, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Assessed by:<\/strong> standard IQ tests \u00b7 recognition and knowledge tests \u00b7 logical discussions \u00b7 giving problems to students.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928:<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 IQ \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092d\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u00b7 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s2\" id=\"skill-2\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Divergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Opening one topic out into many original ideas \u2014 the opposite direction to Skill 1<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u2014 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 1 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It means thinking outwardly instead of inwardly<\/strong> \u2014 the ability to develop original and unique ideas<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930<\/strong> \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u2014 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Its goal is to generate many different ideas about a topic in a short period<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It involves breaking a topic into its components to gain insight into its various aspects.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It occurs in a spontaneous, free-flowing<\/strong> manner \u2014 ideas are generated in a random, unorganized<\/strong> fashion.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939\u0940<\/strong> \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915, \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2194\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The contrast in one line.<\/strong> Convergent<\/strong> thinking moves inward<\/em> \u2014 many facts converge on one correct answer<\/strong>, and it is measured by IQ-type tests. Divergent<\/strong> thinking moves outward<\/em> \u2014 one topic opens into many possible ideas<\/strong>, and it is measured by creativity and fluency of response. A well-taught classroom needs both.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/strong> \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930<\/em> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 IQ-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930<\/em> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0941\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udd0e Two probing tools for divergent thinking<\/span>\ud83d\udd0e \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n Self-analysis<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 What are my activities during a normal day? What do I know about? How do I spend my time? What are my areas of expertise? What would I like to change in my world or life? What are my strongest beliefs and values? What am I studying in school? What bothers me? What do I like \u2014 my hobbies, my interests?<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901? \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901? \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u0917\u0924\u094d \u092f\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0942\u0901\u0917\u093e? \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901? \u092e\u0941\u091d\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0947\u0936\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092e\u0941\u091d\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0947 \u0936\u094c\u0915, \u092e\u0947\u0930\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901?<\/span><\/p>\n Topic analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 What are the most important aspects of the thing? What are its effects? How has it changed and why are those changes important? What are its different aspects? What smaller parts comprise it? What do I know about it? What suggestions or recommendations can be made? Is it good or bad \u2014 and why?<\/span>\u0909\u0938 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0940 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901? \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0935 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u093e \u092c\u0941\u0930\u0940 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902?<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 2 \u00b7 Four techniques to stimulate divergent thinking<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 2 \u00b7 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Brainstorming<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u0902\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Generating a list of ideas in a creative but unstructured<\/strong> manner \u2014 as many as possible in a short period; all<\/strong> ideas are recorded.<\/span>\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u2014 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915; \u0938\u092d\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Recording ideas<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Creates a collection of thoughts on various subjects that later becomes a source book of ideas<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u091c\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Free writing<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Writing whatever comes to mind about the topic without stopping<\/strong> \u2014 generates a variety of thoughts quickly.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u090f \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0930\u0941\u0915\u0947<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Mind \/ subject mapping<\/span>\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915 \/ \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Translating brainstormed ideas into a visual map or picture<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u0902\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u091c\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s3\" id=\"skill-3\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Critical Thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Reasonable reflective thinking about what to believe \u2014 Scriven & Paul<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0949\u0932<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n \n Critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking focused on what to believe and what not to believe<\/strong> \u2014 the mode of thinking about any subject, content or problem in which the thinker improves the quality of his own thinking<\/strong> by skilfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. Michael Scriven<\/strong> and Richard Paul<\/strong> hold it to be the intellectually disciplined process<\/strong> of: analysing the situation \u00b7 synthesizing two or more pieces of information \u00b7 applying knowledge \u00b7 active and skilful conceptualization \u00b7 evaluating gathered information on certain universal intellectual values.<\/span>\n \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0941\u0936\u0932\u0924\u093e\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0907\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0928<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u092a\u0949\u0932<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0926\u094b \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u00b7 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092d\u094c\u092e \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">Four characteristics of critical thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>It is self-guided, self-disciplined thinking<\/strong> that attempts to reason at the highest level of quality.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It is never universal in any individual<\/strong> \u2014 everyone is subject to episodes of irrational thought.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092d\u094c\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u092d\u0940-\u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It is affected by motivation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It has two components<\/strong>: (a) a set of information- and belief-generating and processing skills<\/strong>; (b) the habit<\/strong>, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behaviour.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902: (\u0915) \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e- \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938-\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f; (\u0916) \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0939 \u0906\u0926\u0924<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"kv-block\" style=\"margin-bottom:20px;\">\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Modes<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span>\n Scientific \u00b7 Mathematical \u00b7 Historical \u00b7 Anthropological \u00b7 Economic \u00b7 Moral \u00b7 Philosophical thinking<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u00b7 \u0910\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u00b7 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u0928\u0948\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Core skills<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/span>\n Observation \u00b7 Interpretation \u00b7 Analysis \u00b7 Inference \u00b7 Evaluation \u00b7 Explanation \u00b7 Meta-cognition<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u00b7 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u0905\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Importance<\/span>\u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/span>\n \n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:0;\">\n <li>\u203a<\/span>To learn how to approach problems logically and confidently<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u203a<\/span>To balance both sides of the brain<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u203a<\/span>To make wise decisions<\/strong> in life.<\/span>\u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u203a<\/span>To put oneself on the path to knowledge<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 3 \u00b7 Critical thinking calls for the ability to \u2014<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 3 \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0907\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Recognize problems.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Find workable means to solve them.<\/span>\u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Comprehend and use text with accuracy and clarity.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Interpret data to evaluate arguments.<\/span>\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Recognize unsaid assumptions.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0915\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Understand the importance of steps in problem solving.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Collect relevant information.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Recognize existence or non-existence of logical relationships between propositions.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">9<\/span>Draw conclusions and cross-check them.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f-\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s4\" id=\"skill-4\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Problem Solving<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Discovering, analysing and resolving problems \u2014 K\u00f6hler, S\u2013R theorists and Harlow<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u0932\u0930, S\u2013R \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n \n A mental process involving discovering, analysing and solving problems<\/strong>. Its ultimate goal is to overcome obstacles and find the solution that best resolves the issue<\/strong>. Formalized learning theory developed in the late 1930s<\/strong>, when proponents of various approaches attempted to build their own theories to explain the problems of learning.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0947<\/strong>\u0964 \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 1930 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0936\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Approach<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Proponent & experiment<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Core claim<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Cognitive Field Theory<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Wolfgang K\u00f6hler<\/strong> (German psychologist and phenomenologist) \u2014 classical experiments on the chimpanzee Sultan<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u094b\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u0917\u0948\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u0932\u0930<\/strong> (\u091c\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940) \u2014 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u092a\u0948\u0902\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0932\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Emphasizes perception of the total situation<\/strong>, relationships among its components, and restructuring the cognitive field<\/strong>. The solution arrives all of a sudden \u2014 by insight<\/strong> \u2014 after some initial effort. Confirmed by many studies on children and adults.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong>, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932\u0964 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0915\u0938\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Stimulus\u2013Response Theory<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915\u2013\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>S\u2013R theorists.<\/span>S\u2013R \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Emphasizes trial and error<\/strong> \u2014 a problem is solved through a gradual process of eliminating errors<\/strong> and putting together correct responses.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0942\u0932<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Learning Set<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Harry Harlow (1959)<\/strong> \u2014 experiments on monkeys and human subjects of low mental ability, using simple discrimination problems.<\/span>\u0939\u0948\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b (1959)<\/strong> \u2014 \u092c\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>More realistic and rational.<\/strong> Subjects first showed trial-and-error behaviour; but when similar problems were presented later for the first time, they made correct discrimination straight away<\/strong> \u2014 apparently insightful. In the earlier trial-and-error learning they had \"learned how to learn\"<\/strong> \u2014 acquiring a learning set<\/strong> that transferred positively<\/strong> to similar problems. Harlow: original learning within an area is difficult and frustrating, but after mastery of the basic facts, learning within the same area becomes simple and effortless<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0928-\u092d\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u092f\u093e; \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0928-\u092d\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 \"\u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\"<\/strong> \u0925\u093e \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964 \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b: \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u0902\u0920\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc Note on the controversy<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/div>\n There has been considerable controversy over the superiority of one approach over the other. Some psychologists hold that the cognitive field approach is most effective for problems requiring higher mental processes<\/strong>, while the stimulus\u2013response approach is effective for simple problems<\/strong>. Harlow's learning-set explanation was proposed precisely to do away with this controversy<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915\u2013\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 4 \u00b7 Five steps in problem solving (the problem-solving cycle)<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 4 \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u0930\u0923 (\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930)<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83d\udd01 It is called a cycle<\/strong> because a wrong turn at any step sends the solver back to the beginning \u2014 most often to step 1, where the reason was misidentified.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udd01 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u092e\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u091a\u0930\u0923 1 \u092a\u0930, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Identifying the problem<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n It sounds simplest but is not \u2014 it is very common for people to identify the reason incorrectly<\/strong>, which renders all following efforts useless.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0948 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0932\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Defining the problem<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong>\n Careful definition itself offers solutions and insights<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Forming a strategy<\/span>\u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Devised as per the individual's mindset, attitude, experience and available resources<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Organizing information<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Information must be organized coherently<\/strong> so that it leads naturally to the best possible solution.<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Allocating resources<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Allocate more resources<\/strong> so that available resources can be used to find a solution.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 4 \u00b7 Problem-solving strategies<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 4 \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Brainstorming<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u0902\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Suggesting a large number of solutions and combining\/developing them until an effective one is found.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e\/\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Abstraction<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Solving the problem in a model<\/strong> of the system before applying it to the real system.<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>System assessment<\/span>\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Assessing the output and interactions of an entire system.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Lateral thinking<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094d\u0935 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Approaching solutions indirectly and creatively<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Divide and conquer<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u092f<\/span><\/strong>Breaking a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems.<\/span>\u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940, \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940, \u0939\u0932-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Analogy<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong>Using a solution that solved an analogous<\/strong> problem; adapting existing solutions to similar problems.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0940; \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Hypothesis testing<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Assuming a possible explanation and trying to prove one's perspective.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Synthesis & transformation<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Synthesizing seemingly non-matching characteristics into something new; transforming the problem into another for which solutions exist; eliminating the cause; testing possible solutions until the right one is found.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e; \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0902; \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923; \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"skill-head s5\" id=\"skill-5\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div>\n <h5>Decision Making<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n Selecting one course of action among alternatives \u2014 B. Aubrey Fisher<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u2014 \u092c\u0940. \u0911\u092c\u094d\u0930\u0947 \u092b\u093c\u093f\u0936\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n \n The mental processes resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios<\/strong>. The end result of every decision-making process is a final selection<\/strong>; the output can be an action or a suggestion<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Objectives<\/strong> are to be established first.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Objectives must be classified and placed in order of importance<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">Alternative actions<\/strong> must be developed.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">The alternatives must be evaluated<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">A tentative decision<\/strong> can be made.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 6<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">The tentative decision is evaluated and analysed<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 7<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">A few steps are followed that result in a decision model<\/strong>, used to determine an optimal plan<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u092e \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 8<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">In a situation of conflict<\/strong>, role-playing<\/strong> can be used.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0918\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0939<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83e\udde9 Establishing good decision making<\/span>\ud83e\udde9 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Each step may involve social, cognitive and cultural problems<\/strong>; becoming more aware of these obstacles allows one to better anticipate and overcome them. Five helpful steps:<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0907\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u091c\u0917 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923:<\/strong><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Creating and nurturing the relationships, norms and procedures<\/strong> that influence how problems are understood and communicated.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Recognizing that a problem exists.<\/strong><\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Identifying an explanation<\/strong> for the problem and evaluating it.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0922\u0942\u0901\u0922\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Finding more suitable justice<\/strong> among many responses.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f<\/strong> \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Following through with action that supports the more justified decision<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n Integrity<\/strong> is supported by the ability to overcome distractions and obstacles, by developing implementing skills, and by ego strength<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0939\u0902-\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0932 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Skill 5 \u00b7 Fisher's four stages of group decision making<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 5 \u00b7 \u092b\u093c\u093f\u0936\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n \n Developed by communication researcher B. Aubrey Fisher<\/strong>; these four stages (or phases) are important for the decision-making process to begin.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923-\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0940. \u0911\u092c\u094d\u0930\u0947 \u092b\u093c\u093f\u0936\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <h6>Orientation<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/h6>\n The introductory stage \u2014 members meet for the first time and get to know each other.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <h6>Conflict<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0918\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h6>\n Once familiar, disputes, little fights and arguments take place \u2014 but members eventually work it out.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926, \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u091d\u0917\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0932\u091d\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <h6>Emergence<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u092d\u0935<\/span><\/h6>\n The group begins to clear up vague opinions<\/strong> by talking about them.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <h6>Reinforcement<\/span>\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h6>\n Members finally make a decision, while justifying to themselves<\/strong> that it was the right one.<\/span>\u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n Revision Recap<\/span>\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5 class=\"sub\">The five skills \u2014 consolidated recap<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/h5>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Skill<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it does<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Names to cite<\/span>\u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Convergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Brings facts from many sources together to reach the one correct answer<\/strong>; assessed by IQ and knowledge tests.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 IQ \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>J. P. Guilford<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Divergent Thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Generates many original ideas<\/strong> from one topic, spontaneously and without structure; stimulated by brainstorming, recording ideas, free writing and mind mapping.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947; \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u0902\u0925\u0928, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>J. P. Guilford<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Critical Thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Self-guided, self-disciplined judgement of what to believe and what not to believe<\/strong>; has a skills component and a habit component.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0918\u091f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0926\u0924-\u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Michael Scriven, Richard Paul<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Problem Solving<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Discovers, analyses and resolves problems through a five-step cycle<\/strong>; explained by insight, trial-and-error and learning-set theories.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u091a\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928; \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0928-\u092d\u0942\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>K\u00f6hler \u00b7 S\u2013R theorists \u00b7 Harlow (1959)<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Decision Making<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Selects one course of action<\/strong> from alternatives, ending in a final selection; in groups it passes through four stages.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924; \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u091c\u093c\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>B. Aubrey Fisher<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc Read the five together: skills 1 and 2 supply the raw thought, skill 3 tests it, skills 4 and 5 put it to work.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093f\u090f: \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 1 \u090f\u0935\u0902 2 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 3 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Levels of the cognitive domain<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>44<\/span>Which one of the following categories in the taxonomy of educational objectives indicates the highest level of learning?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Analysis<\/li>\n <li>(b) Application<\/li>\n <li>(c) Synthesis<\/li>\n <li>(d) Comprehension<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Synthesis<\/b> Among the four given, Synthesis is highest in Bloom\u2019s original order (Knowledge \u2192 Comprehension \u2192 Application \u2192 Analysis \u2192 Synthesis \u2192 Evaluation). Evaluation is higher still but is not offered as an option. In the revised 2001 taxonomy, Synthesis becomes \"Creating\" and moves to the very top.<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0939\u0948 (\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u2192 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u2192 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u2192 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u2192 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u2192 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928)\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 2001 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \"\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\" \u092c\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.1 A, \u00a73.5 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-6b\">\n 3.3<\/span>\n <h3>The Affective Domain<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The affective domain relates to the development of emotions, values, attitudes<\/strong> and those aspects of personality more influenced by the heart than the mind<\/strong>. It also includes the development of interests, appreciation, feelings, likes and dislikes<\/strong>. It was classified by the American educational psychologists D. R. Krathwohl, B. S. Bloom and B. B. Masia in 1964<\/strong> into five categories arranged hierarchically from lowest to highest complexity.<\/span>\n \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0943\u0926\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093e\u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0921\u0940.\u0906\u0930. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u092c\u0940.\u090f\u0938. \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940.\u092c\u0940. \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e 1964<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Attend<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Receiving<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n The ability, inclination and readiness of learners to receive information<\/strong>. It requires attention, awareness, listening, seeing and willingness<\/strong>. These are the preconditions of learning, personality development, and imbibing culture and values<\/strong>. It needs sensitization of learners to stimuli, phenomena or environment<\/strong> \u2014 learners should be made receptive in habit and attitude towards whatever they are to learn.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928, \u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u0942\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923, \u0905\u0935\u0932\u094b\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0907\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Reading newspapers, magazines, journals, books and reports of interest \u00b7 Watching news, shows, reports and programmes as per interest \u00b7 Listening patiently and attentively to teachers, parents, seniors, friends and more experienced persons \u00b7 Having curiosity to learn from various sources.<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u091c\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0932, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093f\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093f\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0927\u0948\u0930\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0938\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>React<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Responding<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n Learners must be responsive as well as receptive<\/strong>, otherwise the purpose is not served. Responding behaviour reflects that the learner is receiving<\/strong>. Continuity in attention and motivation (receiving) leads to<\/strong> responding behaviour. This category is represented by interest<\/strong> \u2014 the tendency to respond to a particular object, event or situation. It creates the way for two-way communication<\/strong> and facilitates teaching and learning: students listen<\/em> attentively and respond<\/em> to share their reflections and experiences.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0936\u0940\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u0915\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e (\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923) \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Response of students in class \u00b7 Interaction with teachers, friends and seniors on various issues \u00b7 Visits to clubs, libraries, museums and other knowledge-resource centres \u00b7 Participation in activities, competitions, seminars, conferences and crossword-type programmes.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u00b7 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u092c, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u093e\u0932\u092f, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u093e\u0932\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0923 \u00b7 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094b\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u0947\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Prefer<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Valuing<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \/ \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n During the cyclic process of receiving and responding, learners are automatically inclined towards taking value judgements<\/strong> about the things concerned \u2014 an object, event, idea, rule, ritual, set norm, or any traditional or modern aspect of culture. Through valuing, individuals set guidelines for regulating their own behaviour<\/strong>. Character formation or value inculcation happens through three sequential steps<\/strong>: (a) value acceptance \u2192 (b) value preference \u2192 (c) value commitment.<\/strong><\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e, \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0921, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: (\u0915) \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u2192 (\u0916) \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u2192 (\u0917) \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>A class is taught by several teachers, all practising various values \u2014 some common, some unique to individual teachers. Students attend classes, interact, observe and analyse<\/strong> the values being practised, and through regular observation and analysis develop their own values<\/strong> based on preference, acceptance and commitment.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f, \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0906\u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Systematize<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Organization<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Students absorb various values<\/strong> from teachers, parents and society, analyse<\/strong> them, and finally construct a relatively enduring value system<\/strong> through synthesis and organization<\/strong> for a balanced conduct and behaviour pattern. This leads to a set value structure or philosophy of life<\/strong>, which assists in decision-making about conduct<\/strong> in real-life situations and in forming opinions on major issues<\/strong> of social and personal concern.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928-\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0924-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">5<\/span>Highest<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Characterization of Values \/ Value Complex<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \/ \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0941\u0932<\/span><\/h5>\n The highest level<\/strong>. Individuals develop a set of values, attitudes and beliefs<\/strong> that build their character<\/strong> and give shape to their philosophy and personality<\/strong>. This process goes on continuously throughout life<\/strong>, resulting in shifts of preference among values depending upon situation, age and experience<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0917\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928-\u092d\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Table 1.2 \u2014 Five categories of the affective domain with key verbs<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e 1.2 \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n \n The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally \u2014 feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasm, motivations and attitudes. Listed from the simplest behaviour to the most complex.<\/span>\n \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u092e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u091f\u093f\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Category<\/span>\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Key Words (Verbs)<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926)<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Receiving phenomena<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e-\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923<\/span><\/strong> Awareness, willingness to hear<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u0942\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0907\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Asks \u00b7 choose \u00b7 describe \u00b7 follow \u00b7 give \u00b7 identify \u00b7 locate \u00b7 name<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Responding to phenomena<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong> Active participation; attends and reacts to a phenomenon<\/span>\u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e; \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Answer \u00b7 assist \u00b7 aid \u00b7 comply \u00b7 conform \u00b7 discuss \u00b7 greet \u00b7 help \u00b7 perform \u00b7 practice \u00b7 present \u00b7 read \u00b7 recite \u00b7 report \u00b7 select \u00b7 tell \u00b7 write<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Valuing<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong> Based on internalization of specified values; clues expressed in overt behaviour and often identifiable<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924; \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Complete \u00b7 demonstrate \u00b7 differentiate \u00b7 explain \u00b7 follow \u00b7 form \u00b7 initiate \u00b7 invite \u00b7 propose \u00b7 read \u00b7 report \u00b7 select \u00b7 share \u00b7 study \u00b7 work<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Organization<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong> Organizes values into priorities by contrasting them, resolving conflicts and creating a unique value system<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u0902\u0918\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Adhere \u00b7 alter \u00b7 arrange \u00b7 combine \u00b7 compare \u00b7 complete \u00b7 defend \u00b7 explain \u00b7 formulate \u00b7 generalize \u00b7 identify \u00b7 integrate \u00b7 modify \u00b7 order<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Internalizing values (characterization)<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 (\u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923)<\/span><\/strong> Has a value system that controls behaviour<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Act \u00b7 discriminate \u00b7 display \u00b7 influence \u00b7 listen \u00b7 modify \u00b7 perform \u00b7 practice \u00b7 solve<\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>Attitude, Values, Interest and Self-concept<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Philip George Zimbardo, 1999Attitude<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation<\/strong> of people, objects, events, activities, ideas, or virtually anything in the environment.<\/span>\n \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Read BainSociologist's view<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Attitude is the relatively stable overt behaviour of a person which affects his status<\/strong>. It is a state of mind, a feeling or a disposition<\/strong> \u2014 and it is important to have a positive attitude about work.<\/span>\n \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Values:<\/strong> affective learning also involves internalizing a set of values expressed in behaviour<\/strong>. Teachers affect students' values and behaviour by setting examples through their own behaviour<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f:<\/strong> \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Attitude formation:<\/strong> attitudes are expected to change as a function of experience, environment and education<\/strong>. The American psychologist Abraham Tesser<\/strong> has argued that hereditary variables<\/strong> may also affect attitudes.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923:<\/strong> \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092b\u0932\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u0942\u092a \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0939\u092e \u091f\u0947\u0938\u0930<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0917\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Measurement of attitude<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n \n A number of techniques are in use, but all suffer from different kinds of limitations<\/strong>. Largely they focus on the three components of attitude \u2014 the cognitive, the affective and the behavioural<\/strong>. Methods divide into two basic categories<\/strong>: (1) direct measurement<\/strong>, such as the Likert scale, and (2) indirect measurement<\/strong>, such as projective techniques.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928-\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902: (1) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e (2) \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Technique<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it works<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Limitation<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Direct observation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A simple and logical method that records the behaviour patterns<\/strong> of people under study; widely used for various purposes.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0927\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Even if individuals are easily accessible, observing the behaviour of a large sample is not practically feasible<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092d\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Direct questioning<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Asking pre-set questions<\/strong> on topics on which the individual's behaviours are to be evaluated \u2014 seemingly the most straightforward approach.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Results may not be accurate because an individual may try to hide his real opinions and attitudes<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Projective techniques<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Attitude-gauging objects are hidden<\/strong> and results interpreted on the basis of pre-set criteria<\/strong>. Overcomes some limitations of direct observation.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u090f\u0901 \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Falls short in objective and reliable interpretation of data<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092e\u091c\u093c\u094b\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Thurstone scale (1928)<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1928)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The first official method<\/strong> for measuring attitude, formulated by Louis Leon Thurstone<\/strong>, a US pioneer in psychometrics and psychophysics<\/strong>; his objective was to measure attitudes regarding religion<\/strong>. The scale contains statements<\/strong> on the issue, each assigned a numerical value<\/strong> based on the value the evaluator considers it to have. Selected statement values are added up and averaged<\/strong>, and the average corresponds to a particular attitude.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0942\u0924 \u0932\u0941\u0908 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0928 \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e; \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Assignment of values depends on evaluator judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcca The Likert Scale \u2014 most examined item in this section<\/span>\ud83d\udcca \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/span><\/div>\n Introduced by Likert<\/strong> in A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes<\/em>. It covers a range from extremely positive \u2192 neutral \u2192 extremely negative<\/strong>. It consists of statements<\/strong>; subjects express opinion on a 0\u20135 point scale<\/strong>. Once each statement has a numerical value, the values are added and the mean calculated<\/strong>. It is often used in career assessment programmes<\/strong> to gauge a learner's interests and tendencies so they can select the right career path. It is applied in the form of questionnaires<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes<\/em> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2192 \u0924\u091f\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u2192 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f 0\u20135 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n The five standard responses (a Likert item):<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 (\u090f\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0926):<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n <ol class=\"num-stack alpha\" style=\"margin-bottom:10px;\">\n <li>Strongly disagree<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Disagree<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Neither disagree nor agree<\/span>\u0928 \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924 \u0928 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Agree<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Strongly agree<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n The individual ticks one response for each statement. Each statement plus its possible responses is a Likert item<\/strong>; a Likert scale<\/strong> is the sum of responses to multiple Likert items<\/em>. It is considered a \"balanced\"<\/strong> form of attitude testing because it contains an equal number of positive and negative options<\/strong>. It is also sometimes known as the Summative Scale<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \"\u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924\"<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940-\u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Forced choice method & three biases that make Likert scales unreliable<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u091c\u094b \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n In some questionnaires the neutral response is removed<\/strong>. This is the forced choice method<\/strong> \u2014 the individual cannot remain neutral. It is used when it is thought the individual might select the neutral response to avoid controversy or hide ignorance<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u091f\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0940<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0924\u091f\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0924\u092c \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u091f\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u091a\u0941\u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\" style=\"margin-top:10px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>Central tendency bias<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 especially in a professional setting, the individual may be reluctant to admit strong feelings<\/strong> about an issue.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u093f\u091a\u0915\u093f\u091a\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Acquiescence bias<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the individual may feel obliged to agree<\/strong> with the presented statement.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Social desirability bias<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the individual may select an option to preserve self-image or to be popular<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u091b\u0935\u093f \u092c\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u094b\u0915\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u091a\u0941\u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n Once the completed questionnaire is returned, responses may be evaluated individually or in a grouped form<\/strong> depending on the pattern being studied. When studied in grouped form, the items provide a score<\/strong> that can be categorized and evaluated.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930, \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0927\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Interest and its measurement<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The reason for finding out students' interest is to help them get their dream careers<\/strong>. An interest inventory<\/strong> tells teachers the interest areas of their students so they can encourage them and open opportunities<\/strong> in a particular field.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092a\u094d\u0928-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f \u0926\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is one of the most popular career assessment tools<\/strong> and is also frequently used for educational guidance<\/strong>. The test was developed in 1927 by psychologist E. K. Strong<\/strong> to help people quitting military jobs<\/strong> find suitable work.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 1927 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0908.\u0915\u0947. \u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0948\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u094c\u0915\u0930\u0940 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0926\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Supporting students:<\/strong> before selecting a career, students need to identify the right path through an assessment giving insight into their own interests, preferences and personal styles<\/strong>. Analysing these directs them to the right courses, jobs, internships and activities<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917:<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0948\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902, \u0928\u094c\u0915\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0936\u093f\u092a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Self-concept and its assessment<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n \n Self-concept<\/strong> defines how we assess ourselves as individuals \u2014 what we think of ourselves<\/strong>. Its development has two aspects:<\/span>\n \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0939\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0939\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094b\u091a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0902:<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Aspect 1<\/span>\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>The Existential Self<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>\"The sense of being separate and distinct from others<\/strong> and the awareness of the constancy of the self<\/strong>.\" (Bee, 1992)<\/em><\/span>\"\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u0942\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964\" (\u092c\u0940, 1992)<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">\u2192<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Aspect 2<\/span>\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>The Categorical Self<\/span>\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Once a child realizes he has a distinct identity<\/strong>, he gradually becomes aware of the world around him and his own place in it<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u092c \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0936\u0903 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091c\u0917\u0924\u094d \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u091c\u0917 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>He starts thinking of himself as more than his physical characteristics<\/strong> \u2014 hair colour, height, etc.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0930\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u0926 \u0907\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Finally he becomes aware that others perceive him in a certain way<\/strong>, which may or may not match how he perceives himself.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092d\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83e\ude9e Carl Rogers \u2014 three components of self-concept<\/span>\ud83e\ude9e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932 \u0930\u094b\u091c\u0930\u094d\u0938 \u2014 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>The view the individual has of himself<\/strong> \u2014 self-image<\/em>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The value the individual places on himself<\/strong> \u2014 self-esteem or self-worth<\/em>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What the individual wishes he were really like<\/strong> \u2014 ideal self<\/em>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u094d\u0935<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Four factors affecting self-concept<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>How others react to us<\/span>\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong>People's approval, recognition and affection<\/strong> help develop a positive self-image.<\/span>\u0932\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0928\u0947\u0939<\/strong> \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Comparison with others<\/span>\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Comparing with those doing better financially or socially leads to a negative<\/strong> self-image; comparing with the less successful leads to a positive<\/strong> one.<\/span>\u0906\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e; \u0915\u092e \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Social roles<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong>Some roles carry prestige and a positive self-image<\/strong> \u2014 such as that of a doctor.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Identification<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0926\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Self-concept is influenced by the role we play in the group we belong to<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0909\u0938 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0939\u092e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 The affective domain<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>41<\/span>Which of the following categories in the taxonomy are parts of the Affective Domain? 1. Application 2. Valuing 3. Organization 4. Adaptation 5. Comprehension<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 5<\/li>\n <li>(d) 4 and 5<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) 2 and 3<\/b> The five affective levels are Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organization and Characterization. Application and Comprehension are cognitive; Adaptation belongs to psychomotor classifications.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0917 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.1 B \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>75<\/span>Which one of the following illustrative statements of objectives does not fall under the Affective Domain?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) The pupil appreciates a given piece of literature<\/li>\n <li>(b) The pupil expresses ideas in writing with good speed and correct punctuation<\/li>\n <li>(c) The pupil develops scientific attitude<\/li>\n <li>(d) The pupil develops an interest in reading autobiographies of scientists<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> Appreciating, developing an attitude and developing an interest are all affective. Writing with good speed and correct punctuation is a skill of execution \u2014 a psychomotor objective.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.1 B, \u00a73.1 C \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-6c\">\n 3.4<\/span>\n <h3>The Psychomotor Domain<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The psychomotor domain is concerned with skill objectives<\/strong> \u2014 the development of manipulative and motor skills<\/strong>. It covers activities such as typing, painting, drawing, dissecting, food preparation, beautification, carpentry, book binding, sculpture, photography, operating computers and machines<\/strong>, and all other manipulative skills. Psychological readiness of the learner is essential<\/strong> before any such skill can be acquired.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0939\u0938\u094d\u0924-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0947\u0936\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091f\u0902\u0915\u0923, \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0932\u093e, \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926\u0928, \u092d\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923, \u0938\u094c\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928, \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0908\u0917\u0940\u0930\u0940, \u091c\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0926\u0938\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940, \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093e, \u091b\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0936\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0938\u094d\u0924-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udc65 Who classified this domain<\/span>\ud83d\udc65 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Unlike the cognitive and affective domains, the psychomotor domain has several competing classifications<\/strong>. The scholars who attempted it include Ragole (1950), J. P. Guilford (1958), E. J. Simpson (1966), R. H. Dave (1969), A. J. Harrow (1972)<\/strong> and Allyn & Bacon (1994)<\/strong>. The classification followed in this text is the adapted version of R. H. Dave (1969)<\/strong>, which has five categories<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0948\u0917\u094b\u0932 (1950), \u091c\u0947.\u092a\u0940. \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 (1958), \u0908.\u091c\u0947. \u0938\u093f\u092e\u094d\u092a\u0938\u0928 (1966), \u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947 (1969), \u090f.\u091c\u0947. \u0939\u0948\u0930\u094b (1972)<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0932\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0915\u0928 (1994)<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947 (1969) \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Watch<\/span>\u0905\u0935\u0932\u094b\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Initiation \/ Observation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0928 \/ \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n The first and lowest<\/strong> category. The learner observes<\/strong> the skill being performed by an expert or model and initiates<\/strong> an attempt to imitate it. Observation of the complete act, its sequence and the tools involved forms the base for all later stages.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Practise<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Manipulation<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n The learner performs selected steps<\/strong> of the skill, follows directions<\/strong> given by the teacher or the manual, and fixes the performance through repeated practice<\/strong>. Performance at this stage is still guided and not yet independent.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Refine<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Precision<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n The learner begins controlling faults and eliminating errors<\/strong>, and can reproduce the act with precision<\/strong> and accuracy. Speed and exactness both improve; the performance becomes independent of the model<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Innovate<\/span>\u0928\u0935\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Articulation<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n The learner not only performs the skill accurately but adds novel attributes<\/strong> to it \u2014 coordinating several skills in harmony, modifying the sequence, and adapting the act to new situations. Originality enters the performance<\/strong> at this level.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0902\u091c\u0938\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0928\u094d\u0935\u092f, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0906 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">5<\/span>Highest<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Naturalization<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n The highest and rarest<\/strong> level. The performance becomes automatic, natural and effortless<\/strong> \u2014 it requires almost no conscious attention. Very few learners reach this level<\/strong>; it marks the mastery associated with experts and professionals.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0932\u092d\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u091a\u0947\u0924 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u092e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Performance Assessment (Psychomotor Assessment)<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928)<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Performance assessment<\/strong> is a form of testing that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer<\/strong> from a ready-made list. It measures what students can do<\/strong> with what they know, and is therefore the natural mode of assessment for the psychomotor domain.<\/span>\n \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u0928\u0940-\u092c\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfcf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The cricket-coach analogy.<\/strong> A cricket coach does not judge a player only by a written quiz on the rules of the game. The real test is \"playing the game\"<\/strong> \u2014 how the player bats, bowls and fields in an actual match. In exactly the same way, performance assessment asks the student to do<\/em> the thing rather than describe<\/em> it.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0947\u091f-\u0915\u094b\u091a \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0947\u091f \u0915\u094b\u091a \u0916\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0916\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0948 \"\u0916\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u0947\u0932\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0948\u091a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940, \u0917\u0947\u0902\u0926\u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/em> \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three methods of performance assessment<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack roman\">\n <li>Open-ended answers<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 the student supplies a written or oral answer, a mathematical solution, a drawing, a diagram or an exhibit, rather than choosing from options.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930, \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0932, \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Extended tasks<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 assignments requiring sustained work over a longer period \u2014 experiments, projects, field investigations, presentations.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0924\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Portfolios<\/span>\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 a selected collection of a student's work assembled over time, showing growth and progress<\/strong> rather than a single snapshot.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939, \u091c\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three main purposes of performance assessment<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Diagnostic<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong>To identify the specific difficulties and weaknesses a learner faces in performing the skill.<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Instructional<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong>To guide and shape further teaching, so instruction is adjusted to what the learner actually needs.<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Monitoring<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong>To track the learner's progress in the skill continuously over time.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Four skills exercised in a performance task<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/h5>\n <ol class=\"num-stack alpha\">\n <li>Obtaining information<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 gathering the data, materials and instructions the task requires.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Employing the information<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 organizing and processing what has been gathered.<\/span>\u091c\u094b \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Using the information<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 applying it to actually carry out the task.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Communication<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong> \u2014 presenting the process and the result clearly to others.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three key benefits<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0932\u093e\u092d<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>A variety of tasks<\/strong> can be set, so different learning styles<\/strong> are accommodated \u2014 a student who cannot show ability on a written paper may show it through a model, a demonstration or a performance.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0936\u0948\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>It encourages teamwork<\/strong>, since many performance tasks are carried out in groups.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>It focuses attention on the learner's personal habits and attitudes<\/strong> \u2014 punctuality, neatness, perseverance, safety consciousness \u2014 which written tests cannot capture.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0924\u093e, \u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u0921\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Three conditions for fair performance assessment<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <ol class=\"num-stack\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>The criteria must be predetermined<\/strong> and made known, so that both teacher and learner know exactly what a successful performance looks like.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Students are not scored against their classmates<\/strong> \u2014 each performance is judged against the stated criteria alone.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The feedback reflects competency<\/strong> attained, not a comparative score \u2014 it tells the learner what has been mastered and what still needs work.<\/span>\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-61\">\n 3.5<\/span>\n <h3>Specification of Objectives & Steps in the Evaluation Process<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. The Revised Taxonomy (2001)<\/span>\u0915. \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 (2001)<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n In 2001<\/strong>, Bloom's original cognitive taxonomy was revised in a volume titled A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing<\/strong><\/em>, prepared by Lorin W. Anderson, David R. Krathwohl, Kathleen A. Cruikshank<\/strong> and others. The most visible change was that the six categories, which were nouns in the original, were converted into verbs<\/strong>.<\/span>\n 2001<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing<\/strong><\/em> \u0928\u093e\u092e\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0902\u0925 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0941\u0906, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u094b\u0930\u093f\u0928 \u0921\u092c\u094d\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0942. \u090f\u0902\u0921\u0930\u0938\u0928, \u0921\u0947\u0935\u093f\u0921 \u0906\u0930. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u0915\u0948\u0925\u0932\u0940\u0928 \u090f. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0907\u0915\u0936\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u092f\u0939 \u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e-\u0930\u0942\u092a \u091b\u0939 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Original (1956) \u2014 nouns<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 (1956) \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Revised (2001) \u2014 verbs<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 (2001) \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td>Knowledge<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>Remembering<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td>Comprehension<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/td><td>Understanding<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td>Application<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/td><td>Applying<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td>Analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Analysing<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td>Synthesis<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Creating<\/span>\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td>Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>Evaluating<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd04<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Why the change was made \u2014 the reasoning to write in the exam.<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0964<\/strong><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Thinking is an active process<\/em>, so verbs describe it more accurately than nouns<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>\"Knowledge\" was a product of thinking, not a category of thinking<\/strong>, and was therefore replaced by \"Remembering\"<\/strong> \u2014 because a learner can cram, recall and recognize without understanding<\/strong>, and remembering is the mental act<\/em> involved.<\/span>\"\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\" \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0925\u093e, \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \"\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\"<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u0930\u091f, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>In the revised order Synthesis becomes \"Creating\" and moves to the top<\/strong>, above \"Evaluating\".<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \"\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\" \u092c\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u091a\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\" \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Functions of Educational Objectives \u2014 usefulness of taxonomical classification<\/span>\u0916. \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>It helps teachers and curriculum framers focus on all three domains<\/strong> instead of attending only to the cognitive.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>It makes education holistic<\/strong> rather than one-sided.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>It supports whole-personality development<\/strong> so that the individual becomes useful to himself and to society<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>It helps in selecting appropriate classroom assessment techniques<\/strong> \u2014 the objective determines whether a written test, an observation schedule or a performance task is right.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0940 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>It helps develop teacher competencies<\/strong> for designing effective learning experiences.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>It guides the devising of co-curricular activities<\/strong> aligned with stated objectives.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>7<\/span>It promotes the all-round development<\/strong> of the learner.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>8<\/span>It enables teachers to frame instructional objectives in behavioural terms<\/strong>, which is the precondition of any measurable evaluation.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>C. Guidance Functions of Evaluation<\/span>\u0917. \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n Because of rising stress levels and cases of student suicide, counsellors are now appointed in schools<\/strong>. Evaluation results are the raw material on which their guidance work rests.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u092c \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <ol class=\"num-stack\">\n <li>Results of evaluation are useful for guidance and counselling<\/strong> of students.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Educational and vocational guidance<\/strong> is given on the basis of the student's abilities, interests, skills, attitudes, aptitude and values<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Results of anxiety and stress tests<\/strong> lead to guidance aimed at reducing stress<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935-\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Personality disorders<\/strong> can be diagnosed and the student guided accordingly.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It helps the student in choosing the right vocation, profession or career<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f, \u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0930\u093f\u092f\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It helps in choosing suitable courses<\/strong> of study.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>It assists in nurturing life skills<\/strong> in learners.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-62\">\n 3.6<\/span>\n <h3>The Knowledge Dimension of the Revised Taxonomy<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a73.5 described how Anderson and Krathwohl turned Bloom's six nouns into verbs. That is only half<\/strong> of what the 2001 revision did. Bloom's original was one-dimensional<\/strong> \u2014 it asked only what the pupil does<\/em>. The revision added a second dimension<\/strong> asking what the pupil does it to<\/em>, and the two together form a grid<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u00a73.5 \u0928\u0947 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u090f\u0902\u0921\u0930\u0938\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932 \u0928\u0947 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093e\u0964 2001 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0906\u0927\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0915-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940<\/strong> \u0925\u093e \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e<\/strong> \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>, \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0932<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Facts<\/span>\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Factual knowledge<\/span>\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n The isolated bits and pieces<\/strong> a pupil must know to be acquainted with a discipline \u2014 terminology<\/strong> and specific details and elements<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u091f\u0941\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The symbol \u03c3 stands for standard deviation; the normal curve was developed by De Moivre, Laplace and Gauss.<\/span>\u03c3 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u0915 \u0939\u0948; \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0921\u0940 \u092e\u0949\u092f\u0935\u0930, \u0932\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0932\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0949\u0938 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Concepts<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Conceptual knowledge<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n The interrelationships among the basic elements<\/strong> \u2014 classifications and categories, principles and generalizations, theories, models and structures. This is knowledge organized into a whole<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>That reliability is a necessary but not sufficient condition of validity; that the four scales form a hierarchy of increasing information.<\/span>\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948; \u0915\u093f \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Methods<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Procedural knowledge<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n How to do something<\/strong> \u2014 subject-specific skills and algorithms, techniques and methods, and the criteria for deciding when to use which procedure<\/strong>. That last part is what separates a technician from a statistician.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0932\u0928\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u092c \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0939\u094b<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0936\u093f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>Computing a standard deviation; and knowing that a skewed distribution calls for the median rather than the mean.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Self<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Metacognitive knowledge<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span> \u2192 entirely new in 2001<\/span>\u2192 2001 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/h5>\n Knowledge of cognition itself, and awareness of one's own thinking<\/strong> \u2014 strategic knowledge, knowledge about cognitive tasks, and self-knowledge<\/strong> of one's strengths and weaknesses as a learner. Bloom's original had no place for this at all<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u091c\u0917\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/strong>\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0925\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Example<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>A pupil who knows he confuses biserial with point-biserial and therefore rechecks that decision every time. This is the cognitive basis of assessment AS learning<\/strong> and of the self-assessment NEP 2020 requires.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941-\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0939\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u229e<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The taxonomy table and its bearing on the blueprint.<\/strong> The two dimensions cross to form a 4 \u00d7 6 grid of twenty-four cells<\/strong>: four kinds of knowledge down the side, six cognitive processes across the top. Every objective occupies one cell. \"The pupil applies<\/em> (process 3) the standard deviation formula<\/em> (procedural knowledge)\" sits at the cell Procedural \u00d7 Apply<\/strong>. This is the same logic as the blueprint of \u00a73.9<\/strong>, one level deeper: the blueprint crosses objectives \u00d7 content<\/em>, while the taxonomy table crosses process \u00d7 knowledge type<\/em>. A paper that fills only the Factual \u00d7 Remember<\/strong> cell is precisely the memory-based paper \u00a77.1 criticized.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0964<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 4 \u00d7 6 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u094c\u092c\u0940\u0938 \u0916\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0932<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0915\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u091b\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/em> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928) \u0915\u094b \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e 3)\" \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u00d7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e: \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u00d7 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941<\/em> \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u00d7 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/em> \u0915\u094b\u0964 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u00d7 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0916\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u00a77.1 \u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-51\">\n 3.7<\/span>\n <h3>Writing Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a71.8 established that the educational process begins with objectives, and step 3 of the evaluation hierarchy required \"specification of desired student behaviour\"<\/strong>. This section shows how that specification is actually written \u2014 because an objective that cannot be observed cannot be evaluated.<\/span>\n \u00a71.8 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923 3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \"\u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928\"<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc General objective, specific objective and specification<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>General objective<\/strong> \u2014 broad and long-term: \"The pupil develops an understanding of the concept of measurement.\"<\/em> Not directly observable.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915: \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Specific objective<\/strong> \u2014 the general one broken down unit by unit: \"understands the four scales of measurement.\"<\/em><\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928: \"\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Specification<\/strong> \u2014 the observable act that proves it: \"The pupil identifies<\/strong> the scale to which a given example belongs and justifies<\/strong> his choice.\"<\/em> This is what the test item measures.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0947: \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The four parts of a well-written behavioural objective<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n WHO + ACTION VERB + CONDITION + STANDARD<\/span>\n \u0915\u094c\u0928 + \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926 + \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f + \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Example:<\/b> \"The Class IX pupil<\/b> (who) will compute<\/b> (action verb) the standard deviation of ten ungrouped scores<\/b> (condition) correct to two decimal places, in 10 minutes<\/b> (standard).\" Note that the action verb<\/b> is the heart of it. \"Knows\", \"understands\" and \"appreciates\" name states of mind that cannot be seen; \"computes\", \"identifies\", \"classifies\" and \"demonstrates\" name acts that can. This is exactly why the revised taxonomy of \u00a73.5 changed the nouns into verbs<\/b>.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/b> \"\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e IX \u0915\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/b> (\u0915\u094c\u0928) \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/b> (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926) \u0926\u0938 \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/b> (\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f) \u0926\u094b \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927, 10 \u092e\u093f\u0928\u091f \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/b> (\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915)\u0964\" \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926<\/b> \u0939\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0943\u0926\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964 \"\u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u0938\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0902; \"\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \"\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u00a73.5 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093e<\/b>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Action verbs by domain and level<\/span>\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n \n This table should be kept at hand when framing a blueprint (\u00a73.9): the verb chosen fixes the level of the objective, and therefore the kind of item that must be written.<\/span>\n \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f (\u00a73.9) \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0930\u0939\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f: \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Domain \/ level<\/span>\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \/ \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Action verbs to use<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Knowledge<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>define \u00b7 list \u00b7 name \u00b7 state \u00b7 recall \u00b7 recognize \u00b7 label \u00b7 match<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u00b7 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Understanding<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>explain \u00b7 describe \u00b7 summarize \u00b7 translate \u00b7 interpret \u00b7 illustrate \u00b7 classify \u00b7 give examples<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u00b7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u00b7 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u00b7 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Application<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>compute \u00b7 solve \u00b7 apply \u00b7 demonstrate \u00b7 use \u00b7 predict \u00b7 construct \u00b7 show<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u00b7 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u00b7 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Analysis<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>analyse \u00b7 differentiate \u00b7 distinguish \u00b7 compare \u00b7 contrast \u00b7 break down \u00b7 infer<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u00b7 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u00b7 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0947\u0915 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Synthesis \/ Creating<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \/ \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>design \u00b7 compose \u00b7 formulate \u00b7 organize \u00b7 plan \u00b7 propose \u00b7 devise \u00b7 generate<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u00b7 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Cognitive \u2014 Evaluation<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>judge \u00b7 appraise \u00b7 justify \u00b7 criticize \u00b7 defend \u00b7 assess \u00b7 argue \u00b7 conclude<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u00b7 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u00b7 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928 \u00b7 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u00b7 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#fdf4f8;\"><td>Affective<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>listens \u00b7 attends \u00b7 responds \u00b7 complies \u00b7 volunteers \u00b7 values \u00b7 appreciates \u00b7 accepts \u00b7 defends a belief \u00b7 displays \u00b7 practises consistently<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0947\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0938\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928 \u00b7 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f0fdf8;\"><td>Psychomotor<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>imitates \u00b7 manipulates \u00b7 assembles \u00b7 operates \u00b7 measures \u00b7 draws \u00b7 dissects \u00b7 performs with precision \u00b7 performs automatically<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u091a\u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u00b7 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u270d\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The four rules examiners look for.<\/strong> A well-written objective is (1) stated in terms of the pupil's behaviour, not the teacher's activity<\/strong> \u2014 \"the pupil computes\", never \"to teach computation\"; (2) observable and measurable<\/strong>, so the verb must name an act; (3) single<\/strong> \u2014 one objective, one behaviour, never \"understands and applies\"; and (4) attainable<\/strong> at the pupil's level within the time available. Objectives written this way are what make a blueprint<\/strong> possible at all, since the grid can only be filled once each objective names a testable act.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f (1) \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \"\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\", \u0915\u092d\u0940 \"\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0923\u0928 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0928\u093e\" \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; (2) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947; (3) \u090f\u0915\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930, \u0915\u092d\u0940 \"\u0938\u092e\u091d\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u0924\u0925\u093e (4) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0930\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-2\">\n 3.8<\/span>\n <h3>Teacher-made and Standardized Tests<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Working definitions<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/div>\n A teacher-made test<\/strong> is constructed by the classroom teacher for her own pupils, to measure the outcomes of the particular content she has taught. A standardized test<\/strong> is constructed by subject experts and test specialists<\/strong>, is tried out on a large representative sample, and is supplied with uniform directions for administration and scoring, established norms, and known reliability and validity coefficients<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Teacher-made Test<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Prepared by the class teacher<\/strong>, often single-handedly and in a short time.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Covers a limited, locally taught<\/strong> portion of content.<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>No try-out, no item analysis<\/strong> and usually no established norms.<\/span>\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0928 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reliability and validity are not computed<\/strong> \u2014 they are assumed.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Interpretation is local<\/strong> \u2014 a score means something only within that class.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Cheap, quick and flexible<\/strong>; can be revised for tomorrow's lesson.<\/span>\u0938\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e, \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e<\/strong>; \u0915\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Best for formative and internal<\/strong> classroom evaluation.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Standardized Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Prepared by a team of subject and measurement experts<\/strong> over months or years.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Covers content common to many schools<\/strong> \u2014 a whole course or grade level.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are tried out and analysed<\/strong> for difficulty and discrimination; weak items are rejected.<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>; \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reliability and validity are computed and reported<\/strong> in a manual.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Interpretation is against published norms<\/strong> \u2014 a score is comparable across schools and states.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093e\u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Costly, time-consuming and rigid<\/strong>; cannot be altered by the user.<\/span>\u092e\u0939\u0901\u0917\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u092e\u094d\u092f<\/strong>; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Best for selection, placement, research and comparison<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091a\u092f\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udca1<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The one-line discriminator.<\/strong> Ask: \"Does the test come with a manual of norms?\"<\/em> If yes, it is standardized<\/strong>; if no, it is teacher-made<\/strong>. Everything else \u2014 expert authorship, try-out, item analysis, reported reliability \u2014 is a consequence of that single fact. Note also that a teacher-made test can be more valid<\/strong> than a standardized one for a particular class, because it matches exactly what was taught.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915-\u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0915\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093f\u090f: \"\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?\"<\/em> \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0939\u093e\u0901, \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0924\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong>\u0964 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u092c \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e-\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Merits and limitations of each<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Limitations<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Teacher-made<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Matches the actual syllabus taught<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/li><li>Economical and quickly prepared<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/li><li>Can be repeated as often as needed<\/span>\u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/li><li>Gives immediate feedback for remedial work<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/li><li>Reflects the teacher's own objectives.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Low objectivity and reliability<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>No norms, so no outside comparison<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Items often untested for difficulty<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/li><li>Prone to the teacher's personal bias<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>Coverage may be unbalanced.<\/span>\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Standardized<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>High objectivity, reliability and validity<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>Norms permit comparison across groups<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Items refined by analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/li><li>Uniform administration removes examiner variation<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Useful for selection and research.<\/span>\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Expensive and slow to construct<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0901\u0917\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>May not fit a particular school's syllabus<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0928 \u0916\u093e\u090f<\/span><\/li><li>Cannot be modified by the teacher<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935<\/span><\/li><li>Norms become outdated<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0921\u093c \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Encourages comparison rather than individual growth.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Standardized tests<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>74<\/span>Which of the following are characteristics of a Standardized Achievement test? 1. Reliability 2. Validity 3. Norm<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/b> A standardized test is supplied with computed reliability and validity coefficients and with established norms. The presence of a manual of norms is the single surest mark of standardization.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.8, \u00a72.1 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-41\">\n 3.9<\/span>\n <h3>Construction of Achievement Tests and Standardization<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Test construction proceeds through four broad stages<\/strong> \u2014 planning, preparing, trying out and evaluating<\/strong>. The first two produce a draft<\/em>; the last two turn that draft into a standardized instrument<\/strong>. A teacher-made test normally stops after stage 2.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e, \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/em> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0926\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u091a\u0930\u0923 2 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0930\u0941\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83c\udfd7\ufe0f Read the chain downward. Stages 1\u20132<\/strong> give a usable classroom test; stages 3\u20134<\/strong> are what make it standardized<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \ud83c\udfd7\ufe0f \u0936\u0943\u0902\u0916\u0932\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u091a\u0930\u0923 1\u20132<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u091a\u0930\u0923 3\u20134<\/strong> \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Planning \u2014 deciding what to measure<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>\n Fix the purpose<\/strong> of the test; state the instructional objectives in behavioural terms<\/strong>; delimit the content<\/strong>; decide the types of items<\/strong>, the length<\/strong>, the time limit<\/strong> and the weightage<\/strong> to be given to each objective, each content unit and each item type. The product of this stage is the blueprint<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941<\/strong> \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902; \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908<\/strong>, \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0939\u0948 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Preparing \u2014 writing and assembling the items<\/span>\u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u2014 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Write two to three times as many items as finally needed<\/strong>, since many will be rejected. Get them reviewed by subject experts<\/strong> for accuracy and language. Then arrange<\/strong> them \u2014 grouped by item type, and within each type in increasing order of difficulty<\/strong> \u2014 and write the directions and the scoring key<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b-\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0917\u0947\u0964 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0915\u0941\u0902\u091c\u0940<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Trying out \u2014 the preliminary and final try-out<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong>\n Administer the draft to a sample similar to the intended group<\/strong>. The preliminary try-out<\/strong> (about 100 pupils) removes ambiguous wording and impractical directions. The final try-out<\/strong> (a larger sample, often 300\u2013400) supplies the data for item analysis<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> (\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 100 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930) \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> (\u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 300\u2013400) \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Evaluating \u2014 reliability, validity and norms<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span><\/strong>\n Compute the reliability coefficient<\/strong> and establish validity<\/strong> against a criterion; then administer the final form to a large representative sample<\/strong> to prepare norms<\/strong>, and publish everything in a test manual<\/strong> with the directions, key, norm tables and coefficients.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902; \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u092c \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u0941\u0902\u091c\u0940, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Exam Add-on \u2014 The Blueprint<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0928 \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>What a blueprint (table of specifications) looks like<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f (\u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e) \u0915\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/h4>\n \n The blueprint is a two-way grid<\/strong> \u2014 objectives across the top, content units down the side \u2014 with marks entered in each cell. It is the single device that guarantees content validity<\/strong>, and questions on it are almost certain in the paper.<\/span>\n \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u092c\u0917\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u0930\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Content unit \u2193 \/ Objective \u2192<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u2193 \/ \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u2192<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Know.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Under.<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Appl.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930.<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Skill<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Total<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Unit A<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">15<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Unit B<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0916<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Unit C<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0917<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">15<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Total marks<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">13<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n \n Reading the grid: the paper carries 50 marks<\/strong>; Unit B<\/strong> is the most heavily weighted at 20 marks; and Understanding<\/strong> receives the largest share of objectives at 20 marks. A blank cell would mean an objective is not being tested at all in that unit \u2014 the blueprint makes such gaps visible before<\/em> the paper is set.<\/span>\n \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 50 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0916<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0930 20 \u0905\u0902\u0915; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 20 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0964 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094b\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/em> \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Item analysis \u2014 difficulty value and discrimination index<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n \n After the final try-out, each item is examined on two indices<\/strong>. The scripts are arranged from highest to lowest score and the top 27%<\/strong> and bottom 27%<\/strong> are taken as the upper and lower groups.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0915\u0930 \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0940 27%<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0947 27%<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The two item-analysis formulae<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Difficulty Value P<\/em> = ( R<\/em>U<\/sub> + R<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \/ ( N<\/em>U<\/sub> + N<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \u00d7 100 Discrimination Index D<\/em> = ( R<\/em>U<\/sub> \u2212 R<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \/ N<\/em>U<\/sub><\/span>\n \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 P<\/em> = ( R<\/em>U<\/sub> + R<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \/ ( N<\/em>U<\/sub> + N<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \u00d7 100 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 D<\/em> = ( R<\/em>U<\/sub> \u2212 R<\/em>L<\/sub> ) \/ N<\/em>U<\/sub><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n R<\/b>U<\/sub> = correct responses in the upper group \u00b7 R<\/b>L<\/sub> = correct responses in the lower group \u00b7 N<\/b>U<\/sub>, N<\/b>L<\/sub> = number of pupils in each group. A higher P means an easier item<\/b>. Items with P between 40% and 60%<\/b> and D of 0.30 or above<\/b> are accepted; a negative D<\/b> means the weaker pupils did better than the abler ones, and such an item is rejected outright<\/b>.<\/span>\n R<\/b>U<\/sub> = \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u00b7 R<\/b>L<\/sub> = \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u00b7 N<\/b>U<\/sub>, N<\/b>L<\/sub> = \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 P \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/b>\u0964 P 40% \u0938\u0947 60%<\/b> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0924\u0925\u093e D 0.30 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/b> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 D<\/b> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924<\/b> \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Computing P and D for one item<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 P \u090f\u0935\u0902 D \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n \n In the try-out of a science test, the upper group and lower group each contained 40 pupils<\/strong>. On item 12, 30 pupils in the upper group<\/strong> and 10 in the lower group<\/strong> answered correctly. Find the difficulty value and the discrimination index, and decide whether to retain the item.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 40 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u092a\u0926 12 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 30 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 10 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Given:<\/strong> RU<\/sub> = 30, RL<\/sub> = 10, NU<\/sub> = NL<\/sub> = 40.<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948:<\/strong> RU<\/sub> = 30, RL<\/sub> = 10, NU<\/sub> = NL<\/sub> = 40\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>P<\/strong> = (30 + 10) \/ (40 + 40) \u00d7 100 = 40\/80 \u00d7 100 = 50%<\/strong>.<\/span>P<\/strong> = (30 + 10) \/ (40 + 40) \u00d7 100 = 40\/80 \u00d7 100 = 50%<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>D<\/strong> = (30 \u2212 10) \/ 40 = 20\/40 = 0.50<\/strong>.<\/span>D<\/strong> = (30 \u2212 10) \/ 40 = 20\/40 = 0.50<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Decision:<\/strong> P = 50% lies in the ideal 40\u201360% band and D = 0.50 is well above 0.30. The item is of moderate difficulty with high discriminating power<\/strong> and is retained<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f:<\/strong> P = 50% \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 40\u201360% \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e D = 0.50 0.30 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u092b\u093c\u0940 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0926 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Blueprint and item analysis<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>43<\/span>Which one of the following is the main advantage of using a table of specifications when preparing an achievement test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) It reduces the amount of time required<\/li>\n <li>(b) It makes the construction of test items easier<\/li>\n <li>(c) It decreases the objectivity of the test<\/li>\n <li>(d) It improves the sampling of content<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d)<\/b> The table of specifications \u2014 the blueprint \u2014 is a two-way grid of objectives against content units. Its chief purpose is to guarantee that every unit and every objective is sampled in proportion, which is precisely content validity.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>77<\/span>Consider: 1. Items of the same difficulty level do not always discriminate between students of different achievement levels. 2. If the difficulty level is exactly 0.50, then the discrimination index has its maximum range.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Both 1 and 2<\/b> Difficulty and discrimination are independent indices \u2014 two items with P = 0.50 can have quite different D values, even a negative one. And at P = 0.50 the possible spread of D is widest, which is why items of moderate difficulty are preferred.<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 P = 0.50 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 D \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928, \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093f \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0924\u0925\u093e P = 0.50 \u092a\u0930 D \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>88<\/span>Consider: 1. Items with difficulty level 0 have discrimination index 0. 2. Items with difficulty level 1 have discrimination index 1.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1 only<\/b> If nobody answers an item correctly (P = 0), then R\u2081 = R\u2082 = 0 and D = 0. But if everybody answers it correctly (P = 1), then R\u2081 = R\u2082 = N and D = 0 as well \u2014 not 1. An item everyone passes or everyone fails discriminates nothing.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 (P = 0) \u0924\u094b R\u2081 = R\u2082 = 0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 D = 0\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 (P = 1) \u0924\u094b R\u2081 = R\u2082 = N \u090f\u0935\u0902 D \u092d\u0940 0 \u2014 1 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930 \u0932\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947, \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>91<\/span>What is the difficulty index of the item? (from the data table in the original paper)<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 0.5<\/li>\n <li>(b) 0.65<\/li>\n <li>(c) 0.75<\/li>\n <li>(d) 0.9<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">Apply P = (R\u1d64 + R\u2097) \/ (N\u1d64 + N\u2097)<\/b> Whatever the figures, the method is fixed: add the correct responses of the upper and lower groups and divide by the total number in both groups. Remember that a higher P means an easier item.<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948: \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f P \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>92<\/span>An item of that difficulty level would be a good one to place:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) anywhere on a test<\/li>\n <li>(b) in the midst of a test<\/li>\n <li>(c) near the end of a test<\/li>\n <li>(d) near the beginning of a test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">Depends on P \u2014 easy items go first<\/b> Items are arranged in increasing order of difficulty. A very easy item (high P) belongs near the beginning to build confidence; an item of moderate difficulty belongs in the middle; a hard item (low P) near the end.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094b\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926 (\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a P) \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0926 (\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 P) \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9, \u00a79.1 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>93<\/span>What is the discriminating index?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 0.1<\/li>\n <li>(b) 0.2<\/li>\n <li>(c) 0.3<\/li>\n <li>(d) 0.4<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">Apply D = (R\u1d64 \u2212 R\u2097) \/ N\u1d64<\/b> Subtract the lower group\u2019s correct responses from the upper group\u2019s and divide by the number in one group. D of 0.30 or above is acceptable; a negative D means the weaker pupils did better and the item must be rejected outright.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 0.30 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e D \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 D \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0926 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"4\" id=\"c4\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 4<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 4<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Scores and Their Interpretation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Conversion of Raw Scores into Standard Scores, T-scores, C-scores, Z-scores, Stanine Scores and Percentiles; Interpretation of Test Scores \u2014 Qualitative and Quantitative<\/span>\n \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902, T-, C-, Z- \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u2014 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \ud83d\udcd0<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Three Questions Statistics Answers<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:13px;\">Where is the centre? \u00b7 How spread out? \u00b7 How related?<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901? \u00b7 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935? \u00b7 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927?<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Central tendency \u00b7 Variability \u00b7 Correlation<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \ud83d\udd14<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Normal Curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">68 \u00b7 95 \u00b7 99.7<\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Per cent of cases within \u00b11\u03c3, \u00b12\u03c3 and \u00b13\u03c3 of the mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u00b11\u03c3, \u00b12\u03c3 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u00b13\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-0\">\n 4.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Units 1 to 3 dealt with collecting<\/strong> educational data. This unit deals with what happens next \u2014 organizing, describing and interpreting<\/strong> those data so that they yield meaning.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0938\u0947 3 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0908\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0928 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Recall from \u00a71.1 that measurement produces a score<\/strong> and evaluation adds a judgement<\/strong>. Statistics stands between<\/em> the two \u2014 it is the machinery that turns a heap of raw scores into statements on which a judgement can rest.<\/span>\n \u00a71.1 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a<\/em> \u0916\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0922\u0947\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u091f\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Statistics<\/strong> here means \"the science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analysing and interpreting numerical data for the purpose of drawing valid conclusions and making reasonable decisions\"<\/strong>. The word carries two senses \u2014 the science<\/strong> itself, and the numerical facts<\/strong> it works upon.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f \u0939\u0948 \"\u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\"<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n This unit covers the descriptive<\/strong> half of educational statistics. Unit 5 applies the same tools to reliability and validity<\/strong>, so every formula learnt here is used again there.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-2\">\n 4.1<\/span>\n <h3>Statistical Treatment of Data<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Why a teacher needs statistics<\/span>\u0915. \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>To condense<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>A hundred scattered scores mean nothing; a mean and a standard deviation describe them in two numbers.<\/span>\u0938\u094c \u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>To compare<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>Marks in Hindi and in Mathematics cannot be compared directly \u2014 but their Z-scores can (\u00a74.12).<\/span>\u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948 (\u00a74.12)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>To find relationship<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>Does attendance go with achievement? Only correlation can say, and how strongly.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948? \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>To locate an individual<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>A percentile rank tells a pupil exactly where he stands in his group (\u00a74.11).<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0948 (\u00a74.11)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>To predict<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>The prognosis function of \u00a71.7 rests on statistical prediction from present scores to future performance.<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>To judge a test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/strong>Reliability and validity coefficients (Unit 5) are correlations; item analysis (\u00a73.9) is statistics too.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 (\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5) \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 (\u00a73.9) \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Two branches of statistics<\/span>\u0916. \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094b \u0936\u093e\u0916\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Branch 1<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u0916\u093e 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Descriptive Statistics<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Describes the group actually measured<\/strong> and claims nothing beyond it.<\/span>\u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Includes frequency distributions, graphs, central tendency, variability and correlation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923, \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Example:<\/em> \"The mean score of my class of 50 pupils is 54.1.\"<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \"\u092e\u0947\u0930\u0940 50 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 54.1 \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/span><\/li>\n <li>This unit is entirely descriptive.<\/strong><\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Branch 2<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u0916\u093e 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Inferential Statistics<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Generalizes from a sample to the population<\/strong> from which it was drawn.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Includes tests of significance, the t-test, chi-square and the analysis of variance (ANOVA)<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 (ANOVA)<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Example:<\/em> \"The new method is significantly better for Class IX pupils in general<\/em>.\"<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \"\u0928\u0908 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903<\/em> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e IX \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Serves the research function<\/strong> of measurement described in \u00a71.7.<\/span>\u00a71.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. From raw scores to interpretation<\/span>\u0917. \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83d\udcca Statistical treatment always follows this order. Skipping a step \u2014 computing a mean, for instance, before checking the shape of the distribution \u2014 is the commonest source of wrong interpretation.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udcca \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Collection<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Raw scores are obtained through the tools and techniques of Units 2 and 3.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 2 \u090f\u0935\u0902 3 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Organization<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Scores are arrayed and grouped into a frequency distribution<\/strong> (\u00a74.3).<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u00a74.3)\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Presentation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Tables and graphs \u2014 histogram, frequency polygon, ogive \u2014 make the shape visible at a glance.<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u2014 \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c, \u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Analysis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Central tendency, variability, correlation, percentiles and derived scores are computed.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Interpretation<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong>\n The numbers are given educational meaning<\/strong> \u2014 and only at this point does measurement become evaluation.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Statistics and research methodology<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>46<\/span>Which one of the following is a parametric test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Sign test<\/li>\n <li>(b) t-test<\/li>\n <li>(c) Median test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Chi-square test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) t-test<\/b> The t-test assumes a normally distributed population and interval data, so it is parametric. Sign, median and chi-square tests make no assumption about the shape of the population and are non-parametric or distribution-free.<\/span>t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923-\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 A \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>47<\/span>Which one of the following is not an assumption of a parametric test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Normal distribution<\/li>\n <li>(b) Randomization<\/li>\n <li>(c) Homogeneity<\/li>\n <li>(d) Discontinuity<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) Discontinuity<\/b> Parametric tests assume normality, random sampling, homogeneity of variance \u2014 and a continuous<\/em> variable measured on an interval or ratio scale. Discontinuity is the opposite of what is required.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/em> \u091a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 A \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>49<\/span>Which one of the following does not belong to the category of probability sample?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Random sample<\/li>\n <li>(b) Stratified sample<\/li>\n <li>(c) Purposive sample<\/li>\n <li>(d) Systematic sample<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Purposive sample<\/b> In a probability sample every member has a known, equal chance of selection. In purposive (judgement) sampling the researcher deliberately picks the cases he considers typical, so selection depends on his judgement \u2014 it is non-probability.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924, \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 (\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u094b\u0927\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0905-\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 B \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>59<\/span>Which of the following are the major methodological approaches in qualitative research? 1. Post-positivist 2. Critical 3. Causal-comparative 4. Interpretive<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 3 and 4 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1, 2 and 4<\/b> Post-positivist, critical and interpretive are the three major qualitative approaches. Causal-comparative (ex post facto) research is quantitative and is the standard distractor in this question.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940, \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f) \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 C \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-21\">\n 4.2<\/span>\n <h3>The Vocabulary of Inferential Statistics<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n \u00a74.1 drew the line between descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive work occupies the rest of this unit, but the vocabulary of the inferential half is assumed everywhere it is discussed, and \u00a74.15 A cannot be read without it. Nothing here needs computation \u2014 only the meaning of the terms.<\/span>\n \u00a74.1 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0916\u0940\u0902\u091a\u0940\u0964 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u00a74.15 \u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Hypothesis<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>A tentative statement<\/strong> about a relationship, framed so that it can be tested and possibly disproved. A directional<\/strong> hypothesis states which way the difference will go; a non-directional<\/strong> one states only that there will be a difference.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong>, \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0924\u0903 \u0916\u0902\u0921\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0913\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e; \u0905\u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Null hypothesis (H\u2080)<\/span>\u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e (H\u2080)<\/span><\/strong>The statement that there is no difference and no relationship<\/strong> \u2014 any difference observed is due to chance. It is the hypothesis actually tested<\/strong>, because a claim can be disproved but never finally proved. Rejecting H\u2080 is what \"significant\" means.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0916\u0902\u0921\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 H\u2080 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \"\u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\" \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Level of significance (\u03b1)<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 (\u03b1)<\/span><\/strong>The risk of being wrong<\/strong> that the researcher is willing to accept when rejecting H\u2080. Conventionally 0.05 (5%)<\/strong> or the stricter 0.01 (1%)<\/strong>. At 0.05 a 5-in-100 chance is accepted that the difference observed was mere chance.<\/span>H\u2080 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0936\u094b\u0927\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094b\u0916\u093f\u092e<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 0.05 (5%)<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 0.01 (1%)<\/strong>\u0964 0.05 \u092a\u0930 100 \u092e\u0947\u0902 5 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Type I and Type II errors<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Type I (\u03b1)<\/strong> \u2014 rejecting a null hypothesis that was actually true: finding a difference that is not there<\/em>. Type II (\u03b2)<\/strong> \u2014 accepting a null hypothesis that was actually false: missing a difference that is there<\/em>. Lowering one raises the other.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e (\u03b1)<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e: \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e<\/em>\u0964 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f (\u03b2)<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e: \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0942\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e<\/em>\u0964 \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>One-tailed and two-tailed tests<\/span>\u090f\u0915-\u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>A one-tailed<\/strong> test places the whole risk at one end of the curve and is used with a directional hypothesis; a two-tailed<\/strong> test splits it between both ends and is used with a non-directional one. Recall from \u00a74.10 that \u00b11.96\u03c3 marks the exact 95% limits.<\/span>\u090f\u0915-\u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091c\u094b\u0916\u093f\u092e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0964 \u00a74.10 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u00b11.96\u03c3 \u0920\u0940\u0915 95% \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Degrees of freedom (df)<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f (df)<\/span><\/strong>The number of values in a calculation that are free to vary<\/strong>. For a single sample, df = N \u2212 1: once the mean is fixed, the last score is determined by the rest. The df decides which row of the significance table is to be read.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 df = N \u2212 1: \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 df \u0939\u0940 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Standard Error of the Mean \u2014 do not confuse it with SEm<\/sub><\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 SEm<\/sub> \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n SEM<\/sub> = \u03c3 \/ \u221aN<\/span>\n SEM<\/sub> = \u03c3 \/ \u221aN<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Two different standard errors carry similar names, and the examiner relies on the confusion. Standard error of measurement, SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3\u221a(1 \u2212 r)<\/b> \u2014 \u00a74.15 F \u2014 is about one pupil's score<\/b> and how far it may stray from his true score. Standard error of the mean, SEM<\/sub> = \u03c3\/\u221aN<\/b> \u2014 here \u2014 is about a whole sample's mean<\/b> and how far it may stray from the population mean. Note the practical consequence of the \u221aN: to halve<\/b> the standard error of the mean the sample must be made four times<\/b> as large.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0947-\u091c\u0941\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f, SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3\u221a(1 \u2212 r)<\/b> \u2014 \u00a74.15 \u091a \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/b> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f, SEM<\/sub> = \u03c3\/\u221aN<\/b> \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u221aN \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f: \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0906\u0927\u0940<\/b> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/b> \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Used to find out<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>t-test<\/span>t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Whether the means of two<\/strong> groups differ significantly \u2014 small samples. Independent<\/em> t-test for two separate groups, paired<\/em> t-test for the same group tested twice.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094b<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/em> t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/em> t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>z-test<\/span>z-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The same question with large samples<\/strong> (N above about 30), where the population SD is known.<\/span>\u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (N \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 30 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915) \u092a\u0930, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e SD \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>F-test \/ ANOVA<\/span>F-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \/ ANOVA<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Whether the means of three or more<\/strong> groups differ \u2014 analysis of variance. Using repeated t-tests instead would inflate the Type I error.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092c\u0922\u093c \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Chi-square (\u03c7\u00b2)<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 (\u03c7\u00b2)<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Whether observed frequencies<\/strong> differ significantly from expected frequencies<\/strong> \u2014 the test for nominal, categorical<\/strong> data. Non-parametric.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The one sentence to carry away.<\/strong> \"Statistically significant\" does not<\/strong> mean \"large\" or \"educationally important\" \u2014 it means only that the result is unlikely to be due to chance<\/strong>. With a very large sample even a trivial difference becomes significant. This is why a significance test should always be read alongside a measure of the size<\/strong> of the effect, such as r<\/em>\u00b2 from \u00a74.8.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \"\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\" \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \"\u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e\" \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \"\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\" \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u00a74.8 \u0915\u0947 r<\/em>\u00b2, \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-3\">\n 4.3<\/span>\n <h3>Frequency Distribution and Graphical Representation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition and vocabulary<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/div>\n A frequency distribution<\/strong> is a tabular arrangement of scores into class intervals<\/strong>, showing how many cases (the frequency<\/strong>) fall in each. Four terms are needed throughout: the class interval (i)<\/strong> \u2014 the width of each class; the range<\/strong> \u2014 highest score minus lowest; the midpoint<\/strong> \u2014 the centre of a class, which represents every score in it; and the exact or real limits<\/strong> \u2014 the true boundaries, which for a class written 50\u201359 are 49.5 to 59.5<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 (\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong>) \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 (i)<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u094c\u0921\u093c\u093e\u0908; \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u091c\u094b 50\u201359 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 49.5 \u0938\u0947 59.5<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Steps in constructing a frequency distribution<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Find the range<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/strong>\n Range = highest score \u2212 lowest score. In our data, 88 \u2212 21 = 67<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 = \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u2212 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964 \u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 88 \u2212 21 = 67<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Decide the class interval<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/strong>\n Aim at 10 to 20 classes<\/strong>. Divide the range by the desired number: 67 \u00f7 7 \u2248 10, so take i = 10<\/strong>. Prefer 3, 5 or 10 as the interval.<\/span>10 \u0938\u0947 20 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0947\u0902: 67 \u00f7 7 \u2248 10, \u0905\u0924\u0903 i = 10<\/strong> \u0932\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 3, 5 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e 10 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Write the classes<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/strong>\n Start from a convenient multiple of i<\/em> below the lowest score, and write classes downward or upward consistently.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 i<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u091c \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Tally and total<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong>\n Place a tally against the class each score falls in; count the tallies to get f<\/em>. Check that \u03a3f = N<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u090f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0907\u090f; \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0930 f<\/em> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u03a3f = N<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n The Running Example \u2014 used throughout this unit<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Achievement scores of 50 pupils in Class IX Mathematics<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e IX \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Every worked example in \u00a74.4 to \u00a74.11 uses this one distribution, so the figures can be checked against each other. This table should be kept open for reference throughout.<\/span>\n \u00a74.4 \u0938\u0947 \u00a74.11 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Class interval<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Exact limits<\/span>\u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Midpoint (X)<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 (X)<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">f<\/span>f<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">cf<\/span>cf<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">fX<\/span>fX<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>80 \u2013 89<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">79.5 \u2013 89.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">84.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">338<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>70 \u2013 79<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">69.5 \u2013 79.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">74.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">46<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">447<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>60 \u2013 69<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">59.5 \u2013 69.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">64.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">516<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td>50 \u2013 59<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">49.5 \u2013 59.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">54.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">32<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">654<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>40 \u2013 49<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">39.5 \u2013 49.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">44.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">445<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>30 \u2013 39<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">29.5 \u2013 39.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">34.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">207<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>20 \u2013 29<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">19.5 \u2013 29.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">98<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Total<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">N = 50<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2705<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n \n Reading the table: i = 10<\/strong>; the modal class<\/strong> is 50\u201359 (highest f = 12); cf<\/strong> is cumulated from the bottom upward; and the exact limits extend half a unit on either side because the scores are whole numbers.<\/span>\n \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e: i = 10<\/strong>; \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> 50\u201359 \u0939\u0948 (\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e f = 12); cf<\/strong> \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Graphical representation<\/span>\u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n A graph shows at a glance what a table shows only on study. Four forms are used with a frequency distribution, and two more with categorical data.<\/span>\n \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u090f\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0926\u094b \u0914\u0930\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"thumb-cell\">Model<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Graph<\/span>\u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it is drawn<\/span>\u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it is used for<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <rect x=\"15\" y=\"56.7\" width=\"15\" height=\"18.3\" fill=\"var(--sky)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"30\" y=\"47.5\" width=\"15\" height=\"27.5\" fill=\"var(--sky)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"45\" y=\"29.2\" width=\"15\" height=\"45.8\" fill=\"var(--blue)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"60\" y=\"20\" width=\"15\" height=\"55\" fill=\"var(--navy)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"75\" y=\"38.3\" width=\"15\" height=\"36.7\" fill=\"var(--blue)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"90\" y=\"47.5\" width=\"15\" height=\"27.5\" fill=\"var(--sky)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <rect x=\"105\" y=\"56.7\" width=\"15\" height=\"18.3\" fill=\"var(--sky)\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"0.8\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"2\" y=\"20\">f<\/text><text x=\"118\" y=\"85\">scores<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Histogram<\/span>\u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Adjacent bars with no gaps<\/strong>, each standing on the exact limits<\/strong> of its class, with height equal to the frequency.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u091f\u0940 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902<\/strong>, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0916\u0921\u093c\u0940, \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0930\u093e\u092c\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Showing the shape and area<\/strong> of the distribution; the area of each bar is proportional to its frequency.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0928\u093e; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u0921\u093c \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <polyline points=\"7.5,75 22.5,56.7 37.5,47.5 52.5,29.2 67.5,20 82.5,38.3 97.5,47.5 112.5,56.7 127.5,75\"\n fill=\"none\" stroke=\"var(--blue)\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/>\n <g fill=\"var(--navy)\">\n <circle cx=\"22.5\" cy=\"56.7\" r=\"2\"\/><circle cx=\"37.5\" cy=\"47.5\" r=\"2\"\/><circle cx=\"52.5\" cy=\"29.2\" r=\"2\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"67.5\" cy=\"20\" r=\"2\"\/><circle cx=\"82.5\" cy=\"38.3\" r=\"2\"\/><circle cx=\"97.5\" cy=\"47.5\" r=\"2\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"112.5\" cy=\"56.7\" r=\"2\"\/>\n <\/g>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"2\" y=\"20\">f<\/text><text x=\"100\" y=\"85\">midpoints<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Frequency polygon<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Points plotted at the midpoint<\/strong> of each class at a height equal to f<\/em>, joined by straight lines and brought down to the base at both ends.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 f<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0930\u093e\u092c\u0930 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0940 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Comparing two or more distributions<\/strong> on the same axes \u2014 impossible with histograms.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <polyline points=\"15,75 30,70.6 45,64 60,53 75,39.8 90,31 105,24.4 120,20\"\n fill=\"none\" stroke=\"var(--teal)\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/>\n <g fill=\"var(--teal)\">\n <circle cx=\"30\" cy=\"70.6\" r=\"1.8\"\/><circle cx=\"45\" cy=\"64\" r=\"1.8\"\/><circle cx=\"60\" cy=\"53\" r=\"1.8\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"75\" cy=\"39.8\" r=\"1.8\"\/><circle cx=\"90\" cy=\"31\" r=\"1.8\"\/><circle cx=\"105\" cy=\"24.4\" r=\"1.8\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"120\" cy=\"20\" r=\"1.8\"\/>\n <\/g>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"47.5\" x2=\"120\" y2=\"47.5\" stroke=\"var(--amber)\" stroke-width=\"0.8\" stroke-dasharray=\"2 2\"\/>\n <text x=\"122\" y=\"50\" style=\"fill:var(--amber)\">Md<\/text>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"1\" y=\"20\">cf<\/text><text x=\"102\" y=\"85\">upper limits<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Cumulative frequency graph (ogive)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 (\u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Cumulative frequencies plotted against the upper exact limit<\/strong> of each class and joined; produces a characteristic S-shaped curve<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f S-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Reading off medians, quartiles and percentiles<\/strong> graphically (\u00a74.11).<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e (\u00a74.11)\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <polyline points=\"15,75 30,70.6 45,64 60,53 75,39.8 90,31 105,24.4 120,20\"\n fill=\"none\" stroke=\"var(--purple)\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"20\" x2=\"120\" y2=\"20\" stroke=\"var(--border)\" stroke-width=\"0.8\" stroke-dasharray=\"2 2\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"47.5\" x2=\"120\" y2=\"47.5\" stroke=\"var(--border)\" stroke-width=\"0.8\" stroke-dasharray=\"2 2\"\/>\n <text x=\"0\" y=\"22\">100<\/text><text x=\"2\" y=\"50\">50<\/text><text x=\"4\" y=\"77\">0<\/text>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"100\" y=\"85\">scores<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Cumulative percentage curve<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The same as the ogive, but the vertical axis is scaled 0 to 100 per cent<\/strong> instead of 0 to N.<\/span>\u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0939\u0940, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u090a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094d\u0935 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937 0 \u0938\u0947 N \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f 0 \u0938\u0947 100 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Reading percentile ranks<\/strong> directly off the curve.<\/span>\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <rect x=\"20\" y=\"35\" width=\"14\" height=\"40\" fill=\"var(--blue)\"\/>\n <rect x=\"44\" y=\"25\" width=\"14\" height=\"50\" fill=\"var(--teal)\"\/>\n <rect x=\"68\" y=\"48\" width=\"14\" height=\"27\" fill=\"var(--amber)\"\/>\n <rect x=\"92\" y=\"40\" width=\"14\" height=\"35\" fill=\"var(--plum)\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"128\" y2=\"75\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <line x1=\"13\" y1=\"75\" x2=\"13\" y2=\"15\" stroke=\"var(--muted)\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"2\" y=\"20\">N<\/text>\n <text x=\"22\" y=\"85\">Arts<\/text><text x=\"46\" y=\"85\">Sci<\/text><text x=\"70\" y=\"85\">Com<\/text><text x=\"93\" y=\"85\">Voc<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Bar diagram<\/span>\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Bars separated by gaps<\/strong>, since the categories are discrete and have no real numerical order.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915<\/strong> \u091b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Nominal or categorical<\/strong> data \u2014 number of pupils by stream, by district, by year.<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0935\u093e\u0930, \u091c\u093c\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0935\u093e\u0930, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"thumb-cell\"><svg class=\"graph-thumb\" viewBox=\"0 0 140 90\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n <path d=\"M70,45 L70,17 A28,28 0 0,1 86.5,67.7 Z\" fill=\"var(--blue)\"\/>\n <path d=\"M70,45 L86.5,67.7 A28,28 0 0,1 42,45 Z\" fill=\"var(--teal)\"\/>\n <path d=\"M70,45 L42,45 A28,28 0 0,1 70,17 Z\" fill=\"var(--amber)\"\/>\n <circle cx=\"70\" cy=\"45\" r=\"28\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"#fff\" stroke-width=\"1\"\/>\n <text x=\"96\" y=\"30\">40%<\/text><text x=\"96\" y=\"60\">35%<\/text><text x=\"18\" y=\"35\">25%<\/text>\n<\/svg><\/td>\n <td>Pie diagram<\/span>\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A circle divided into sectors, each sector's angle being (component \u00f7 total) \u00d7 360\u00b0<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u091c\u094d\u092f\u0916\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0923 (\u0918\u091f\u0915 \u00f7 \u092f\u094b\u0917) \u00d7 360\u00b0<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Showing the proportion of parts to a whole<\/strong> \u2014 a budget, a time allocation.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u091c\u091f, \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udccf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Two distinctions examiners test.<\/strong> (1) Histogram vs. bar diagram:<\/strong> a histogram has no gaps<\/strong> because the variable is continuous; a bar diagram has gaps because the categories are discrete. (2) Histogram vs. frequency polygon:<\/strong> the histogram is plotted on exact limits<\/strong>, the polygon on midpoints<\/strong>; and only the polygon allows two distributions to be compared on one graph. Remember also the 75 per cent rule<\/strong> \u2014 the vertical axis should be about three-quarters of the horizontal, or the shape of the curve is misleading.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0926\u094b \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> (1) \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916:<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091a\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948; \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 (2) \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c:<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 75 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u090a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094d\u0935 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0948\u0924\u093f\u091c \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0924\u0940\u0928-\u091a\u094c\u0925\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-4\">\n 4.4<\/span>\n <h3>Measures of Central Tendency<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n A measure of central tendency<\/strong> is a single value that represents the whole distribution \u2014 the point round which the scores cluster. It answers the question \"what is typical here?\"<\/strong> There are three, and they coincide only in a perfectly symmetrical distribution.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \"\u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. The Mean<\/span>\u0915. \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Arithmetic mean \u2014 ungrouped and grouped<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Ungrouped: M = \u03a3X \/ N Grouped: M = \u03a3f<\/em>X \/ N<\/span>\n \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924: M = \u03a3X \/ N \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924: M = \u03a3f<\/em>X \/ N<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n \u03a3X<\/b> = sum of all scores \u00b7 X<\/b> = midpoint of a class \u00b7 f<\/b> = frequency of that class \u00b7 N<\/b> = total number of cases. The mean is the balance point<\/b> of the distribution: the sum of deviations from the mean is always exactly zero<\/b>. This property is what makes it the basis of the standard deviation and of correlation.<\/span>\n \u03a3X<\/b> = \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u00b7 X<\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u00b7 f<\/b> = \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 N<\/b> = \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/b> \u0939\u0948: \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Mean<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>From the running distribution, the f<\/em>X column has already been computed: 338 + 447 + 516 + 654 + 445 + 207 + 98.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 f<\/em>X \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948: 338 + 447 + 516 + 654 + 445 + 207 + 98\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>\u03a3f<\/em>X = 2705<\/strong> and N = 50<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03a3f<\/em>X = 2705<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e N = 50<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>M = 2705 \/ 50 = 54.1<\/strong><\/span>M = 2705 \/ 50 = 54.1<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The mean score of the class is 54.1<\/strong>, which falls inside the modal class 50\u201359 \u2014 a first sign that the distribution is roughly symmetrical.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 54.1<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 50\u201359 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. The Median<\/span>\u0916. \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Median \u2014 the positional average<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0915 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Md = L + [ ( N\/2 \u2212 cf<\/em> ) \/ f<\/em> ] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/span>\n Md = L + [ ( N\/2 \u2212 cf<\/em> ) \/ f<\/em> ] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n L<\/b> = exact lower limit of the median class \u00b7 cf<\/b> = cumulative frequency below<\/em> the median class \u00b7 f<\/b> = frequency of the median class \u00b7 i<\/b> = class interval. For ungrouped<\/b> data, arrange the scores in order: with odd N<\/b> the median is the middle score; with even N<\/b> it is the average of the two middle scores.<\/span>\n L<\/b> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u00b7 cf<\/b> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 f<\/b> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 i<\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u0964 \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/b> \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902: \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e N<\/b> \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0938\u092e N<\/b> \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Median<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>N\/2 = 50\/2 = 25.<\/strong> Find the class in which the 25th case falls.<\/span>N\/2 = 50\/2 = 25\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 25\u0935\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Cumulative frequency reaches 20<\/strong> at the end of 40\u201349 and 32<\/strong> at the end of 50\u201359. So the 25th case lies in 50\u201359 \u2014 the median class<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e 40\u201349 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 20<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e 50\u201359 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 32<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 25\u0935\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 50\u201359 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Therefore L = 49.5, cf = 20, f = 12, i = 10<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u0903 L = 49.5, cf = 20, f = 12, i = 10<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Md = 49.5 + [(25 \u2212 20)\/12] \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + (5\/12) \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + 4.17 = 53.67<\/strong><\/span>Md = 49.5 + [(25 \u2212 20)\/12] \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + (5\/12) \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + 4.17 = 53.67<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Half the class scored below 53.67<\/strong> and half above it.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0928\u0947 53.67<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0928\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. The Mode<\/span>\u0917. \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Mode \u2014 the most frequent score<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Mo = L + [ ( f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> ) \/ ( 2f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>2<\/sub> ) ] \u00d7 i<\/em> Empirical relation: Mo = 3 Md \u2212 2 M<\/span><\/span>\n Mo = L + [ ( f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> ) \/ ( 2f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>2<\/sub> ) ] \u00d7 i<\/em> \u0906\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927: Mo = 3 Md \u2212 2 M<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n L<\/b> = exact lower limit of the modal class \u00b7 f1<\/sub><\/b> = frequency of the modal class \u00b7 f0<\/sub><\/b> = frequency of the class below<\/em> it \u00b7 f2<\/sub><\/b> = frequency of the class above<\/em> it. A distribution may have no mode<\/b>, one mode (unimodal<\/b>), two (bimodal<\/b>) or more. A bimodal distribution usually means two different groups have been mixed together<\/b> \u2014 a fact worth reporting in itself.<\/span>\n L<\/b> = \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u00b7 f1<\/sub><\/b> = \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 f0<\/sub><\/b> = \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 f2<\/sub><\/b> = \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0928 \u0939\u094b<\/b>, \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u094b (\u090f\u0915\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940<\/b>), \u0926\u094b \u0939\u094b\u0902 (\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940<\/b>) \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0964 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u094b \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/b> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Mode<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>The highest frequency is 12<\/strong>, so the modal class is 50\u201359<\/strong>. Hence L = 49.5, f1<\/sub> = 12, f0<\/sub> = 10<\/strong> (class 40\u201349) and f2<\/sub> = 8<\/strong> (class 60\u201369).<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e 12<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 50\u201359<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f L = 49.5, f1<\/sub> = 12, f0<\/sub> = 10<\/strong> (\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 40\u201349) \u0924\u0925\u093e f2<\/sub> = 8<\/strong> (\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 60\u201369)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Mo = 49.5 + [(12 \u2212 10) \/ (24 \u2212 10 \u2212 8)] \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + (2\/6) \u00d7 10<\/span>Mo = 49.5 + [(12 \u2212 10) \/ (24 \u2212 10 \u2212 8)] \u00d7 10 = 49.5 + (2\/6) \u00d7 10<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>= 49.5 + 3.33 = 52.83<\/strong><\/span>= 49.5 + 3.33 = 52.83<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Cross-check by the empirical relation:<\/strong> Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M = 3(53.67) \u2212 2(54.1) = 161.01 \u2212 108.2 = 52.81<\/strong> \u2014 agreeing with 52.83 to within rounding. The two methods confirm each other.<\/span>\u0906\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a:<\/strong> Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M = 3(53.67) \u2212 2(54.1) = 161.01 \u2212 108.2 = 52.81<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b 52.83 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>D. Choosing between the three<\/span>\u0918. \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Median<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Mode<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Based on<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>All scores<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Position only<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Frequency only<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Effect of extreme scores<\/span>\u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Strongly affected<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td><td>Unaffected<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Unaffected<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Algebraic use<\/span>\u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Basis of SD, correlation, all further statistics<\/span>SD, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Limited<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Almost none<\/span>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Stability across samples<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Most stable<\/strong><\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/strong><\/span><\/td><td>Moderately stable<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>Least stable<\/strong><\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Use it when<\/span>\u0915\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The distribution is symmetrical<\/strong> and further computation is needed<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/td><td>The distribution is skewed<\/strong> or has open-ended classes<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/td><td>The most typical or popular<\/strong> value is needed quickly<\/span>\u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u094b\u0915\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Can be found graphically<\/span>\u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>No<\/span>\u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td><td>Yes \u2014 from the ogive<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/td><td>Yes \u2014 from the histogram<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u26a0\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The classic illustration of why the mean can mislead.<\/strong> Nine pupils score around 40 and one scores 100. The mean<\/strong> is dragged upward by that single case and describes nobody; the median<\/strong> stays near 40 and describes the group honestly. This is exactly why income, and any markedly skewed distribution, is reported by median rather than mean<\/strong>. In our running distribution M = 54.1, Md = 53.67 and Mo = 52.83 lie close together, so the distribution is only slightly positively skewed<\/strong> and the mean is safe to use.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u092c \u092d\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u094c \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 40 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u090f\u0915 100\u0964 \u0909\u0938 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0916\u093f\u0902\u091a \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> 40 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0930\u0939\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0906\u092f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0939\u092e\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 M = 54.1, Md = 53.67 \u090f\u0935\u0902 Mo = 52.83 \u092a\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Central tendency<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>58<\/span>Which one of the following measures is used to determine the greatest stability of the scores?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Mean<\/li>\n <li>(b) Median<\/li>\n <li>(c) Mode<\/li>\n <li>(d) Range<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) Mean<\/b> The mean is the most stable measure across repeated samples from the same population because it is computed from every score. The mode is the least stable and the range depends on only two scores.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>86<\/span>Statement-I: Each individual score contributes to the calculation of the \"Mean\". Statement-II: \"Mean\" is a measure of Central Tendency.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Both correct and II explains I<\/li>\n <li>(b) Both correct but II does not explain I<\/li>\n <li>(c) I correct, II incorrect<\/li>\n <li>(d) I incorrect, II correct<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Both correct, II does not explain I<\/b> Both statements are true, but II does not explain I. Being a measure of central tendency is not the reason every score enters the calculation \u2014 the median and mode are also measures of central tendency, and they do not use every score.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 II, I \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>89<\/span>In which cases is median preferred to mean? 1. When distribution is skewed 2. When dealing with ordinal data 3. When data distribution is continuous 4. When data is normally distributed<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 2 and 4 only<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1 and 2 only<\/b> The median is preferred when extreme scores would drag the mean (skewed data) and when the data are only ordinal, since ordinal intervals are unequal and a mean is not legitimate. For continuous and normally distributed data the mean is preferred.<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0924\u092c \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0916\u0940\u0902\u091a \u0932\u0947\u0902 (\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091c\u092c \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4, \u00a71.7 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>107<\/span>When variables are measured on a nominal scale, the best measure of Central Tendency is:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Arithmetic Mean<\/li>\n <li>(b) Mode<\/li>\n <li>(c) Median<\/li>\n <li>(d) Harmonic Mean<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Mode<\/b> Nominal data are only labels \u2014 they cannot be ordered or added, so neither median nor mean is computable. Only the most frequently occurring category, the mode, is meaningful. The rule: nominal \u2192 mode, ordinal \u2192 median, interval and ratio \u2192 mean.<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0928 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940, \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e: \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u2192 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4, \u00a71.7, \u00a74.15 F \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>87<\/span>The median and standard deviation of a distribution are 25 and 2.5. If each item is increased by 10, how are they affected?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Median becomes 35, SD remains unchanged<\/li>\n <li>(b) Both remain unchanged<\/li>\n <li>(c) Median becomes 35, SD becomes 12.5<\/li>\n <li>(d) Median unchanged, SD becomes 12.5<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a)<\/b> Adding a constant shifts the whole distribution: every measure of position (mean, median, mode) rises by that constant, but every measure of spread (SD, range, QD) is unchanged, because deviations are taken from the mean and both rise together.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0916\u093f\u0938\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915) \u0909\u0938 \u0905\u091a\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a (SD, \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938, QD) \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 E \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>96<\/span>The mean of four numbers is 17.5. The mean of the smaller three is 15. If the range is 15, what is the mean of the larger three?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 27.5<\/li>\n <li>(b) 25<\/li>\n <li>(c) 22.5<\/li>\n <li>(d) 20<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 20<\/b> Total of all four = 4 \u00d7 17.5 = 70. Total of smaller three = 3 \u00d7 15 = 45, so the largest = 25. Range 15 means the smallest = 25 \u2212 15 = 10. Total of larger three = 70 \u2212 10 = 60, so their mean = 60 \u00f7 3 = 20.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 = 4 \u00d7 17.5 = 70\u0964 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 = 3 \u00d7 15 = 45, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e = 25\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 15 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 = 25 \u2212 15 = 10\u0964 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 = 70 \u2212 10 = 60, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f = 60 \u00f7 3 = 20\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-44\">\n 4.5<\/span>\n <h3>Measures of Variability (Dispersion)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e (\u0905\u092a\u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923) \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf Why a mean alone is never enough<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n Two classes both have a mean of 50. In Class A the scores run 48, 49, 50, 51, 52<\/strong>; in Class B they run 20, 35, 50, 65, 80<\/strong>. The mean describes A perfectly and B not at all. Central tendency locates the middle; variability shows how far the scores stray from it.<\/strong> A complete description of any distribution needs both<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e A \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 48, 49, 50, 51, 52<\/strong>; \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e B \u0915\u0947 20, 35, 50, 65, 80<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f A \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 B \u0915\u093e \u092c\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u092d\u091f\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Range<\/span>\u0915. \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Range \u2014 the crudest measure<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932\u0924\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n R = H \u2212 L<\/span>\n R = H \u2212 L<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n H<\/b> = highest score \u00b7 L<\/b> = lowest score. Merit:<\/b> instantly computed and understood. Demerit:<\/b> it uses only two<\/b> scores and ignores everything between them, so a single extreme case can treble it. Use it only for a rough first impression.<\/span>\n H<\/b> = \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u00b7 L<\/b> = \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964 \u0917\u0941\u0923:<\/b> \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0927\u0917\u092e\u094d\u092f\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0937:<\/b> \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b<\/b> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092c \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0924\u093f\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Quartile Deviation (Semi-Interquartile Range)<\/span>\u0916. \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938)<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Quartile deviation \u2014 the partner of the median<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0940<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Q = ( Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub> ) \/ 2<\/span>\n Q = ( Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub> ) \/ 2<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Q1<\/sub><\/b> = first quartile, the point below which 25 per cent<\/b> of cases lie \u00b7 Q3<\/sub><\/b> = third quartile, below which 75 per cent<\/b> lie. Both are found by the percentile formula of \u00a74.11, using N\/4 and 3N\/4 in place of N\/2. Q is the measure that goes with the median<\/b>, exactly as the SD goes with the mean. Use it when the distribution is skewed<\/b> or has open-ended classes<\/b>, because like the median it is unaffected by extreme scores.<\/span>\n Q1<\/sub><\/b> = \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915, \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 25 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/b> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u00b7 Q3<\/sub><\/b> = \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 75 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u00a74.11 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 N\/2 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 N\/4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 3N\/4 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 Q \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/b> \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 SD \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u092c \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/b> \u0939\u094b \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0901\u0924\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. Average Deviation (Mean Deviation)<\/span>\u0917. \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928)<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Average deviation<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n AD = \u03a3 | x | \/ N where x = X \u2212 M<\/span>\n AD = \u03a3 | x | \/ N \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 x = X \u2212 M<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n The mean of the deviations from the mean, signs ignored<\/b>. The signs must be ignored because, as noted above, the sum of the actual deviations from the mean is always zero. Merit:<\/b> it uses every score and is easy to understand. Demerit:<\/b> discarding the signs is algebraically awkward, so AD cannot be used in further computation \u2014 which is why the SD replaced it.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f<\/b>\u0964 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0917\u0941\u0923:<\/b> \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0937:<\/b> \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 AD \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f SD \u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>D. Standard Deviation \u2014 the most important measure<\/span>\u0918. \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Standard deviation (\u03c3 or SD) \u2014 memorize both forms<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u03c3 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e SD) \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Ungrouped: \u03c3 = \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \/ N ) where x = X \u2212 M Grouped: \u03c3 = \u221a ( \u03a3f<\/em>x\u00b2 \/ N ) Variance = \u03c3\u00b2<\/span><\/span>\n \u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924: \u03c3 = \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \/ N ) \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 x = X \u2212 M \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924: \u03c3 = \u221a ( \u03a3f<\/em>x\u00b2 \/ N ) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 = \u03c3\u00b2<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n The square root of the mean of the squared deviations from the mean<\/b>. Squaring solves the problem the AD dodged: it removes the signs algebraically<\/b> rather than by fiat, so the SD can be carried into every later formula \u2014 correlation, Z-scores, T-scores, reliability and validity all rest on it. The variance<\/b> is simply \u03c3\u00b2 \u2014 the SD before the square root is taken.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e\u0942\u0932<\/b>\u0964 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 AD \u092c\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e: \u092f\u0939 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/b> \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 SD \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923<\/b> \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u03c3\u00b2 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e SD\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Standard Deviation (ungrouped)<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u0905\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924)<\/span><\/span>\n \n Ten pupils score: 20, 22, 25, 25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 45<\/strong>. Find the mean and the standard deviation.<\/span>\n \u0926\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915: 20, 22, 25, 25, 28, 30, 32, 35, 38, 45<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">X<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">20<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">22<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">25<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">25<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">28<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">30<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">32<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">35<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">38<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">45<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">\u03a3<\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">x = X \u2212 30<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u221210<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22128<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22125<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22125<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">15<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">x\u00b2<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">100<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">64<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">64<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">225<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">536<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>\u03a3X = 300, N = 10<\/strong>, so M = 300\/10 = 30<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03a3X = 300, N = 10<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 M = 300\/10 = 30<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Note the check: \u03a3x = 0<\/strong>, confirming the mean is correct. This check should always be made.<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902: \u03a3x = 0<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>\u03a3x\u00b2 = 536<\/strong>, so variance \u03c3\u00b2 = 536\/10 = 53.6<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03a3x\u00b2 = 536<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u03c3\u00b2 = 536\/10 = 53.6<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>\u03c3 = \u221a53.6 = 7.32<\/strong><\/span>\u03c3 = \u221a53.6 = 7.32<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The scores cluster round 30, straying on average about 7.3 marks<\/strong> either side. Roughly two-thirds of a normal group would lie between 22.7 and 37.3<\/strong> (M \u00b1 1\u03c3).<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 30 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0928 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 7.3 \u0905\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092d\u091f\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0926\u094b-\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0908 22.7 \u090f\u0935\u0902 37.3<\/strong> (M \u00b1 1\u03c3) \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0917\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Measure<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Range<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Quickest to compute; easily understood; useful for quality-control style checks.<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930; \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u094b\u0927\u0917\u092e\u094d\u092f; \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Uses only two scores; wholly at the mercy of one extreme case; cannot be used further.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930; \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Quartile deviation<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Unaffected by extreme scores; usable with open-ended classes; the natural partner of the median.<\/span>\u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924; \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Ignores the extreme 50 per cent of cases entirely; not suited to algebraic treatment.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0940 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e; \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Average deviation<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Uses every score; simple in meaning; less affected by extremes than the SD.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932; SD \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Signs are discarded arbitrarily, so it is algebraically unusable in later formulae.<\/span>\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Standard deviation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The most reliable and most widely used;<\/strong> uses every score; algebraically sound; the basis of correlation, Z- and T-scores, the normal curve, reliability and validity.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924;<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c; \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, Z- \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Hardest to compute by hand; and because deviations are squared, it is the most affected by extreme scores<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Variability<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>106<\/span>What is the standard deviation of the data 15, 12, 6, 14, 18?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 4<\/li>\n <li>(b) 6<\/li>\n <li>(c) 8<\/li>\n <li>(d) 16<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 4<\/b> \u03a3X = 65, N = 5, so M = 13. Deviations: 2, \u22121, \u22127, 1, 5 (\u03a3x = 0, check passes). Squares: 4, 1, 49, 1, 25, so \u03a3x\u00b2 = 80. Variance = 80\/5 = 16, and \u03c3 = \u221a16 = 4.<\/span>\u03a3X = 65, N = 5, \u0905\u0924\u0903 M = 13\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928: 2, \u22121, \u22127, 1, 5 (\u03a3x = 0, \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u092b\u0932)\u0964 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917: 4, 1, 49, 1, 25, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u03a3x\u00b2 = 80\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 = 80\/5 = 16, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u03c3 = \u221a16 = 4\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.4.1 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>108<\/span>Four sections have mean marks 30, 40, 36, 25 and standard deviations 6, 12, 9, 8. Which shows the lowest variability?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Section A<\/li>\n <li>(b) Section B<\/li>\n <li>(c) Section C<\/li>\n <li>(d) Section D<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) Section A<\/b> SD alone cannot compare groups with different means \u2014 use the coefficient of variation, CV = (\u03c3\/M) \u00d7 100. A: 6\/30 = 20%; B: 12\/40 = 30%; C: 9\/36 = 25%; D: 8\/25 = 32%. Section A has the lowest CV and therefore the lowest variability.<\/span>\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 SD \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 CV = (\u03c3\/M) \u00d7 100 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 A: 6\/30 = 20%; B: 12\/40 = 30%; C: 9\/36 = 25%; D: 8\/25 = 32%\u0964 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 A \u0915\u093e CV \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.15 D \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-45\">\n 4.6<\/span>\n <h3>Short-Cut Methods and the Combined Mean<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. The assumed mean (short-cut) method<\/span>\u0915. \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f (\u0932\u0918\u0941) \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Mean and SD by the step-deviation method<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n M = A + ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032 \/ N ) \u00d7 i<\/em> \u03c3 = i<\/em> \u221a [ ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032\u00b2 \/ N ) \u2212 ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032 \/ N )\u00b2 ]<\/span>\n M = A + ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032 \/ N ) \u00d7 i<\/em> \u03c3 = i<\/em> \u221a [ ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032\u00b2 \/ N ) \u2212 ( \u03a3f<\/em>d\u2032 \/ N )\u00b2 ]<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n A<\/b> = assumed mean, the midpoint of any convenient class (usually the one with the highest frequency) \u00b7 d\u2032<\/b> = (X \u2212 A)\/i<\/em>, the step deviation of each class from A, expressed in whole steps \u00b7 i<\/b> = class interval. The direct method of \u00a74.4 requires large midpoints to be multiplied by frequencies. The short-cut method replaces those midpoints with the small whole numbers \u2026 \u22123, \u22122, \u22121, 0, +1, +2, +3 \u2026<\/b>, which can be handled mentally. The answer is identical<\/b>; only the arithmetic is lighter. This is why the method survives in examination halls where calculators are not allowed.<\/span>\n A<\/b> = \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e) \u00b7 d\u2032<\/b> = (X \u2212 A)\/i<\/em>, A \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u00b7 i<\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u0964 \u00a74.4 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2026 \u22123, \u22122, \u22121, 0, +1, +2, +3 \u2026<\/b> \u0930\u0916 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/b>; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0932\u094d\u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0948\u0932\u0915\u0941\u0932\u0947\u091f\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 the running distribution again<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n Take A = 54.5<\/strong> (midpoint of the modal class 50\u201359) and i<\/em> = 10.<\/span>A = 54.5<\/strong> (\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 50\u201359 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941) \u0924\u0925\u093e i<\/em> = 10 \u0932\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr><th class=\"narrow\">Class<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/span><\/th><th class=\"narrow\">X<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">f<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">d\u2032<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">fd\u2032<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">fd\u2032\u00b2<\/th><\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">80\u201389<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">84.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">70\u201379<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">74.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">60\u201369<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">64.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">50\u201359<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">54.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">40\u201349<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">44.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u221210<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">30\u201339<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">34.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u221212<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">20\u201329<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24.5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22123<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u221212<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u03a3<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">138<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>M = 54.5 + (\u22122\/50) \u00d7 10 = 54.5 \u2212 0.4 = 54.1<\/strong> \u2014 exactly the value obtained by the direct method in \u00a74.4.<\/span>M = 54.5 + (\u22122\/50) \u00d7 10 = 54.5 \u2212 0.4 = 54.1<\/strong> \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u00a74.4 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>\u03c3 = 10 \u221a[(138\/50) \u2212 (\u22122\/50)\u00b2] = 10 \u221a(2.76 \u2212 0.0016) = 10 \u221a2.7584 = 10 \u00d7 1.661 = 16.61<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03c3 = 10 \u221a[(138\/50) \u2212 (\u22122\/50)\u00b2] = 10 \u221a(2.76 \u2212 0.0016) = 10 \u221a2.7584 = 10 \u00d7 1.661 = 16.61<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Notice that no number larger than 36 was ever handled, against midpoints running to 84.5 in the direct method. Same answer, far less arithmetic.<\/strong><\/span>\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f 36 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0932\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0940, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 84.5 \u0924\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930, \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. The combined mean of two or more groups<\/span>\u0916. \u0926\u094b \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Pooling groups \u2014 a weighted mean again<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u2014 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Mc<\/sub> = ( N1<\/sub>M1<\/sub> + N2<\/sub>M2<\/sub> ) \/ ( N1<\/sub> + N2<\/sub> )<\/span>\n Mc<\/sub> = ( N1<\/sub>M1<\/sub> + N2<\/sub>M2<\/sub> ) \/ ( N1<\/sub> + N2<\/sub> )<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Each group's mean is weighted by its own size<\/b> before pooling. This is the same weighted mean that gives the Semester Grade Point Average (SGPA) in \u00a76.3, with N in place of credits. The error to avoid:<\/b> simply averaging the two means. That is correct only<\/em> when the two groups are of equal size. Worked:<\/b> Section A, N = 40, M = 60; Section B, N = 60, M = 50. Mc<\/sub> = (40\u00d760 + 60\u00d750)\/100 = (2400 + 3000)\/100 = 54<\/b>. The naive average would have given 55 \u2014 wrong, because the weaker section is the larger one.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u00a76.3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924 (SGPA) \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 N \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f:<\/b> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0927\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u0924\u092d\u0940<\/em> \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u0939\u0932:<\/b> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 A, N = 40, M = 60; \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 B, N = 60, M = 50\u0964 Mc<\/sub> = (40\u00d760 + 60\u00d750)\/100 = (2400 + 3000)\/100 = 54<\/b>\u0964 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 55 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0939\u0940 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-5\">\n 4.7<\/span>\n <h3>Coefficient of Correlation<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Correlation<\/strong> is the relationship or correspondence between two sets of scores<\/strong> obtained from the same group of individuals. The coefficient of correlation (r)<\/strong> expresses that relationship as a single number lying between \u22121.00 and +1.00<\/strong>. Its sign<\/strong> shows the direction<\/em> of the relationship and its size<\/strong> shows the strength<\/em>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 (r)<\/strong> \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u094b \u22121.00 \u0938\u0947 +1.00<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e<\/em> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n +1<\/span>\n <h6>Perfect positive<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n Both scores rise and fall together, without exception.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947-\u0918\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n +<\/span>\n <h6>Positive<\/span>\u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n High with high, low with low \u2014 e.g. study hours and marks.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a, \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928-\u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n 0<\/span>\n <h6>Zero<\/span>\u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h6>\n No relationship whatever \u2014 e.g. shoe size and intelligence.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0942\u0924\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u22121<\/span>\n <h6>Negative<\/span>\u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n One rises as the other falls \u2014 e.g. absence from school and achievement.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Product-Moment Method (Karl Pearson's r)<\/span>\u0915. \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f (\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r)<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Pearson's coefficient of correlation \u2014 deviation form<\/span>\u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n r = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2 ) where x = X \u2212 Mx<\/sub> and y = Y \u2212 My<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n r = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a ( \u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2 ) \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 x = X \u2212 Mx<\/sub> \u0924\u0925\u093e y = Y \u2212 My<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Used when both variables are measured on an interval or ratio<\/b> scale, the relationship is linear<\/b>, and N is reasonably large. It is the most reliable and most widely used<\/b> method \u2014 and note that it is built entirely out of deviations from the mean<\/b>, which is why the mean and SD had to be learnt first. Every reliability and validity coefficient in Unit 5 is a Pearson r.<\/span>\n \u0924\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091c\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/b> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915<\/b> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u0925\u093e N \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/b> \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Pearson's r<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/span><\/span>\n \n Five pupils obtain the following marks in a test of reasoning (X) and in Mathematics (Y). Compute the coefficient of correlation.<\/span>\n \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (X) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 (Y) \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Pupil<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">X<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">Y<\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">x = X \u2212 6<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">y = Y \u2212 8<\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">x\u00b2<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">y\u00b2<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">xy<\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">A<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22124<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22125<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">16<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">B<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">C<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22123<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">D<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">11<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">E<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">14<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">16<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">24<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u03a3<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">30<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">80<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">52<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Mx<\/sub> = 30\/5 = 6<\/strong> and My<\/sub> = 40\/5 = 8<\/strong>. Both \u03a3x and \u03a3y come to zero \u2014 the check passes.<\/span>Mx<\/sub> = 30\/5 = 6<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e My<\/sub> = 40\/5 = 8<\/strong>\u0964 \u03a3x \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u03a3y \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>\u03a3xy = 52, \u03a3x\u00b2 = 40, \u03a3y\u00b2 = 80.<\/strong><\/span>\u03a3xy = 52, \u03a3x\u00b2 = 40, \u03a3y\u00b2 = 80\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>r = 52 \/ \u221a(40 \u00d7 80) = 52 \/ \u221a3200 = 52 \/ 56.57<\/span>r = 52 \/ \u221a(40 \u00d7 80) = 52 \/ \u221a3200 = 52 \/ 56.57<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>r = + 0.92<\/strong><\/span>r = + 0.92<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>A high positive correlation<\/strong>: pupils who reason well also tend to do well in Mathematics. It does not<\/strong> follow that reasoning ability causes<\/em> the mathematics marks.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong>: \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0935\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Rank-Difference Method (Spearman's rho)<\/span>\u0916. \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f (\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e rho)<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Spearman's rank-order correlation<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n \u03c1 = 1 \u2212 [ 6 \u03a3D\u00b2 \/ N ( N\u00b2 \u2212 1 ) ]<\/span>\n \u03c1 = 1 \u2212 [ 6 \u03a3D\u00b2 \/ N ( N\u00b2 \u2212 1 ) ]<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n D<\/b> = difference between the two ranks given to the same individual \u00b7 N<\/b> = number of individuals. Used when the data are ordinal<\/b> \u2014 ranks, merit positions, judges' orders \u2014 or when N is small<\/b> (usually under 30), or when the raw scores are not available. Recall from \u00a71.7 that ordinal data have unequal intervals<\/b>, which is exactly why the product-moment method cannot be applied to them.<\/span>\n D<\/b> = \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0926\u094b \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u00b7 N<\/b> = \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0924\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091c\u092c \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u2014 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e N \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e<\/b> \u0939\u094b (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 30 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e), \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u00a71.7 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Spearman's rho<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e rho<\/span><\/span>\n \n Two judges rank five candidates in a debate. Find the agreement between them.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Candidate<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">A<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">B<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">C<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">D<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">E<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">\u03a3<\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Judge 1<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 1<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Judge 2<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 2<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">D<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">D\u00b2<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>\u03a3D\u00b2 = 4<\/strong> and N = 5<\/strong>. (Note that \u03a3D must always be 0 \u2014 a useful check.)<\/span>\u03a3D\u00b2 = 4<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e N = 5<\/strong>\u0964 (\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u03a3D \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 0 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0939\u0948\u0964)<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>N(N\u00b2 \u2212 1) = 5 \u00d7 (25 \u2212 1) = 5 \u00d7 24 = 120<\/strong>.<\/span>N(N\u00b2 \u2212 1) = 5 \u00d7 (25 \u2212 1) = 5 \u00d7 24 = 120<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>\u03c1 = 1 \u2212 (6 \u00d7 4)\/120 = 1 \u2212 24\/120 = 1 \u2212 0.20<\/span>\u03c1 = 1 \u2212 (6 \u00d7 4)\/120 = 1 \u2212 24\/120 = 1 \u2212 0.20<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>\u03c1 = + 0.80<\/strong><\/span>\u03c1 = + 0.80<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The two judges show high agreement<\/strong>. This is exactly how the objectivity of scoring<\/strong> discussed in \u00a72.1 is actually measured \u2014 by correlating two independent examiners' marks.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a72.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0915\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. Interpreting the coefficient<\/span>\u0917. \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Value of r<\/span>r \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Degree of relationship<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Typical educational use<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.00 \u2013 0.20<\/td><td>Negligible or indifferent<\/span>\u0928\u0917\u0923\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0938\u0940\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>Effectively no relationship worth acting on.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.20 \u2013 0.40<\/td><td>Low or slight<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/td><td>Present but too weak for individual prediction.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.40 \u2013 0.60<\/td><td>Substantial or marked<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/td><td>Acceptable for a validity<\/strong> coefficient (Unit 5).<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5)\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.60 \u2013 0.80<\/td><td>High<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/span><\/td><td>Good group prediction; a fair reliability coefficient.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928; \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">\u00b10.80 \u2013 1.00<\/td><td>Very high to perfect<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u093f \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Expected of a reliability<\/strong> coefficient for a standardized test.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Four cautions \u2014 every one of them is an examination point<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Correlation is not causation.<\/strong> Ice-cream sales and drowning deaths correlate strongly \u2014 because both rise in summer. A third variable often explains both.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0906\u0907\u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092e-\u092c\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0921\u0942\u092c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0943\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0941 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0937\u094d\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0938\u0930\u093e \u091a\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>r is not a percentage.<\/strong> An r of 0.60 does not mean 60 per cent agreement. To speak of shared variation, square it: r\u00b2 = 0.36<\/strong>, i.e. 36 per cent of the variance is common.<\/span>r \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> 0.60 \u0915\u093e r 60 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f: r\u00b2 = 0.36<\/strong>, \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d 36 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0909\u092d\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>A negative r is not a weak r.<\/strong> \u22120.85 is a stronger<\/em> relationship than +0.40; only the direction differs.<\/span>\u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 r \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 r \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u22120.85, +0.40 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932<\/em> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Pearson's r assumes linearity.<\/strong> If the relationship is curved \u2014 as between anxiety and performance, which rises then falls \u2014 r will understate it badly and may even come out near zero.<\/span>\u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0924\u094b r \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u092d\u0940 \u0906 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-51\">\n 4.8<\/span>\n <h3>Choosing the Right Coefficient, and Prediction from Correlation<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Pearson's r<\/em> and Spearman's \u03c1<\/em> are the two ordinarily computed, but they are not the only coefficients. Which one is correct depends entirely on the level of measurement of the two variables<\/strong> \u2014 the scales of \u00a71.7 decide the statistic, exactly as they decided the measure of central tendency.<\/span>\n \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1<\/em> \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u00a71.7 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0924\u092f \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Coefficient<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Use it when the two variables are<\/span>\u0924\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Educational example<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\">\n <td>Product-moment r<\/em><\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 r<\/em><\/span><\/strong> Karl Pearson<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Both continuous<\/strong>, on an interval or ratio scale, and the relationship linear<\/strong><\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong>, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Marks in Mathematics against marks in Science<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\">\n <td>Rank-difference \u03c1<\/em><\/span>\u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u03c1<\/em><\/span><\/strong> Spearman<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Both ordinal<\/strong> (ranks), or N is small<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/strong> (\u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901), \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e N \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Two judges' rank orders of the same candidates<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Biserial r<\/em>bis<\/sub><\/span>\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 r<\/em>bis<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>One continuous<\/strong>, one artificially dichotomized<\/strong> \u2014 a continuous trait forced into two categories<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong>, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094b \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Total test score against pass\/fail, where pass\/fail was cut from a continuous mark<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u091f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Point-biserial r<\/em>pbis<\/sub><\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941-\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 r<\/em>pbis<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>One continuous<\/strong>, one genuinely dichotomous<\/strong> \u2014 a true two-category variable<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong>, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0926\u094b-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Item analysis:<\/strong> total test score against right\/wrong on a single item \u2014 the modern index of item discrimination<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923:<\/strong> \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0940\/\u0917\u0932\u0924 \u2014 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Phi coefficient \u03c6<\/em><\/span>\u092b\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u03c6<\/em><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Both genuinely dichotomous<\/strong><\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Right\/wrong on item 5 against right\/wrong on item 12<\/span>\u092a\u0926 5 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0940\/\u0917\u0932\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092a\u0926 12 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0940\/\u0917\u0932\u0924<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Tetrachoric r<\/em>t<\/sub><\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0937\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0930\u093f\u0915 r<\/em>t<\/sub><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Both artificially dichotomized<\/strong> from underlying continuous traits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Pass\/fail in English against pass\/fail in Hindi<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Contingency coefficient C<\/em><\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0938\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 C<\/em><\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Both nominal<\/strong>, in categories; computed from chi-square<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/strong>, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Stream chosen (Arts\/Science\/Commerce) against gender<\/span>\u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 (\u0915\u0932\u093e\/\u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\/\u0935\u093e\u0923\u093f\u091c\u094d\u092f) \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Correlation ratio \u03b7<\/em> (eta)<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u03b7<\/em> (\u0908\u091f\u093e)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Both continuous but the relationship is non-linear (curved)<\/strong><\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0905\u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915 (\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0915\u093e\u0930)<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Anxiety against performance, which rises and then falls<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The distinction that decides most questions: genuine versus artificial dichotomy.<\/strong> A genuine<\/strong> dichotomy has only two states in nature \u2014 right\/wrong, present\/absent, alive\/dead. An artificial<\/strong> dichotomy is a continuous trait cut<\/em> into two \u2014 pass\/fail from marks, tall\/short from height. Match them: genuine + continuous \u2192 point-biserial; artificial + continuous \u2192 biserial; genuine + genuine \u2192 phi; artificial + artificial \u2192 tetrachoric.<\/strong> Note also that the point-biserial correlation is what a computer reports as the discrimination index<\/strong> in \u00a73.9, in place of the hand-computed D.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0939 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u0940\/\u0917\u0932\u0924, \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u0940\u0935\u093f\u0924\/\u092e\u0943\u0924\u0964 \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u091f\u093e<\/em> \u0917\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\/\u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f: \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 + \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u2192 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941-\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915; \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e + \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u2192 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915; \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 + \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092b\u093e\u0908; \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e + \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u2192 \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0937\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u00a73.9 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 D \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941-\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Prediction: regression and the coefficient of determination<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928: \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">From correlation to prediction<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0924\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Regression equation: Y = r<\/em> ( \u03c3y<\/sub> \/ \u03c3x<\/sub> ) ( X \u2212 Mx<\/sub> ) + My<\/sub> Coefficient of determination = r<\/em>\u00b2<\/span><\/span>\n \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923: Y = r<\/em> ( \u03c3y<\/sub> \/ \u03c3x<\/sub> ) ( X \u2212 Mx<\/sub> ) + My<\/sub> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 = r<\/em>\u00b2<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Correlation only describes<\/b> a relationship; regression predicts<\/b> one variable from the other, and it is the statistical machinery behind the predictive validity<\/b> of \u00a72.2 and the prognosis function of \u00a71.7. The coefficient of determination r\u00b2<\/b> states what proportion of the variance in Y is accounted for<\/b> by X. If r = 0.60, then r\u00b2 = 0.36 \u2014 36 per cent<\/b> of the variation is shared and 64 per cent is not<\/b>. This is the correct way to state the strength of a correlation in words, and it is why \"an r of 0.60 means 60 per cent agreement\" is wrong.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/b> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0923<\/b> \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/b> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a72.2 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/b> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u00a71.7 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 r\u00b2<\/b> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f Y \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 X \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f r = 0.60 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b r\u00b2 = 0.36 \u2014 36 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/b> \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e 64 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/b>\u0964 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \"0.60 \u0915\u093e r 60 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-61\">\n 4.9<\/span>\n <h3>Skewness and Kurtosis<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Central tendency describes the centre<\/strong>, variability the spread<\/strong>. Two measures remain, and together they describe the shape<\/strong>: skewness<\/strong> is the departure from symmetry, kurtosis<\/strong> the degree of peakedness.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Skewness<\/span>\u0915. \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Coefficient of skewness<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Sk = 3 ( M \u2212 Md ) \/ \u03c3 Percentile method: Sk = [ ( P90<\/sub> + P10<\/sub> ) \/ 2 ] \u2212 P50<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n Sk = 3 ( M \u2212 Md ) \/ \u03c3 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f: Sk = [ ( P90<\/sub> + P10<\/sub> ) \/ 2 ] \u2212 P50<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Sk = 0<\/b> \u2192 the distribution is symmetrical<\/b> and M = Md = Mo. Sk positive<\/b> \u2192 the tail runs to the right<\/b>; the mean is pulled above the median; most scores are low<\/b>, so the test was too difficult<\/b>. Sk negative<\/b> \u2192 the tail runs to the left<\/b>; the mean falls below the median; most scores are high<\/b>, so the test was too easy<\/b>.<\/span>\n Sk = 0<\/b> \u2192 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e M = Md = Mo\u0964 Sk \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/b> \u2192 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940<\/b> \u0913\u0930; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0916\u093f\u0902\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928<\/b>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/b> \u0925\u093e\u0964 Sk \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/b> \u2192 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u092c\u093e\u0908\u0902<\/b> \u0913\u0930; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/b>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/b> \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 Skewness of the running distribution<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>From \u00a74.4: M = 54.1<\/strong> and Md = 53.67<\/strong>. Take \u03c3 \u2248 15.5 for this distribution.<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u0938\u0947: M = 54.1<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e Md = 53.67<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u03c3 \u2248 15.5 \u0932\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Sk = 3(54.1 \u2212 53.67)\/15.5 = 3(0.43)\/15.5 = 1.29\/15.5<\/span>Sk = 3(54.1 \u2212 53.67)\/15.5 = 3(0.43)\/15.5 = 1.29\/15.5<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Sk = + 0.08<\/strong><\/span>Sk = + 0.08<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Very slightly positively skewed<\/strong> \u2014 near enough to zero that the distribution may be treated as symmetrical. The order Mo (52.83) < Md (53.67) < M (54.1)<\/strong> is itself the signature of positive skew.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 Mo (52.83) < Md (53.67) < M (54.1)<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n How to read skewness as a teacher.<\/strong> A positively skewed<\/strong> set of class results means the paper was too hard \u2014 a heap of low scores with a few high ones trailing to the right. A negatively skewed<\/strong> set means it was too easy. A well-constructed test on an unselected group should produce a near-symmetrical<\/strong> distribution \u2014 which is precisely why item analysis (\u00a73.9) keeps items with difficulty values between 40 and 60 per cent.<\/span>\n \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0947\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0925\u093e \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0922\u0947\u0930 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u0905\u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 (\u00a73.9) 40 \u0938\u0947 60 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Kurtosis<\/span>\u0916. \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Coefficient of kurtosis (percentile method)<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 (\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f)<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Ku = Q \/ ( P90<\/sub> \u2212 P10<\/sub> ) where Q = ( Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub> ) \/ 2<\/span>\n Ku = Q \/ ( P90<\/sub> \u2212 P10<\/sub> ) \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 Q = ( Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub> ) \/ 2<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n For a normal curve, Ku = 0.263<\/b> \u2014 this figure must be memorized, since every interpretation is made against it. Ku > 0.263<\/b> \u2192 platykurtic<\/b>: flatter and more spread out than normal. Ku < 0.263<\/b> \u2192 leptokurtic<\/b>: more sharply peaked, scores crowded near the mean. Ku = 0.263<\/b> \u2192 mesokurtic<\/b>: normal.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 Ku = 0.263<\/b> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 Ku > 0.263<\/b> \u2192 \u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/b>: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964 Ku < 0.263<\/b> \u2192 \u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/b>: \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923 \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0938\u0918\u0928\u0964 Ku = 0.263<\/b> \u2192 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/b>: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Leptokurtic<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Tall and narrow.<\/strong> Scores crowd close to the mean, so variability is low<\/strong> \u2014 typical of a homogeneous<\/strong> group, such as a selected section.<\/span>\u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0938\u0918\u0928, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Mesokurtic<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Normal.<\/strong> The bell curve of \u00a74.10 exactly; Ku = 0.263.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a74.10 \u0915\u093e \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930; Ku = 0.263\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Platykurtic<\/span>\u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Flat and wide.<\/strong> Scores spread far from the mean, so variability is high<\/strong> \u2014 typical of a heterogeneous<\/strong> group of mixed ability.<\/span>\u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u094c\u0921\u093c\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Skewness and test interpretation<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>95<\/span>Consider: 1. In a positively skewed distribution, the mean falls to the left of the median. 2. In a negatively skewed distribution, the mean falls to the right of the median.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) Neither is correct<\/b> Both statements are reversed. In positive skew the tail runs right and the mean is pulled above<\/em> (to the right of) the median; in negative skew the mean falls below<\/em> (to the left of) it. Remember the order: positive skew gives Mo < Md < M.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0909\u0932\u091f\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930<\/em> (\u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940 \u0913\u0930) \u0916\u093f\u0902\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947<\/em> (\u092c\u093e\u0908\u0902 \u0913\u0930) \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902: \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 Mo < Md < M\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.9 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>102<\/span>Consider: 1. If median and mode of marks are low, the test is very hard. 2. If the spread of marks is large and reliability is low, then standard error is also low.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) Both 1 and 2<\/li>\n <li>(d) Neither 1 nor 2<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1 only<\/b> Statement 1 is correct \u2014 low central tendency means most pupils scored low, so the paper was too difficult (positive skew). Statement 2 is wrong: SE\u2098 = \u03c3\u221a(1 \u2212 r), so a large spread and low reliability both make the standard error large<\/em>, not low.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 1 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u092e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 (\u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e)\u0964 \u0915\u0925\u0928 2 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0939\u0948: SE\u2098 = \u03c3\u221a(1 \u2212 r), \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.9, \u00a74.15 D \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-7\">\n 4.10<\/span>\n <h3>Normal Probability Curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What it is<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n The normal probability curve (NPC)<\/strong> is a bell-shaped, perfectly symmetrical<\/strong> curve that describes how most human traits are distributed when a large, unselected population is measured. It was developed from the work of De Moivre, Laplace and Karl Gauss<\/strong> \u2014 hence its other name, the Gaussian curve<\/strong>. It is called a probability<\/em> curve because the area under any portion of it gives the probability of a case falling in that range<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 (NPC)<\/strong> \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940, \u0905\u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0921\u0940 \u092e\u0949\u092f\u0935\u0930, \u0932\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0932\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932 \u0917\u0949\u0938<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0917\u0949\u0938\u0940\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Characteristics of the normal curve<\/span>\u0915. \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>It is bell-shaped and perfectly symmetrical<\/strong> about a vertical line through the centre \u2014 the left half is the mirror image of the right.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u091c\u093c\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u090a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u094d\u0935 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0927\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u092a\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>The mean, median and mode all coincide<\/strong> at the centre. This follows from the symmetry and is the surest test of normality.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0938\u094c\u091f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>It is unimodal<\/strong> \u2014 it has only one peak, at the mean.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>It is asymptotic<\/strong>: the tails approach the base line but never touch it, since theoretically the curve extends to infinity in both directions<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930-\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915<\/strong> \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Its skewness is zero and its kurtosis is 0.263<\/strong> \u2014 it is mesokurtic by definition.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e 0.263<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>The total area under the curve is taken as 1.00, or 100 per cent<\/strong>, and is divided by the standard deviation into fixed, known proportions.<\/span>\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 1.00 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e 100 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>7<\/span>The maximum ordinate<\/strong> stands at the mean, and the curve has points of inflection at \u00b11\u03c3<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u00b11\u03c3 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0924\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u00b11\u03c3<\/span>\n <h6>68.26 %<\/h6>\n About two-thirds<\/strong> of all cases lie within one SD of the mean \u2014 34.13 per cent on each side.<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0926\u094b-\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 SD \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0913\u0930 34.13 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u00b12\u03c3<\/span>\n <h6>95.44 %<\/h6>\n Almost all<\/strong> cases; only about 4.6 per cent lie beyond, roughly 2.3 per cent in each tail.<\/span>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092d\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 4.6 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 2.3 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u00b13\u03c3<\/span>\n <h6>99.73 %<\/h6>\n Practically the whole<\/strong> population. A case beyond \u00b13\u03c3 is genuinely exceptional \u2014 about 3 in 1000.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u00b13\u03c3 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 1000 \u092e\u0947\u0902 3\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u00b11.96\u03c3<\/span>\n <h6>95 %<\/h6>\n The exact 95 per cent<\/strong> limit, used in tests of significance in inferential statistics.<\/span>\u0920\u0940\u0915 95 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Applications of the normal curve in education<\/span>\u0916. \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>To determine the percentage of cases<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Between any two scores, above a score, or below it \u2014 read off as area under the curve.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u2014 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>To convert raw scores<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Into Z-scores, T-scores, percentiles and stanines \u2014 the whole of \u00a74.12 rests on the NPC.<\/span>Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u00a74.12 NPC \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>To assign grades<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>The basis of \"grading on the curve\" \u2014 fixed percentages of A, B, C, D and E awarded by \u03c3-distance from the mean.<\/span>\"\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917\" \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 A, B, C, D \u090f\u0935\u0902 E \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>To compare two groups<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Distributions on different tests can be compared once both are expressed in \u03c3-units.<\/span>\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0924\u092c \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u03c3-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>To standardize a test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Norms (\u00a72.1) are built by fitting the try-out scores to the normal curve.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 (\u00a72.1) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>To interpret an IQ<\/span>IQ \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Terman's IQ bands in \u00a710.2 are simply \u03c3-distances: IQ 130 is +2\u03c3 on a scale with mean 100 and SD 15.<\/span>\u00a710.2 \u0915\u0940 \u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928 IQ \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902: 100 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 15 SD \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 IQ 130 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 +2\u03c3 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd14<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Why traits are normally distributed \u2014 the standard explanation.<\/strong> Any human trait is the outcome of a very large number of small, independent causes<\/strong>, some pushing the individual up and some down. In a large unselected group these causes cancel out for most people, who therefore cluster near the middle, while only a few individuals get an unusual run of causes in one direction. That is why height, weight, intelligence, achievement and reaction time all approach normality<\/strong> \u2014 but note that a selected group<\/strong> (a scholarship class, a special school) will not<\/em> be normal, because the selection has already removed one tail.<\/span>\n \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0927\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0905\u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0936\u0943\u0902\u0916\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0930, \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939<\/strong> (\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f) \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u091f\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 The normal curve<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>50<\/span>Which one of the following is included within the range of M \u00b1 1\u03c3 in a normal distribution?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 68.13%<\/li>\n <li>(b) 68.26%<\/li>\n <li>(c) 66.28%<\/li>\n <li>(d) 66.26%<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) 68.26%<\/b> The three figures to memorize exactly: 68.26% within \u00b11\u03c3 (34.13% each side), 95.44% within \u00b12\u03c3 and 99.73% within \u00b13\u03c3. The distractors here differ only in the decimals, so the figure must be known precisely.<\/span>\u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901: \u00b11\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 68.26% (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0913\u0930 34.13%), \u00b12\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 95.44% \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00b13\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 99.73%\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.10 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>101<\/span>The mean of a normally distributed set is 13.5 and the SD is 2.5. What does this indicate?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) About 50% of observations fall within 11 and 16<\/li>\n <li>(b) About 68% of observations fall within 11 and 16<\/li>\n <li>(c) About 95% of observations fall within 11 and 16<\/li>\n <li>(d) About 99% fall within 8.5 and 18.5<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> 11 and 16 are exactly M \u2212 1\u03c3 (13.5 \u2212 2.5) and M + 1\u03c3 (13.5 + 2.5), so about 68% of cases lie between them. Option (d) names \u00b12\u03c3 (8.5 to 18.5), which contains about 95%, not 99%.<\/span>11 \u090f\u0935\u0902 16 \u0920\u0940\u0915 M \u2212 1\u03c3 (13.5 \u2212 2.5) \u090f\u0935\u0902 M + 1\u03c3 (13.5 + 2.5) \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 68% \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0918) \u00b12\u03c3 (8.5 \u0938\u0947 18.5) \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 95% \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, 99% \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.10 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-6\">\n 4.11<\/span>\n <h3>Percentile and Percentile Rank<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Score wanted<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Percentile (P)<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 (P)<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>A point on the score scale<\/strong> below which a given percentage of cases lies.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Question: \"What score cuts off the bottom 25 per cent?\"<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928: \"\u0928\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0947 25 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Answer is a mark<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. P25<\/sub> = 42.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 P25<\/sub> = 42\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Special cases: P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, P50<\/sub> = Median, P75<\/sub> = Q3<\/sub><\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, P50<\/sub> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, P75<\/sub> = Q3<\/sub><\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">\u2194<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Rank wanted<\/span>\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Percentile Rank (PR)<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 (PR)<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>The percentage of cases lying below<\/strong> a given score.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Question: \"What percentage of the group did Rahul beat?\"<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928: \"\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e?\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Answer is a percentage<\/strong> \u2014 e.g. PR = 68.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 PR = 68\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The two are inverse operations<\/strong> \u2014 each is the other read backwards.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0932\u091f\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Percentile \u2014 note the family resemblance to the median<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Pp<\/sub> = L + [ ( pN\/100 \u2212 cf<\/em> ) \/ f<\/em> ] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/span>\n Pp<\/sub> = L + [ ( pN\/100 \u2212 cf<\/em> ) \/ f<\/em> ] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n p<\/b> = the percentile wanted \u00b7 L<\/b> = exact lower limit of the class containing it \u00b7 cf<\/b> = cumulative frequency below that class \u00b7 f<\/b> = frequency of that class \u00b7 i<\/b> = class interval. This is the median formula generalized<\/b>: put p = 50 and pN\/100 becomes N\/2, giving the median formula back exactly \u2014 one formula therefore serves for both.<\/span>\n p<\/b> = \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u00b7 L<\/b> = \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u00b7 cf<\/b> = \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 f<\/b> = \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u00b7 i<\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/b> \u0939\u0948: p = 50 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 pN\/100 \u0920\u0940\u0915 N\/2 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093e\u092a\u0938 \u092e\u093f\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 P25<\/sub> from the running distribution<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 P25<\/sub><\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>pN\/100 = 25 \u00d7 50 \/ 100 = 12.5.<\/strong> Locate the class containing the 12.5th case.<\/span>pN\/100 = 25 \u00d7 50 \/ 100 = 12.5\u0964<\/strong> 12.5\u0935\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>cf reaches 10<\/strong> at the end of 30\u201339 and 20<\/strong> at the end of 40\u201349, so the class is 40\u201349<\/strong>.<\/span>cf 30\u201339 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 10<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e 40\u201349 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 20<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 40\u201349<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>L = 39.5, cf = 10, f = 10, i = 10.<\/strong><\/span>L = 39.5, cf = 10, f = 10, i = 10\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>P25<\/sub> = 39.5 + [(12.5 \u2212 10)\/10] \u00d7 10 = 39.5 + 2.5 = 42<\/strong><\/span>P25<\/sub> = 39.5 + [(12.5 \u2212 10)\/10] \u00d7 10 = 39.5 + 2.5 = 42<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>A quarter of the class scored below 42<\/strong>. Since P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, this is also the first quartile of the distribution.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915-\u091a\u094c\u0925\u093e\u0908 \u0928\u0947 42<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Percentile rank \u2014 the reverse journey<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n PR = [ ( cf<\/em> + ( ( X \u2212 L ) \/ i<\/em> ) \u00d7 f<\/em> ) \/ N ] \u00d7 100<\/span>\n PR = [ ( cf<\/em> + ( ( X \u2212 L ) \/ i<\/em> ) \u00d7 f<\/em> ) \/ N ] \u00d7 100<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n X<\/b> = the raw score whose rank is required \u00b7 the other symbols are as before. A percentile rank is the single most useful way of reporting a score to a parent<\/b>: \"the boy scored 62\" conveys nothing, whereas \"the boy scored higher than 74 per cent of his class\" is immediately understood. It is also the form in which most standardized test norms<\/b> (\u00a72.1) are published.<\/span>\n X<\/b> = \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948 \u00b7 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0964 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/b> \u0939\u0948: \"\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u0947 62 \u092a\u093e\u090f\" \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0906\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \"\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 74 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u092f\u093e\" \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0906 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/b> (\u00a72.1) \u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-8\">\n 4.12<\/span>\n <h3>Derived Scores: Z-score, Standard Score and T-score<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915: Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf The problem derived scores solve<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n A pupil scores 72 in Mathematics<\/strong> and 60 in Hindi<\/strong>. In which subject is he better? The raw marks cannot answer, because the two tests had different means and different spreads. A derived score<\/strong> re-expresses every raw score in terms of how many standard deviations it lies from its own mean<\/strong> \u2014 and once both are in that common language, they can be compared directly.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 72<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 60<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948? \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0907\u0938 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u0942\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0924\u094b \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The three conversions \u2014 learn them as one family<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n Z = ( X \u2212 M ) \/ \u03c3 T = 50 + 10 Z General standard score = New Mean + ( New SD \u00d7 Z )<\/span><\/span>\n Z = ( X \u2212 M ) \/ \u03c3 T = 50 + 10 Z \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 = \u0928\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f + ( \u0928\u092f\u093e SD \u00d7 Z )<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n X<\/b> = raw score \u00b7 M<\/b> = mean of that test \u00b7 \u03c3<\/b> = its standard deviation. The Z-score<\/b> has mean 0 and SD 1<\/b>. It is the purest form, but it produces negative numbers and decimals<\/b>, which confuse pupils and parents \u2014 a pupil does not like being told his score is \u22121.5. The T-score<\/b> removes both nuisances by rescaling to mean 50 and SD 10<\/b>, so scores run roughly 20 to 80 and are always positive whole-ish numbers. The deviation IQ<\/b> of \u00a710.2 is the same device with mean 100 and SD 15.<\/span>\n X<\/b> = \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u00b7 M<\/b> = \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u00b7 \u03c3<\/b> = \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0964 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/b> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 1<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935<\/b> \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u22121.5 \u0939\u0948\u0964 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/b> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 10<\/b> \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092e\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 20 \u0938\u0947 80 \u0924\u0915 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u00a710.2 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/b> \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 100 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 15 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 comparing two subjects<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n \n Rahul scores 72 in Mathematics<\/strong>, where the class mean is 60<\/strong> and \u03c3 is 8<\/strong>; and 60 in Hindi<\/strong>, where the class mean is 50<\/strong> and \u03c3 is 4<\/strong>. In which subject has he done better?<\/span>\n \u0930\u093e\u0939\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 72<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u090f, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 60<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u03c3 8<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 60<\/strong>, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u03c3 4<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e?<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Mathematics:<\/strong> Z = (72 \u2212 60)\/8 = 12\/8 = +1.5<\/strong>. T = 50 + 10(1.5) = 65<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924:<\/strong> Z = (72 \u2212 60)\/8 = 12\/8 = +1.5<\/strong>\u0964 T = 50 + 10(1.5) = 65<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Hindi:<\/strong> Z = (60 \u2212 50)\/4 = 10\/4 = +2.5<\/strong>. T = 50 + 10(2.5) = 75<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940:<\/strong> Z = (60 \u2212 50)\/4 = 10\/4 = +2.5<\/strong>\u0964 T = 50 + 10(2.5) = 75<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Although his raw mark is higher in Mathematics<\/strong>, his Z-score is higher in Hindi<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092a\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Rahul has done better in Hindi.<\/strong> Reading the Z-scores against the normal curve: +1.5 places him above about 93 per cent<\/strong> of the class in Mathematics, but +2.5 places him above about 99 per cent<\/strong> in Hindi. The small Hindi \u03c3 of 4 means the class was tightly bunched, so standing 10 marks above that mean is a far rarer achievement.<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0939\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0947 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/strong> Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093f\u090f: +1.5 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 93 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 +2.5 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 99 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0964 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e \u03c3 = 4 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0918\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0925\u0940, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 10 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0932\u092d \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Derived score<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">SD<\/span>SD<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Note<\/span>\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Z-score<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><td>The parent form; all others are rescalings of it. Produces negatives and decimals.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0930\u0942\u092a; \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>T-score<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td><td>The commonest reporting form in education; always positive, easy to explain.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a; \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Deviation IQ<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">100<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">15<\/td><td>Used by the Wechsler scales (\u00a710.2), replacing the old MA\/CA ratio.<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 (\u00a710.2) \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 MA\/CA \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Stanine<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td>A nine-point scale (1 to 9) that groups scores into broad bands \u2014 useful where fine distinctions are not warranted.<\/span>\u0928\u094c-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1 \u0938\u0947 9) \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Derived scores<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>54<\/span>Which of the following are standard scores? 1. T-score 2. Z-score 3. Stanine score 4. Mean score<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 4 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/b> A standard score expresses a raw score as its distance from the mean in SD units: Z (mean 0, SD 1), T (mean 50, SD 10) and stanine (mean 5, SD 2). The mean is a measure of central tendency, not a standard score.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 SD-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: Z (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0, SD 1), T (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50, SD 10) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 5, SD 2)\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.12 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>90<\/span>What is the z-score of a value of 24, given a mean of 16 and a standard deviation of 4?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) \u20132.0<\/li>\n <li>(b) 1.0<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1.5<\/li>\n <li>(d) 2.0<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) 2.0<\/b> Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3 = (24 \u2212 16)\/4 = 8\/4 = 2.0. The pupil stands two standard deviations above the mean, which on the normal curve places him above about 97.7% of the group. The corresponding T-score is 50 + 10(2) = 70.<\/span>Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3 = (24 \u2212 16)\/4 = 8\/4 = 2.0\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 97.7% \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 50 + 10(2) = 70 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.12 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>94<\/span>Consider in respect of z-score: 1. If the raw score equals the mean, z is zero. 2. z can be negative. 3. z can be a decimal number.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) All three<\/b> All three follow from Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3. If X = M the numerator is zero; if X is below the mean the numerator is negative; and the quotient need not be a whole number. Precisely these two inconveniences \u2014 negatives and decimals \u2014 are why the T-score was devised.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f X = M \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f; \u092f\u0926\u093f X \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0917\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2014 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u2014 \u0939\u0940 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a74.12 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-82\">\n 4.13<\/span>\n <h3>C-Scores and the Eleven-Point Scale<\/span>C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Meaning of C-scores<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/span><\/div>\n C-scores are converted scores of raw scores of which the mean is 5 and the standard deviation is 2<\/strong>. For this, the range of raw scores is distributed into eleven equal unit-groups<\/strong>, displayed on an eleven-point scale from 0 to 10<\/strong>. The groups are sequential<\/strong> \u2014 the scores of the second group are higher than the first, those of the third higher than the second, and so on up to the eleventh.<\/span>\n C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 5 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 2<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b 0 \u0938\u0947 10 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939\u0935\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0915\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fc-label\">Converting a raw score to a C-score<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fc-formula\">C = 5 + 2Z<\/div>\n <div class=\"fc-note\">\n There are two methods<\/strong>: by Z-score<\/strong>, using the formula above; or by percentile rank<\/strong>, where the raw score is first changed into a percentile rank and the C-score then read from the conversion table below. Compare this with the T-score formula T = 50 + 10Z<\/strong> of \u00a74.12 \u2014 the structure is identical, only the chosen mean and SD differ.<\/span>\n \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902: Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e<\/strong>, \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947; \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u092c \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0947 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u00a74.12 \u0915\u0947 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 T = 50 + 10Z<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>The eleven-point C-score scale<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">C-score<\/span>C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Z-score limits<\/span>Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Range of PRs<\/span>PR \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">% of raw scores<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e %<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">% in whole number<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 %<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">More than +2.25<\/span>+2.25 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">More than 98.78<\/span>98.78 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1.22<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+1.75 \u2192 +2.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">95.99 \u2013 98.78<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2.79<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+1.25 \u2192 +1.75<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">89.44 \u2013 95.99<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6.55<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+0.75 \u2192 +1.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">77.34 \u2013 89.44<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12.10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">+0.25 \u2192 +0.75<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">59.87 \u2013 77.34<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">17.47<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">17<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#fff9ef;\"><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22120.25 \u2192 +0.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40.13 \u2013 59.87<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">19.74<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22120.75 \u2192 \u22120.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">22.66 \u2013 40.13<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">17.47<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">17<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121.25 \u2192 \u22120.75<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">10.56 \u2013 22.66<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12.10<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22121.75 \u2192 \u22121.25<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4.01 \u2013 10.56<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6.55<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u22122.25 \u2192 \u22121.75<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1.22 \u2013 4.01<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2.79<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">0<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">Less than \u22122.25<\/span>\u22122.25 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">Less than 1.22<\/span>1.22 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1.22<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n \n Note the symmetry of the distribution<\/strong> about C = 5, and that the percentages reproduce the areas of the normal curve of \u00a74.10 \u2014 20 per cent in the middle band, 1 per cent at each extreme.<\/span>\n C = 5 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u0902\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u00a74.10 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 20 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u094b\u0930 \u092a\u0930 1 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Utility<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>In some situations in education, the use of C-scores is more useful than that of Z-scores and T-scores<\/strong> \u2014 though such situations are very rare<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092a\u093f \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Being an eleven-point whole-number scale<\/strong>, it avoids the decimals and negative values that make raw Z-scores awkward to report.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>The first demerit is the awarding of a zero score<\/strong> \u2014 a pupil can be reported as having C = 0, which communicates absolute absence of attainment.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0939\u0948 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e C = 0 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The second is that a change of even one point in the C-score produces a large difference in percentage terms<\/strong> \u2014 moving from C = 5 to C = 6 shifts the pupil across roughly 17 per cent of the group.<\/span>\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 C = 5 \u0938\u0947 C = 6 \u092a\u0930 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 17 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930-\u092a\u093e\u0930 \u0916\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd22<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The four derived-score scales, distinguished by their mean and SD alone.<\/strong> Z-score:<\/strong> M = 0, \u03c3 = 1. T-score:<\/strong> M = 50, \u03c3 = 10. C-score:<\/strong> M = 5, \u03c3 = 2, on eleven points, 0 to 10<\/strong>. Stanine:<\/strong> M = 5, \u03c3 = 1.96, on nine points, 1 to 9<\/strong>. Two consequences follow. First, since only nine numbers are used in the stanine against eleven in the C-score, analysis of stanine scores is easier<\/strong>. Second, the stanine begins at 1, not 0<\/strong> \u2014 which is exactly how it escapes the first demerit of the C-score.<\/span>\n \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915:<\/strong> M = 0, \u03c3 = 1\u0964 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915:<\/strong> M = 50, \u03c3 = 10\u0964 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915:<\/strong> M = 5, \u03c3 = 2, \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930, 0 \u0938\u0947 10<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928:<\/strong> M = 5, \u03c3 = 1.96, \u0928\u094c \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930, 1 \u0938\u0947 9<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e, \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u093c\u093e\u092c\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u094c \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f, \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 0 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, 1 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939 C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-83\">\n 4.14<\/span>\n <h3>Interpretation of Test Scores: Qualitative and Quantitative<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928: \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n A raw score is mute<\/strong>. The figure 43 says nothing until it is placed against something \u2014 a maximum, a group, a criterion, a previous performance, or a description of what the pupil can now do. Interpretation is the act of supplying that context<\/strong>, and it proceeds along two lines which the syllabus names separately.<\/span>\n \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 43 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u2014 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092c \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u094b \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Quantitative interpretation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Places the score numerically within a distribution<\/strong> \u2014 through percentile rank, Z-score, T-score, C-score, stanine or grade equivalent<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0902\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940, Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, C-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Answers \"how much\" and \"how does this compare\"<\/strong> \u2014 the pupil stands at PR 68, or 1.2 SD above the mean.<\/span>\"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e\" \u090f\u0935\u0902 \"\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901\"<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 PR 68 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 1.2 SD \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Requires the statistics of \u00a74.4 to \u00a74.12<\/strong> \u2014 central tendency, variability, the normal curve and derived scores.<\/span>\u00a74.4 \u0938\u0947 \u00a74.12<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Is precise, comparable and communicable<\/strong>, but silent about what the pupil actually knows<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915, \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-divider\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Qualitative interpretation<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Describes what the performance means in substantive terms<\/strong> \u2014 which objectives were attained, which concepts remain unclear, what pattern of error recurs.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f, \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Answers \"what can this pupil do, and what should be taught next\"<\/strong> \u2014 the question a mark alone can never answer.<\/span>\"\u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u092c \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\"<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Draws on diagnostic testing (\u00a78.2), the criterion-referenced frame (\u00a75.1) and observation and anecdotal records (\u00a72.8)<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (\u00a78.2), \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u0922\u093e\u0901\u091a\u093e (\u00a75.1) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0924-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 (\u00a72.8)<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Is rich and directly usable by the teacher<\/strong>, but less comparable across pupils and schools<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc The four cautions that govern any interpretation<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>A score is an estimate, not a measurement<\/strong> \u2014 it carries a standard error of measurement<\/strong>, so it must be read as a band rather than a point<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>A score is meaningful only against the norm group on which it was standardized<\/strong> \u2014 the norms of \u00a73.9 do not transfer to a different population.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906<\/strong> \u2014 \u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>No decision of consequence should rest on a single score from a single occasion<\/strong>; corroboration from other tools is required.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f; \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>The factors of \u00a75.2<\/strong> \u2014 the nature of the test, and psychological and environmental conditions \u2014 must be weighed before a low score is read as low ability.<\/span>\u00a75.2 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2014 \u0924\u094b\u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0924\u092c \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udca1<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The formulation that answers this question well.<\/strong> Quantitative interpretation tells the teacher where the pupil stands<\/strong>; qualitative interpretation tells her what to do on Monday morning<\/strong>. The two are complementary, not alternative<\/strong> \u2014 the percentile rank locates the pupil in the group, and the diagnostic profile explains the location. An answer that treats them as rival philosophies has missed the point; an answer that shows how a stanine of 3 becomes actionable only when the error pattern behind it is described<\/strong> has understood it.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0916\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>; \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u094b\u092e\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0935\u0940 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u091a\u0942\u0915 \u0917\u092f\u093e; \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u090f \u0915\u093f 3 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b<\/strong>, \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-81\">\n 4.15<\/span>\n <h3>Further Statistics and Research Methodology<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Units 4 and 5 have dealt with descriptive<\/strong> statistics. This section carries the treatment forward into the topics that lie immediately next to it \u2014 the assumptions that separate one family of statistical test from another, the sampling and research designs on which any generalization rests, and three further statistics that complete the account of variability, error and test length begun in Units 4 and 5. The standard fuller treatments are Garrett<\/strong> and Guilford & Fruchter<\/strong> for the statistics, and Best & Kahn<\/strong> and Koul<\/strong> for the research methodology.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u0948\u0930\u0947\u091f<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092b\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0915\u094d\u091f\u0930<\/strong>, \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Parametric and non-parametric tests<\/span>\u0915. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n A parameter<\/strong> is a value that describes a population<\/em> \u2014 its mean, its standard deviation. A parametric test<\/strong> is one that makes assumptions about those population parameters; a non-parametric test<\/strong> makes none, which is why it is also called a distribution-free<\/strong> test.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f; \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923-\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc The four assumptions of a parametric test \u2014 learn these as a set<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2014 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Normality.<\/strong> The population from which the sample is drawn is normally distributed<\/strong> on the variable being studied.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0927\u0940\u0928 \u091a\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Randomization.<\/strong> Observations are independent<\/strong> and the sample has been drawn at random<\/strong> from that population.<\/span>\u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0909\u0938 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Homogeneity of variance.<\/strong> The groups being compared have approximately equal variances<\/strong> \u2014 sometimes called homoscedasticity<\/em>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940-\u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Continuity and level of measurement.<\/strong> The variable is continuous<\/strong> and measured on an interval or ratio<\/strong> scale, so that means and standard deviations are legitimate.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/strong> \u091a\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Parametric<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Non-parametric<\/span>\u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Assumptions<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The four above<\/span>\u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/td><td>None about the shape of the population<\/span>\u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Level of data<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Interval or ratio<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Nominal or ordinal (also usable with higher)<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 (\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u094d\u092f)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Sample size<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Larger samples preferred<\/span>\u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/td><td>Works with small samples<\/span>\u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Statistic used<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Mean and standard deviation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>Median, ranks, frequencies<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Power<\/span>\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>More powerful<\/strong> when assumptions hold<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong><\/span><\/td><td>Less powerful, but valid where the others are not<\/span>\u0915\u092e \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u0948\u0927<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Examples<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>t-test, z-test, F-test, ANOVA, ANCOVA (analysis of covariance), Pearson's r<\/strong><\/span>t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, z-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, F-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, ANOVA, ANCOVA, \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/strong><\/span><\/td><td>Chi-square, sign test, median test, Mann\u2013Whitney U, Wilcoxon, Kruskal\u2013Wallis, Spearman's \u03c1<\/strong><\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917, \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u2013\u0935\u094d\u0939\u093f\u091f\u0928\u0940 U, \u0935\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0949\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0928, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0932\u2013\u0935\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0938, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udca1<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Two traps to recognize.<\/strong> (1)<\/strong> Four tests are given and the parametric one must be named \u2014 it is nearly always the t-test<\/strong>, because sign, median, chi-square and Mann\u2013Whitney are all non-parametric. (2)<\/strong> Four assumptions are given and the one that is not<\/em> an assumption must be named \u2014 the answer is \"discontinuity\"<\/strong>, since parametric tests require a continuous<\/em> variable. Note also the pairing worth memorizing: Pearson's r is parametric, Spearman's \u03c1 is non-parametric<\/strong> \u2014 which is exactly why \u00a74.7 prescribed \u03c1 for ranks.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0932\u0964<\/strong> (1)<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 t-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u2013\u0935\u094d\u0939\u093f\u091f\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 (2)<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \"\u0905\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f\"<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/em> \u091a\u0930 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902: \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1 \u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u00a74.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u03c1 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Sampling techniques<\/span>\u0916. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n A population<\/strong> is the entire group about which a conclusion is wanted; a sample<\/strong> is the portion actually studied. The whole point of sampling is generalizability<\/strong> \u2014 and that is possible only when every member of the population had a known chance<\/strong> of being selected.<\/span>\n \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Probability (random) sampling<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e (\u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Simple random<\/strong> \u2014 every member has an equal and independent chance; drawn by lottery or a table of random numbers.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0926\u0938\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930; \u0932\u0949\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Systematic<\/strong> \u2014 every k<\/em>th name on a list after a random start (e.g. every 10th pupil in the register).<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 k<\/em>\u0935\u093e\u0901 \u0928\u093e\u092e (\u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0930\u091c\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 10\u0935\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930)\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Stratified<\/strong> \u2014 the population is divided into strata (boys\/girls, rural\/urban) and a random sample drawn from each, so every stratum is represented.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 (\u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\/\u092c\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0940\u0923\/\u0928\u0917\u0930\u0940\u092f) \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Cluster<\/strong> \u2014 whole intact groups such as schools or classes are drawn at random, not individuals.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092f\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0905\u0916\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Results can be generalized<\/strong> to the population, and sampling error can be estimated.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Non-probability sampling<\/span>\u0905-\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Purposive (judgement)<\/strong> \u2014 the researcher deliberately selects cases he judges typical or informative.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 (\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915)<\/strong> \u2014 \u0936\u094b\u0927\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Convenience (incidental)<\/strong> \u2014 whoever happens to be available: one's own class, the nearest school.<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 (\u0906\u0915\u0938\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0915)<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b: \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Quota<\/strong> \u2014 fixed numbers are taken from each category, but filled non-randomly.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u091f\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905-\u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Snowball<\/strong> \u2014 each subject names the next; used for hidden or hard-to-reach groups.<\/span>\u0939\u093f\u092e\u092a\u093f\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u091b\u093f\u092a\u0947 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Economical and practical<\/strong>, but the sample may not represent the population, so generalization is unsafe.<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong>, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The question always takes one shape:<\/strong> four names are given and the one that is not<\/em> a probability sample must be identified. Random, systematic, stratified and cluster are all probability; purposive, convenience, quota and snowball are not<\/strong>. Remember the reason rather than the list \u2014 in a probability sample the chance of selection is known and does not depend on the investigator's judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948:<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u2014 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915, \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0939\u093f\u092e\u092a\u093f\u0902\u0921 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. Quantitative and qualitative research, and the qualitative approaches<\/span>\u0917. \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Quantitative research<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Qualitative research<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Aim<\/span>\u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>To measure, test hypotheses and generalize<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>To understand meaning and describe in depth<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Data<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Numbers, scores, frequencies<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/td><td>Words, transcripts, field notes, observations<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Design<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Fixed before data collection begins<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Emergent \u2014 it evolves as the study proceeds<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u2014 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Sample<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Large, usually probability-based<\/span>\u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><td>Small, usually purposive<\/span>\u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Types<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Descriptive survey, correlational, causal-comparative (ex post facto)<\/strong>, experimental<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f)<\/strong>, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>Case study, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, narrative<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928, \u0928\u0943\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924, \u0906\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Post-positivist approach<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/strong>Retains the search for objective truth but accepts that all observation is theory-laden and fallible<\/strong>, so knowledge is always provisional. It is the bridge between positivism and interpretivism.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924-\u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Interpretive approach<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/strong>Seeks to understand the meaning participants themselves give<\/strong> to their experience. Reality is socially constructed and multiple. The dominant<\/strong> qualitative approach \u2014 and the natural companion of the constructivist perspective of \u00a71.5.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916<\/strong> \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a71.5 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Critical approach<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/strong>Examines how power, class, caste, gender and ideology<\/strong> shape educational reality \u2014 and aims not merely to describe it but to change<\/strong> it. Emancipatory in purpose.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917, \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f, \u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093e<\/strong> \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u092e\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>The standard distractor<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/span><\/strong>Causal-comparative (ex post facto)<\/strong> research compares groups that already differ, to infer causes after the event. It is quantitative<\/strong>, and is the option inserted as a trap.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f)<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>D. Continuous and discrete variables<\/span>\u0918. \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Continuous variable<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Can take any value<\/strong>, however fine the subdivision \u2014 between any two values another always exists.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928 \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u090f\u0915 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Its measurement is always approximate<\/strong> \u2014 a height \"recorded as 150 cm\" really means 149.5 to 150.5 cm. This is the origin of the exact limits<\/strong> of \u00a74.3.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0938\u0928\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \"150 \u0938\u0947\u092e\u0940 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c\" \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 149.5 \u0938\u0947 150.5 \u0938\u0947\u092e\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a74.3 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> age, time, height, weight, temperature, intelligence, achievement scores.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0938\u092e\u092f, \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0930, \u0924\u093e\u092a, \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Represented by the histogram and frequency polygon<\/strong>, whose bars touch.<\/span>\u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u091f\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Discrete (discontinuous) variable<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Takes only separate, whole values<\/strong> \u2014 there is nothing between one value and the next.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Its measurement is exact<\/strong>, because it is a count<\/strong>, not a measure.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> class size<\/strong>, number of pupils, number of schools, number of children in a family \u2014 a class cannot have 34.7 pupils.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u091a\u094d\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 34.7 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Represented by the bar diagram<\/strong>, whose bars are separated by gaps.<\/span>\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u091b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Three things this one distinction explains.<\/strong> Why a histogram has no gaps<\/strong> but a bar diagram does (\u00a74.3); why a class written 50\u201359 has exact limits 49.5\u201359.5<\/strong> (\u00a74.3); and why continuity is an assumption of parametric tests<\/strong> (\u00a74.15 A). The examiner's favourite discrete variable is class size<\/strong> placed among age, time and weight.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 (\u00a74.3); 50\u201359 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 49.5\u201359.5<\/strong> \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 (\u00a74.3); \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948<\/strong> (\u00a74.15 \u0915)\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u092f\u0941, \u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0930\u0916 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>E. Coefficient of Variation<\/span>\u0919. \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Coefficient of variation \u2014 a relative measure of dispersion<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u2014 \u0905\u092a\u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n CV = ( \u03c3 \/ M ) \u00d7 100<\/span>\n CV = ( \u03c3 \/ M ) \u00d7 100<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n The SD, the range and the quartile deviation are all absolute<\/b> measures \u2014 they carry the units of the original scores. Two groups with different means<\/b> therefore cannot be compared on SD alone: an SD of 6 means far more in a group averaging 20 than in one averaging 200. The CV removes the units by expressing the SD as a percentage of its own mean<\/b>. It is therefore the only correct measure when comparing the variability of groups measured on different scales or with widely different averages. The lower the CV, the more consistent \u2014 that is, the less variable \u2014 the group.<\/b><\/span>\n SD, \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/b> \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u0939\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 SD \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940: 6 \u0915\u093e SD 20 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 200 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 CV, SD \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/b> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0964 CV \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u092e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0964<\/b><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 the exam question itself<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n Four sections of 40 pupils each have the following mean marks and standard deviations. Which section shows the lowest variability<\/strong>?<\/span>40-40 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead><tr><th class=\"narrow\">Section<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917<\/span><\/th><th class=\"narrow\">A<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">B<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">C<\/th><th class=\"narrow\">D<\/th><\/tr><\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">30<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">40<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">SD<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f2fdfa;\"><td class=\"narrow\">CV<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">20%<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">30%<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">25%<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">32%<\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>A: (6\/30) \u00d7 100 = 20%<\/strong> \u00b7 B: (12\/40) \u00d7 100 = 30% \u00b7 C: (9\/36) \u00d7 100 = 25% \u00b7 D: (8\/25) \u00d7 100 = 32%.<\/span>A: (6\/30) \u00d7 100 = 20%<\/strong> \u00b7 B: (12\/40) \u00d7 100 = 30% \u00b7 C: (9\/36) \u00d7 100 = 25% \u00b7 D: (8\/25) \u00d7 100 = 32%\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Section A<\/strong> has the lowest CV and therefore the lowest variability \u2014 its pupils are the most alike in achievement.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 A<\/strong> \u0915\u093e CV \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>The trap:<\/strong> answering from SD alone would also yield A \u2014 but by accident. Consider the variant in which Section D has SD 5 and mean 25 (CV = 20%) against Section A with SD 6 and mean 30 (CV = 20%): the SDs differ, yet the variability is identical. Always compute the CV.<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0932:<\/strong> \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 SD \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 A \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0935\u0936\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 D \u0915\u093e SD 5 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 25 (CV = 20%) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 A \u0915\u093e SD 6 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 30 (CV = 20%): SD \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0964 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 CV \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>F. Standard Error of Measurement<\/span>\u091a. \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Standard error of measurement \u2014 the margin of error round a single score<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u2014 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3 \u221a( 1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub> )<\/span>\n SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3 \u221a( 1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub> )<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n \u03c3<\/b> = standard deviation of the test scores \u00b7 rtt<\/sub><\/b> = reliability coefficient. This is the true-score model of \u00a72.4 made practical. Since X = T + E<\/b>, the SEm<\/sub> estimates how far an obtained score is likely to stray from the pupil's true score<\/b>. It converts a single mark into a band<\/b>: the true score probably lies within \u00b11 SEm<\/sub><\/b> of the obtained score about 68% of the time, and within \u00b12 SEm<\/sub><\/b> about 95% of the time \u2014 the normal-curve areas of \u00a74.10 applied to error. Read the two relationships carefully.<\/b> The higher the reliability, the smaller<\/b> the standard error (if r = 1, SEm<\/sub> = 0). The larger the spread \u03c3, the larger<\/b> the standard error.<\/span>\n \u03c3<\/b> = \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u00b7 rtt<\/sub><\/b> = \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u00a72.4 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f X = T + E<\/b>, SEm<\/sub> \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/b>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940<\/b> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 68% \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u00b11 SEm<\/sub><\/b> \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 95% \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u00b12 SEm<\/sub><\/b> \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a74.10 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/b> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u092e<\/b> (\u092f\u0926\u093f r = 1 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b SEm<\/sub> = 0)\u0964 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u03c3 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940<\/b>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 turning a mark into a band<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n A test has \u03c3 = 10 and reliability 0.84. Ravi obtains 65. Within what band does his true score probably lie?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u03c3 = 10 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e 0.84 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0930\u0935\u093f \u0928\u0947 65 \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e?<\/span><\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>SEm<\/sub> = 10 \u00d7 \u221a(1 \u2212 0.84) = 10 \u00d7 \u221a0.16 = 10 \u00d7 0.4 = 4<\/strong>.<\/span>SEm<\/sub> = 10 \u00d7 \u221a(1 \u2212 0.84) = 10 \u00d7 \u221a0.16 = 10 \u00d7 0.4 = 4<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>At \u00b11 SEm<\/sub>: his true score lies between 61 and 69<\/strong>, with about 68% confidence.<\/span>\u00b11 SEm<\/sub> \u092a\u0930: \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 68% \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 61 \u090f\u0935\u0902 69<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>At \u00b12 SEm<\/sub>: between 57 and 73<\/strong>, with about 95% confidence.<\/span>\u00b12 SEm<\/sub> \u092a\u0930: \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 95% \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 57 \u090f\u0935\u0902 73<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The educational moral.<\/strong> Ravi at 65 and Meera at 68 are not reliably different<\/strong> \u2014 their bands overlap almost entirely. This is the statistical justification for the whole case against fine marking and in favour of grading<\/strong> (\u00a76.3): a difference of three marks is well inside the error of measurement.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/strong> 65 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0930\u0935\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 68 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0940\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> (\u00a76.3) \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948: \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u26a0\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The exact statement examiners test.<\/strong> \"If the spread of marks is large and the reliability is low, then the standard error is also low\" \u2014 this is false<\/strong>. Look at the formula: a large \u03c3 multiplies, and a low r makes \u221a(1 \u2212 r) larger. Both push SEm<\/sub> up<\/strong>. A large spread with low reliability gives the largest<\/strong> standard error of all.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \"\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928, \u0924\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092d\u0940 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u0940\" \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f: \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u03c3 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 r \u0938\u0947 \u221a(1 \u2212 r) \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 SEm<\/sub> \u0915\u094b \u090a\u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>G. Spearman\u2013Brown Prophecy Formula, general form<\/span>\u091b. \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">For any change of test length<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n rnn<\/sub> = n<\/em> rtt<\/sub> \/ [ 1 + ( n<\/em> \u2212 1 ) rtt<\/sub> ] Solved for n<\/em>: n<\/em> = rnn<\/sub> ( 1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub> ) \/ rtt<\/sub> ( 1 \u2212 rnn<\/sub> )<\/span><\/span>\n rnn<\/sub> = n<\/em> rtt<\/sub> \/ [ 1 + ( n<\/em> \u2212 1 ) rtt<\/sub> ] n<\/em> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0932: n<\/em> = rnn<\/sub> ( 1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub> ) \/ rtt<\/sub> ( 1 \u2212 rnn<\/sub> )<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n rtt<\/sub><\/b> = present reliability \u00b7 rnn<\/sub><\/b> = reliability after the change \u00b7 n<\/b> = number of times the test is lengthened. Put n = 2<\/b> and the first formula collapses exactly to the split-half version of \u00a72.5 \u2014 the split-half case is simply \"the test doubled\". The formula is called a prophecy<\/b> formula because it predicts<\/em> what reliability would become, and it works in both directions: shortening a test (n < 1) lowers reliability.<\/span>\n rtt<\/sub><\/b> = \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 rnn<\/sub><\/b> = \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 n<\/b> = \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 n = 2<\/b> \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u00a72.5 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \"\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e\" \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/b> \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/em> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 (n < 1) \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Two Worked Examples \u2014 both directions of the formula<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Forward \u2014 \"what will it become?\"<\/strong> A test of reliability 0.60 is doubled<\/strong> in length. r = (2 \u00d7 0.60)\/[1 + (2 \u2212 1)0.60] = 1.20\/1.60 = 0.75<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0917\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u2014 \"\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u0940?\"<\/strong> 0.60 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 r = (2 \u00d7 0.60)\/[1 + (2 \u2212 1)0.60] = 1.20\/1.60 = 0.75<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Backward \u2014 \"how much longer must it be?\"<\/strong> A test of reliability 0.50 must reach 0.75. n = [0.75(1 \u2212 0.50)] \/ [0.50(1 \u2212 0.75)] = 0.375\/0.125 = 3<\/strong>. The test must be made three times as long<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0917\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u2014 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e?\"<\/strong> 0.50 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b 0.75 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 n = [0.75(1 \u2212 0.50)] \/ [0.50(1 \u2212 0.75)] = 0.375\/0.125 = 3<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>Note the diminishing return.<\/strong> Doubling a test of r = 0.60 gains 0.15; doubling again gains far less. Reliability rises with length but with ever-smaller increments<\/strong>, and it can never reach 1.00. This is why \"make the test longer\" is sound advice only up to a point \u2014 beyond it, fatigue begins to add error of its own.<\/span>\u0939\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/strong> r = 0.60 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 0.15 \u0915\u093e \u0932\u093e\u092d; \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u092e\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u092d\u0940 1.00 \u0924\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \"\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\" \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>H. Effect of adding or multiplying a constant<\/span>\u091c. \u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Operation on every score<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Mean, Median, Mode, Percentiles<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>SD, Variance, Range, QD<\/span>SD, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923, \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938, QD<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Add a constant c<\/em><\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 c<\/em> \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Each increases by c<\/em><\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>Unchanged<\/strong><\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Subtract a constant c<\/em><\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 c<\/em> \u0918\u091f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Each decreases by c<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Unchanged<\/strong><\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Multiply by a constant c<\/em><\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Each is multiplied by c<\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Each is multiplied by c<\/em> (variance by c<\/em>\u00b2)<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093f\u0924 (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 c<\/em>\u00b2 \u0938\u0947)<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udd0d Why adding a constant leaves the SD untouched<\/span>\ud83d\udd0d \u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 SD \u0905\u091b\u0942\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n The reason is visible in the formula itself. The SD is built from deviations taken from the mean<\/strong>, x = X \u2212 M. If every score X rises by 10, then the mean M also rises by 10 \u2014 so every deviation x is exactly what it was before<\/strong>. \u03a3x\u00b2 is unchanged, and therefore so is \u03c3. Adding a constant slides the whole distribution along the scale without stretching or squeezing it<\/strong>: position changes, spread does not.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 SD \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> x = X \u2212 M \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 X 10 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0947, \u0924\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f M \u092d\u0940 10 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 x \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0925\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u03a3x\u00b2 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u03c3 \u092d\u0940\u0964 \u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0916\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0916\u0940\u0902\u091a\u0947 \u092f\u093e \u0926\u092c\u093e\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e<\/strong>: \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:10px;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The exam question:<\/strong> median 25 and SD 2.5; every item is increased by 10. Answer \u2014 median becomes 35, SD stays 2.5<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928:<\/strong> \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e 25 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 2.5; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 10 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u2014 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e 35 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, SD 2.5 \u0939\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Where this has already been used.<\/strong> Grace marks added to every candidate change the average but not the spread \u2014 and the whole of \u00a74.12 depends on it, since a Z-score subtracts a constant (M) and then divides by one (\u03c3).<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u094b \u091a\u0941\u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0915\u0943\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u00a74.12 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u091a\u0930 (M) \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u091a\u0930 (\u03c3) \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>I. The interview as a research and evaluation tool<\/span>\u091d. \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n An interview<\/strong> is a purposeful face-to-face interaction<\/strong> in which one person seeks information from another. It differs from ordinary conversation in having a definite purpose<\/strong>, and from the questionnaire in that the investigator is present<\/strong> \u2014 able to probe, clarify, observe expression and reach the illiterate.<\/span>\n \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0906\u092e\u0928\u0947-\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093e\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0939\u093e\u0935-\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Fixed<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Structured (standardized) interview<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 (\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924) \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n The questions are predetermined and the sequence fixed<\/strong>, and the same wording is put to every respondent. The interviewer may not add, omit or reorder.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0928 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Consequence<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/b>Responses become comparable across candidates<\/strong> and can be quantified, so reliability is high \u2014 this is why selection boards use it. But it cannot follow up an unexpected answer.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u091a\u092f\u0928-\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Free<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Unstructured (non-directive) interview<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 (\u0905\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n Only the topic<\/strong> is fixed. The interviewer has freedom to frame questions and reorder them<\/strong> as the situation demands, following whatever the respondent raises.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0920\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Consequence<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/span><\/b>Yields depth, richness and unexpected insight<\/strong> \u2014 the natural tool of qualitative and case-study research. But responses are not comparable<\/strong>, it demands a skilled interviewer, and it is open to his bias.<\/span>\u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908, \u0938\u092e\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u0941\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0906 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Both<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Semi-structured interview<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n A fixed core of questions<\/strong> put to everyone, with freedom to probe<\/strong> beyond them. It combines the comparability of the first with the depth of the second and is the commonest form in educational research.<\/span>\u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>J. Basic skills and their diagnostic sub-tests<\/span>\u091e. \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n \u00a78.3 named the subject areas in which diagnostic tests are built. This is the standard grid pairing each basic skill<\/strong> with the sub-test<\/strong> that diagnoses it \u2014 the form in which the matching question is asked.<\/span>\n \u00a78.3 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u2014 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basic skill<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Diagnostic sub-test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it looks for<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Reading<\/span>\u092a\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Comprehension<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0927<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Word recognition, vocabulary, understanding of passages, reading speed<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926-\u092c\u094b\u0927, \u092a\u0920\u0928-\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Language<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Expression<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Spelling, grammar, punctuation, sentence construction, written composition<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0930\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928, \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f-\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Mathematics<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Computation<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0923\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The four operations, place value, fractions, decimals, problem solving<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928, \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928, \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Study skills<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Reading maps, graphs and tables<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940 \u092a\u0920\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Using references, locating information, interpreting graphical material, note-taking<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e, \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>K. Two small points that decide whole questions<\/span>\u091f. \u0926\u094b \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Central tendency by scale of measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Nominal \u2192 Mode.<\/strong> Labels cannot be ordered or added, so only the most frequent category is meaningful. Ordinal \u2192 Median.<\/strong> Ranks can be ordered but their intervals are unequal, so a mean is not legitimate. Interval and Ratio \u2192 Mean.<\/strong> Equal intervals make addition and division valid. This follows directly from what each scale permits (\u00a71.7).<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0964<\/strong> \u0928\u093e\u092e-\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u2192 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 (\u00a71.7)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>The arithmetic of means<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong>Numerical questions on the mean are solved by converting means into totals<\/strong>: total = mean \u00d7 N. Once every group is expressed as a total, the unknown falls out by subtraction. Example:<\/em> mean of four numbers 17.5 \u2192 total 70; mean of the smaller three 15 \u2192 total 45; so the largest = 25. Range 15 \u2192 smallest = 10. Larger three total 70 \u2212 10 = 60, mean = 20<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0939\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u092f\u094b\u0917 = \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u00d7 N\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 17.5 \u2192 \u092f\u094b\u0917 70; \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 15 \u2192 \u092f\u094b\u0917 45; \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 = 25\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 15 \u2192 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 = 10\u0964 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 70 \u2212 10 = 60, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f = 20<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n Section Recap<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0917-\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5 class=\"sub\">The eleven formulae and rules of this section<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/h5>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Point<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Formula or rule<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Parametric assumptions<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/td><td>Normality \u00b7 Randomization \u00b7 Homogeneity of variance \u00b7 Continuity<\/strong><\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u00b7 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0924\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Parametric tests<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>t \u00b7 z \u00b7 F \u00b7 ANOVA \u00b7 Pearson's r<\/span>\u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Non-parametric tests<\/span>\u0905-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Chi-square \u00b7 Sign \u00b7 Median \u00b7 Mann\u2013Whitney \u00b7 Spearman's \u03c1<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u00b7 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u00b7 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u00b7 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u2013\u0935\u094d\u0939\u093f\u091f\u0928\u0940 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Probability samples<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/td><td>Simple random \u00b7 Systematic \u00b7 Stratified \u00b7 Cluster<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u00b7 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u00b7 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u00b7 \u0917\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Non-probability samples<\/span>\u0905-\u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/td><td>Purposive \u00b7 Convenience \u00b7 Quota \u00b7 Snowball<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u00b7 \u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u00b7 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093e \u00b7 \u0939\u093f\u092e\u092a\u093f\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Qualitative approaches<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/td><td>Post-positivist \u00b7 Interpretive \u00b7 Critical (not<\/em> causal-comparative)<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u00b7 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u00b7 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 (\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em>)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Discrete variable<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091a\u0930<\/span><\/td><td>A count, not a measure \u2014 class size<\/strong> is the standard example<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Coefficient of variation<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><td>CV = (\u03c3 \/ M) \u00d7 100 \u2014 lower CV = less variable<\/span>\u0915\u092e CV = \u0915\u092e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Standard error of measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/td><td>SEm<\/sub> = \u03c3 \u221a(1 \u2212 rtt<\/sub>) \u2014 higher r, smaller error<\/span>r \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u092e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Spearman\u2013Brown, general<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/td><td>rnn<\/sub> = n r \/ [1 + (n \u2212 1) r] \u00b7 n = rnn<\/sub>(1 \u2212 r) \/ r(1 \u2212 rnn<\/sub>)<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Adding a constant<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u0930 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/td><td>Position measures rise by c<\/em>; spread measures unchanged<\/strong><\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a c<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0935-\u092e\u093e\u092a \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Central tendency by scale<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/td><td>Nominal \u2192 Mode \u00b7 Ordinal \u2192 Median \u00b7 Interval\/Ratio \u2192 Mean<\/span>\u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u00b7 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u2192 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u00b7 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u2192 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc The standard fuller treatments of this material are Garrett<\/strong> and Guilford & Fruchter<\/strong> for the statistics, and Best & Kahn<\/strong> and Koul<\/strong> for the research methodology.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0917\u0948\u0930\u0947\u091f<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092b\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0915\u094d\u091f\u0930<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0932<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"5\" id=\"c5\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 5<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 5<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Referencing and Factors Affecting Scores<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Criterion Referenced Test; Norm Referenced Test; Factors Influencing Test Scores \u2014 Nature of Test, Psychological Factors and Environmental Factors<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-21\">\n 5.1<\/span>\n <h3>Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced Tests<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n A raw score by itself is meaningless \u2014 50 out of 80<\/strong> tells us nothing until we decide what to compare it against<\/em>. There are only two possible reference points, and they give the two families of tests.<\/span>\n \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 80 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50<\/strong> \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0939\u092e \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u092f \u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/em>\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n CRT<\/span>\n <h5>Criterion-referenced Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Compares performance against a fixed, pre-declared standard<\/strong> \u2014 the criterion.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u2014 \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Question asked: \"What can this student do?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928: \"\u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Result is reported as mastery \/ non-mastery<\/strong> or \"can solve quadratic equations\".<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923 \/ \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \"\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0918\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\" \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are easy enough<\/strong> that most who were taught well will pass; difficulty is not deliberately spread.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0940 \u0924\u0930\u0939 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902; \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0908 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>All students can pass<\/strong> \u2014 or all can fail.<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Used in mastery learning, CCE, diagnostic and formative<\/strong> evaluation, driving licence tests.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e, CCE, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u091c\u094d\u091e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n NRT<\/span>\n <h5>Norm-referenced Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Compares performance against the performance of a reference group<\/strong> \u2014 the norm.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Question asked: \"How does this student stand relative to others?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928: \"\u092f\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0916\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Result is reported as a rank, percentile, grade or standard score<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are deliberately spread in difficulty<\/strong> so that scores spread out and individuals can be separated.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u090f<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Someone must always be at the top and at the bottom<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0932 \u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Used in entrance examinations, selection, scholarship and placement<\/strong> decisions.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83c\udfaf The same 50\/80 read two ways<\/span>\ud83c\udfaf \u0935\u0939\u0940 80 \u092e\u0947\u0902 50, \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>CRT<\/span>\"The pass criterion was 60%. The student scored 62.5% and has therefore attained mastery<\/strong> of the unit.\" \u2014 the class average is irrelevant.<\/span>\"\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 60% \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 62.5% \u092a\u093e\u092f\u093e, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0932\u0940\u0964\" \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>NRT<\/span>\"The class average was 68. The student scored 50 and stands at the 25th percentile<\/strong> \u2014 in the bottom quarter of the group.\" \u2014 the criterion is irrelevant.<\/span>\"\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 68 \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 50 \u092a\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 25\u0935\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u094c\u0925\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964\" \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Basis<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Criterion-referenced<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Norm-referenced<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Standard of comparison<\/span>\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>A fixed criterion of performance<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/td><td>The performance of the group<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Purpose<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>To certify mastery and guide remedial teaching<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928<\/span><\/td><td>To rank, select and discriminate between individuals<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Content coverage<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Narrow and deep \u2014 a limited set of clearly defined objectives<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0939\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/td><td>Broad and shallow \u2014 a wide field sampled thinly<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0925\u0932\u093e \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u0932\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Item difficulty<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Matched to the objective; easy items are retained<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a; \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/td><td>Spread out; very easy and very hard items are dropped<\/span>\u092b\u0948\u0932\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908; \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Score interpretation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Absolute \u2014 pass\/fail, mastery\/non-mastery<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\/\u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/td><td>Relative \u2014 percentile, rank, standard score<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u2014 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Typical example<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Unit mastery test; swimming certificate; driving test<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0924\u0948\u0930\u093e\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930; \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/td><td>NEET, JEE, CTET, university entrance tests<\/span>NEET, JEE, CTET, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Norm-referenced testing<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>61<\/span>Which one of the following is related to the concept of \"Norm-referenced testing\"?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Comparing a student\u2019s performance with a predetermined standard<\/li>\n <li>(b) Comparing a student\u2019s performance with the performance of other students<\/li>\n <li>(c) Comparing a student\u2019s performance with the curriculum objectives<\/li>\n <li>(d) Comparing a student\u2019s performance with the teacher\u2019s expectations<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> Norm-referenced testing compares the pupil with the group \u2014 the norm. Option (a) describes criterion-referenced testing, the distinction that decides whether all pupils can pass.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0915) \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a75.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-5\">\n 5.2<\/span>\n <h3>Factors Influencing Test Scores<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What a standardized test score actually is<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n A standardized test score is an indication of how much knowledge a child has accumulated and can put down on paper on a certain day within a limited time frame<\/strong>. That is all it is: an indication.<\/strong> There are many additional factors \u2014 some of them more important \u2014 that a teacher must consider before assigning a mark or deciding on placement: the quality of daily work, contribution to projects, responsibility about homework, and attitude towards school<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0907\u0938 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092c\u0938 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939: \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924\u0964<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f: \u0926\u0948\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u0926\u093e\u0928, \u0917\u0943\u0939\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Nature of the test<\/span>\u0915. \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n \n One factor influencing a score is the student's own knowledge, understanding or ability in the subject matter<\/strong> \u2014 this affects that student's score alone<\/strong>. But the following factors influence the scores of all students, more or less equally<\/strong>, and are therefore properties of the test rather than of the pupil.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Factor<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it distorts the score<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Difficulty level of the examination<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>It is not possible to judge the exact difficulty level of a question at the time of its construction<\/strong>. It may turn out so difficult that hardly a few students pass<\/strong> \u2014 should the whole class then fail? Or so easy that more than 75% get distinction<\/strong> \u2014 should everyone then get very high scores? Some adjustment has to be made while assigning the final marks.<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092e\u0941\u0936\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0924\u094b \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b? \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0907\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0915\u093f 75% \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947 \u2014 \u0924\u094b \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092c\u0915\u094b \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0902? \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Nature of the group tested<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>In one school the level of students may be high compared with another<\/strong>. This affects the difficulty level of a question for that particular group<\/strong> \u2014 the same paper is not the same test for two different groups.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Instructional effectiveness<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>The level of teaching may vary from one school to another<\/strong>; the teaching impact on learning varies accordingly, which in turn affects the difficulty level of an examination from school to school<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0926\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Miscalculation of the time limit<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>If the paper setter makes a wrong guess about the total time required<\/strong>, he may set more questions than can be attempted<\/strong> in the span allowed. Should the marks of all students be lowered because the paper setter guessed wrongly? Certainly not.<\/strong><\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0932\u0917\u093e\u090f \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901? \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">Sampling inadequacies<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>To what extent do the questions adequately cover the prescribed course content<\/strong>? This affects marks especially in essay-type questions, which are usually few in number and do not ensure good coverage<\/strong>. Inadequate coverage in testing \u2014 or even in teaching \u2014 affects the raw score, which ultimately affects many decisions<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u2014 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>B. Psychological factors<\/span>\u0916. \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Anxiety.<\/strong> Some children \"freeze\" in a testing situation<\/strong>, unable to focus or concentrate long enough to give a true picture of their actual knowledge. This is especially true when parents are stressed about the test and have pressured the child to do well<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \"\u091c\u0921\u093c\" \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u0924\u092c \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935 \u0921\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0939\u094b<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Physical health.<\/strong> A child may be coming down with the flu, have a headache or sore throat, or be overtired<\/strong>; he may have slept in, missed breakfast and be hungry<\/strong>. All of these affect test performance.<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094d\u0935\u0930 \u0906 \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0938\u093f\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0926 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u0932\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0926 \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0925\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b; \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u0947\u0930 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u094b\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0928\u093e\u0936\u094d\u0924\u093e \u091b\u0942\u091f \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0914\u0930 \u092d\u0942\u0916\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u0938\u092c \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Emotional health.<\/strong> The student may be upset because parents are in the midst of separation or divorce<\/strong>, a close relative is seriously ill<\/strong>, or he is witness to an ongoing abusive relationship at home<\/strong>; he may equally be excited and distracted by an upcoming holiday, birthday or sleepover<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092f\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0939-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u091a\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0918\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b; \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0906\u0917\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0936, \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0926\u093f\u0928 \u092f\u093e \u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0947\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Cultural differences.<\/strong> Children from a different culture may have a problem understanding the content of questions or situations appearing in the tests<\/strong> \u2014 for example, Jewish or Muslim children might have trouble with questions centring on Christmas or Easter<\/strong>. This is precisely the cultural bias<\/strong> that \u00a77.7 requires to be removed at the item-writing stage.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/strong> \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092f\u0939\u0942\u0926\u0940 \u092f\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0932\u093f\u092e \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0938 \u092f\u093e \u0908\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u00a77.7 \u092a\u0926-\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Economic differences.<\/strong> Children from homes where money is scarce are disadvantaged in many ways<\/strong>. As well as lacking proper nourishment<\/strong>, they may never have been to a farm, a zoo or a circus<\/strong>; any reference to these or other sites familiar to most students will puzzle them and negatively affect their scores<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0906\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u0918\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0916\u0947\u0924, \u091a\u093f\u0921\u093c\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0918\u0930 \u092f\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0938 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0917\u090f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947; \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0907\u0928 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u091d\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>C. Environmental factors<\/span>\u0917. \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 The critical period, and fluid intelligence<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0930\u0932 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/div>\n Neurobiological theory holds that the development of a human's various forms of intelligence usually ends by the age of 16<\/strong>, when a critical point<\/strong> is reached; after this point of intellectual maturity, IQ is thought to be relatively stable<\/strong>. The environment has its biggest effect in determining fluid intelligence up to that critical point<\/strong>. Fluid intelligence<\/strong> is the ability to think logically in verbal and spatial terms and to detect patterns<\/strong>. For a person to develop certain intellectual abilities, they must be provided with the appropriate environmental stimuli during childhood, before the critical period for adapting neuronal connections ends<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u091c\u0948\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092e\u0928\u0941\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 16 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u0906 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0935\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0907\u0938 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d IQ \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0909\u0938 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0924\u0915 \u0924\u0930\u0932 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0924\u0930\u0932 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935, \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The environmental factors named as affecting test performance are: modern media, education, breast feeding, womb conditions, nutrition, pollution, nurture and parenting, prejudices and self-belief, national culture, head injuries, sleep problems, drug and alcohol abuse, mental illnesses, stress and diseases<\/strong>. Of these, modern media<\/strong> is singled out for comment: television, film, computer games, electronic gadgets, the internet and software give people a cognitive workout each time they participate<\/strong>, since games, software and gadgets require great analytical effort<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u092f\u0947 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0928\u092a\u093e\u0928, \u0917\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093e\u0936\u092f\u0940 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0942\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u093e\u0932\u0928-\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938, \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u093f\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u094b\u091f\u0947\u0902, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092e\u093e\u0926\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0926\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u094b\u0917, \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940 \u0939\u0948: \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928, \u091a\u0932\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0916\u0947\u0932, \u0907\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0928\u0947\u091f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0949\u092b\u093c\u094d\u091f\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u093e\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0916\u0947\u0932, \u0938\u0949\u092b\u093c\u094d\u091f\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n How to organise this in an answer, and what it connects to.<\/strong> Present the three groups in the order the syllabus names them \u2014 nature of test, psychological, environmental<\/strong> \u2014 and note the logical distinction that holds them together: factors in the first group affect all examinees roughly equally and are therefore properties of the instrument<\/strong>, correctable by moderation and by the item analysis of \u00a73.9; factors in the second and third groups vary from examinee to examinee<\/strong> and constitute error variance<\/strong>, which is precisely what depresses the reliability coefficient of \u00a72.4. Stating that link \u2014 these factors are the concrete content of the abstract term 'error of measurement'<\/strong> \u2014 is what turns a memorised list into an argument.<\/span>\n \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0949\u0921\u0930\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940-\u0926\u0930-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u00a72.4 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 '\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f' \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"6\" id=\"c6\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 6<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 6<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Evaluation Systems, Marking and Grading<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Integrated Approach of Evaluation; Marking System \u2014 Need, Problems and Components; Grading \u2014 Need, Problems, Components and Methods; Methods of Feedback for Students<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e; \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u2014 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0915; \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-0\">\n 6.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The preceding units treated evaluation as something done to a pupil<\/em> \u2014 a test constructed, administered, scored and interpreted. This unit widens the frame. Evaluation of the pupil is inseparable from evaluation of the curriculum, the programme and the institution<\/strong>; the marks that result must be communicated through a defensible system<\/strong>; and the communication is worthless unless it returns to the learner as feedback that tells him what to do next<\/strong>. Those three concerns \u2014 integration, marking and feedback \u2014 form this unit, together with the two questions that hang over every score ever awarded: what makes it continuous rather than terminal, and what other than knowledge influenced it<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0930\u091a\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f; \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0901\u0921\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-1\">\n 6.1<\/span>\n <h3>Integrated Approach of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 The three components every evaluation must contain<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/div>\n Evaluation theorists and practising evaluators emphasise three key components of evaluation: (a) the process of gathering information; (b) forming judgments about the worth of the phenomena; and (c) using judgments for taking educational decisions.<\/strong> These three steps apply whether what is being evaluated is a curriculum, a programme or the learner<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: (\u0915) \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e; (\u0916) \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e; \u0924\u0925\u093e (\u0917) \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u092c \u092d\u0940 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u092c \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n \n The argument for integration runs as follows. Pupil evaluation is dependent on the programmes undertaken to transact the curriculum<\/strong>, which in turn have impact on pupils' achievement. Pupils' learning is also conditioned by the learning milieu of the school<\/strong> \u2014 its plant facilities, services, personnel, money, material and social environment. Curriculum transaction, programme effects and pupils' learning are therefore all commensurate with institutional effectiveness<\/strong>. Hence the emerging demand on today's evaluators is to integrate pupils' evaluation with curriculum evaluation, programme evaluation and institutional self-evaluation<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0935\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0938\u0947\u0935\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0915, \u0927\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0906\u091c \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092d\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Curriculum evaluation<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Four components must each be evaluated: (a) curriculum objectives, (b) curriculum content, (c) curriculum process and methodology of teaching and learning, and (d) outcomes of learning<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915: (\u0915) \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, (\u0916) \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, (\u0917) \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093f, \u0924\u0925\u093e (\u0918) \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Programme evaluation<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong>The programmes undertaken to transact the curriculum<\/strong> \u2014 their design, resourcing and effect on achievement.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u2014 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Institutional self-evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong>A planned and organised inquiry carried out by the staff, students and principal<\/strong> into the total effectiveness of institutional operations<\/strong>, to find adequacies and inadequacies on the basis of which teaching, learning and assessment can be improved.<\/span>\u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Pupil evaluation<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong>The subject of Units 1 to 5 \u2014 but now understood as one component of a larger whole<\/strong> rather than a self-contained activity.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0938\u0947 5 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092c \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc Institutional Self-Evaluation is not the same as CCE<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 CCE \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n In the Indian context, institutional self-evaluation is a form of school-based evaluation, usually called Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation<\/strong> \u2014 but it cannot be equated with CCE<\/strong>. CCE refers to the concept, model, assessment procedure, tools of measurement, marking, grading and reporting of subject-wise results to pupils<\/strong>. The distinction is one of focus: the focus of CCE is on pupils' assessment and their improvement; the focus of ISE is on school effectiveness \u2014 assessing the institution as a whole, not pupils alone<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 CCE \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 CCE \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0936\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928, \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928<\/strong>\u0964 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948: CCE \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948; ISE \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n ISE thus aims at determining the efforts, efficiency and effectiveness of the institution<\/strong>, covering pupils' attainments, teachers' instructional impact, the learning milieu, utilisation of resources<\/strong> and all conditions that contribute to or hinder school processes. It fits into the formative\u2013summative model of Scriven (1972)<\/strong>, and may be undertaken annually or every two to three years<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u0903 ISE \u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938, \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0927\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0928 (1972) \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u2013\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0926\u094b-\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>The four essential characteristics of institutional self-evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>A pluralistic approach to institutional analysis and review<\/strong> \u2014 identify the institutional clientele (students, teachers, administrators, parents) who are ready to participate, and let the participants themselves identify specific problems and suggest solutions<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0932\u094b\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0939\u093f\u0924\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 (\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915) \u0915\u094b \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u091c\u094b \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Using psychometric and descriptive approaches<\/strong> for data collection and processing \u2014 open discussion among participant observers, emotional interaction of parents and community, extensive data collection and interpretation, and research support.<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Using humanistic illuminative evaluation<\/strong> \u2014 the views and concerns of all stakeholders<\/strong>: principal, staff, students and auxiliary staff; alumni, employers and receiving colleges; the managing committee, community and PTA representatives; and curriculum and evaluation experts for technical knowhow, not for judgment<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u093f\u0924\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094b\u0915\u093e\u0930: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940; \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 PTA \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Using reports and documentary evidence<\/strong> \u2014 the analysis of inspectors' and supervisors' visitation reports over the years, alongside the institution's own records.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The sentence that carries the whole section.<\/strong> Since pupils' evaluation is dependent on curriculum intentions or restrictions, pupil evaluation and curriculum evaluation are closely related<\/strong> \u2014 a poor score may indicate a poor learner, but it may equally indicate an unsuitable objective, an inaccurate content selection, or an ineffective method<\/strong>. The integrated approach exists precisely so that the system examines itself before it condemns the child<\/strong>, which is the same principle met at \u00a73.9 in item analysis and again in the no-detention reasoning of educational law.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u094b \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0918\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u0905\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0937\u0940 \u0920\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0947<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u00a73.9 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u0947\u0927 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-2\">\n 6.2<\/span>\n <h3>Marking System: Need, Problems and Components<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940: \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What a marking system is<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Marks and marking systems are deeply embedded in the educational culture<\/strong> \u2014 marks are performance indicators<\/strong>, and they have become the basis of decisions for promotion, selection, employment and teacher evaluation<\/strong>. A marking system is basically a system of communication<\/strong>. If teachers do not assign marks in conformity with the policies reflecting the system, the marks lose their significance and the system fails to serve its function<\/strong>. The degree to which marks have the same meaning for all who use them<\/strong> is what makes the communication meaningful \u2014 and since the marks of one institution concern teachers of other schools and institutions, the meaning of each mark must be clearly defined<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928 \u091a\u0941\u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0916\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Absolute marking<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Numerical marks in terms of percentage, varying from zero to 100.<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 100 \u0924\u0915\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Called absolute<\/strong> precisely because a student's mark is independent of other students' marks<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-divider\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Letter marking<\/span>\u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Based on the use of a small number of letter marks<\/strong> \u2014 often five: A, B, C, D and F<\/strong> \u2014 to express various levels of performance.<\/span>\u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a: A, B, C, D \u090f\u0935\u0902 F<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924, \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Leads naturally into the grading systems of \u00a76.3<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u00a76.3 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Need of the marking system \u2014 by whose need<\/span>\u0915. \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Whose need<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What the marks are needed for<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Students<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\">\n <li>To know their present performance and rate of progress<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f-\u0926\u0930<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To know their adequacies and inadequacies in learning<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To compare their performance with their classmates<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To know their potentials and limitations in various subject areas<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Parents<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\">\n <li>To know whether their ward is progressing satisfactorily in the class<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0937\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To be alerted if some problems are developing<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0938\u091a\u0947\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To help them plan for the future of their child<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To know how to use marks on standardised test scores for decision making<\/strong> about further education.<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Teachers<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\">\n <li>To know in general the performance of students in terms of syllabus tested<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To identify the areas of weakness for remedial teaching<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To judge the effectiveness of their instruction<\/strong> on the basis of students' performance.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To find out if certain topics or concepts in the curriculum are beyond the students' level<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092f\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0947<\/strong> \u0924\u094b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">Administrators<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\">\n <li>To compare inter-school performance<\/strong> of students.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To judge whether tests from different schools compare well in terms of instructional objectives tested<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To ensure that the intended learning outcomes are being tested properly<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>To maintain inter-subject and intra-school parity of performance standards<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903-\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>B. The three technical questions in marking<\/span>\u0916. \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \u2696\ufe0f These three questions must be answered before<\/strong> any mark is awarded. A marking system that has not settled them is producing numbers whose meaning nobody can state.<\/span>\n \u2696\ufe0f \u0907\u0928 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0930\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n What should a mark be based on?<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b?<\/span><\/strong>\n Should it be an appraisal of competence in a curriculum portion<\/strong>? Should it be modified by other factors<\/strong> \u2014 amount of work completed, neatness, legibility, oral expression, scholastic aptitude? Should it be judged by a common standard or in relation to the student's own potential<\/strong>? And what type of tests, exercises or behaviours<\/strong> would provide the evidence the mark is to represent?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b? \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e? \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong>? \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0902\u0917\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0947?<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n How should different components be weighted?<\/span>\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b?<\/span><\/strong>\n Three measures govern: validity<\/strong> \u2014 what the indicator actually provides and the faithfulness with which it reflects it; reliability<\/strong> \u2014 the more the errors of measurement, the less the weight, giving highest reliability to objective tests, less to essay type and lowest to orals<\/strong>; and effective weight<\/strong>, which is determined by the standard deviation<\/strong> of each component, not by the nominal maximum marks.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0915\u092e, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e, \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093e\u092e\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n How many categories should be used?<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902?<\/span><\/strong>\n Reporting may use 2 categories (pass\u2013fail, mastery\u2013non-mastery), 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, or up to 100<\/strong>. As the number of categories increases, the number of borderline decisions increases correspondingly \u2014 but each decision becomes less crucial<\/strong> for the student's total academic record. There is thus a trade-off between increased frequency of potential error and decreased importance of that error<\/strong>, and the number of categories is related to the reliability of marking<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 2 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 (\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923\u2013\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e\u2013\u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e), 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e 100 \u0924\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u0947 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0938\u094c\u0926\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 effective weight is fixed by the SD, not by the maximum marks<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, SD \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>A teacher combines a test<\/strong> (M = 60, \u03c3 = 10) with a term paper<\/strong> (M = 3.0, \u03c3 = 0.5 on a 5-point scale), intending the test to carry twice<\/strong> the weight of the paper.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> (M = 60, \u03c3 = 10) \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> (M = 3.0, \u03c3 = 0.5, 5-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930) \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>If the marks are combined as they stand<\/strong>, the ratio of the standard deviations is 10 : 0.5, so the test would have twenty times<\/strong> the effect of the paper on the combined score \u2014 ten times more than intended.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902-\u0915\u0947-\u0924\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0924\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 10 : 0.5 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u0938 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0938 \u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Multiply the term-paper score by 10<\/strong>. Its mean becomes 3.0 \u00d7 10 = 30<\/strong> and its SD becomes 0.5 \u00d7 10 = 5.0<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b 10<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 3.0 \u00d7 10 = 30<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e SD 0.5 \u00d7 10 = 5.0<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>The two standard deviations now stand at 10 and 5 \u2014 a ratio of 2 : 1<\/strong>, with means of 60 and 30. The test now carries exactly twice<\/strong> the effective weight, as intended. The lesson: a component's influence on a combined score is governed by its standard deviation, not by the marks nominally allotted to it<\/strong> \u2014 which is why \u00a74.4 B insisted that variability be understood before scores are ever combined.<\/span>\u0905\u092c \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 10 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 2 : 1<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 60 \u090f\u0935\u0902 30\u0964 \u0905\u092c \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0925\u093e\u0964 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092f\u0939: \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u00a74.4 \u0916 \u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0925\u093e \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Advantages of a marking system<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Provides a precise, quantitative and easily communicated record<\/strong> of performance.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Permits comparison across students, subjects, schools and years<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Supplies the basis for promotion, selection, employment and award decisions<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u091a\u092f\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Enables the teacher to identify weaknesses for remedial teaching<\/strong> and to judge instructional effectiveness.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Problems of a marking system<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Marks lose their significance when teachers do not apply the system's policies consistently<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u092c \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0916\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The same mark carries different meanings in different institutions<\/strong>, defeating the communication purpose.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A single mark conceals what it is composed of<\/strong> \u2014 achievement, neatness, effort and aptitude may all be silently mixed into it.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0918\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u092c \u092e\u094c\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Combining components without regard to their standard deviations<\/strong> silently distorts the intended weighting, as the worked example above shows.<\/span>\u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u094c\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Fine-grained scales multiply borderline decisions<\/strong> and depend on a marking reliability that essay and oral components rarely possess.<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u0932\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-4\">\n 6.3<\/span>\n <h3>Trends in Evaluation: Grading, Credit System and Cumulative Record Card<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Grading<\/span>\u0915. \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What grading is and why it came<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0906\u0908<\/span><\/div>\n Grading<\/strong> is the practice of reporting achievement in broad categories or letter symbols \u2014 A, B, C, D, E<\/strong> \u2014 instead of exact numerical marks. It arose from a simple recognition: the marks system claims a precision it does not possess<\/strong>. A difference of one mark between two candidates is well within the error of measurement described in \u00a72.4, yet under a marks system it can decide a merit position, a scholarship or an admission.<\/span>\n \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u2014 A, B, C, D, E<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0908: \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u00a72.4 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Type 1<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 1<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Absolute Grading<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Grades are fixed by predetermined ranges of marks<\/strong> \u2014 90\u2013100 = A, 80\u201389 = B, and so on.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u2014 90\u2013100 = A, 80\u201389 = B, \u0907\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Performance is judged against a fixed standard<\/strong>, not against other pupils.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>All pupils may get A, or all may fail<\/strong> \u2014 this is criterion-referenced<\/strong> grading (\u00a75.1).<\/span>\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 A \u092a\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0939\u0948 (\u00a75.1)\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Weakness: it depends entirely on the difficulty of the paper<\/strong>, which varies from year to year.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e: \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937-\u0926\u0930-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Type 2<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 2<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Relative Grading (grading on the curve)<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 (\u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917)<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Grades are fixed by the pupil's position in the group<\/strong>, using \u03c3-distances from the mean.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A fixed percentage of pupils<\/strong> gets each grade, following the normal curve of \u00a74.10.<\/span>\u00a74.10 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Someone must always get the top grade and someone the bottom \u2014 this is norm-referenced<\/strong> grading.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0905\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Weakness: a pupil's grade depends on who else happened to sit the examination<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e: \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Merits of grading<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Removes the false precision<\/strong> of a single mark and acknowledges the error of measurement<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u091d\u0942\u0920\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Ends the cut-throat competition<\/strong> for one extra mark and the tyranny of the merit list<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0918\u093e\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reduces examination stress<\/strong> and unhealthy rivalry<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Broad categories are more reliable<\/strong> than exact marks, since small errors do not shift the grade<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easier for parents and pupils to understand<\/strong> and act on<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Fits CCE<\/strong> and the assessment of non-scholastic areas, where exact marks are meaningless<\/span>CCE<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Recommended by the Kothari Commission, NPE 1986, NCF 2005<\/strong> and NEP 2020<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0920\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917, NPE 1986, NCF 2005<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits of grading<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>There is a loss of information<\/strong> \u2014 a pupil at 89 and one at 80 receive the same B<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 89 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 80 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 B \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Pupils just below a grade boundary<\/strong> feel unfairly treated, and the boundary itself is arbitrary<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0930\u0939 \u0917\u090f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Under relative grading a pupil's grade depends on the strength of his batch<\/strong>, not on his own learning<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0948\u091a \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Employers and higher institutions often demand marks<\/strong> for selection, forcing a reconversion<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0924\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Can reduce motivation<\/strong> among high achievers, since further effort earns no visible reward within the band<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a-\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Requires teacher training<\/strong> and moderation, without which grading becomes as arbitrary as marking.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. The Credit System<\/span>\u0916. \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n A credit<\/strong> is a unit measuring the volume of learning<\/strong> in a course, normally reckoned as one credit for one hour of theory or two hours of practical work per week through a semester<\/strong>. Achievement is expressed as a grade point<\/strong>, and the two are combined into an average.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u094b \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0915\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">SGPA and CGPA<\/span>SGPA \u090f\u0935\u0902 CGPA<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n SGPA = \u03a3 ( Credit \u00d7 Grade Point ) \/ \u03a3 Credits CGPA = the same, computed across all<\/em> semesters<\/span><\/span>\n SGPA = \u03a3 ( \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u00d7 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 ) \/ \u03a3 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f CGPA = \u0935\u0939\u0940, \u0938\u092d\u0940<\/em> \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n Notice that this is a weighted mean<\/b> \u2014 the very statistic of \u00a74.4, with credits acting as the weights. A four-credit paper therefore counts twice as heavily as a two-credit paper, which is the whole point of the system. The Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)<\/b> adds to this a structure of core, elective and foundation courses<\/b>, so that a student can build his own combination; and the Academic Bank of Credit<\/b> under NEP 2020 lets those credits be stored and transferred between institutions.<\/span>\n \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a74.4 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094b-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0907\u0938 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u092e (CBCS)<\/b> \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0930, \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902<\/b> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947; \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0915\u093e\u0926\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/b> \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 computing SGPA<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 SGPA \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Paper<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Credits (C)<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f (C)<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Grade<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Grade Point (G)<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 (G)<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">C \u00d7 G<\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Paper I<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 I<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">A<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">36<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Paper II<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 II<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">B<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">32<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Paper III<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 III<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">C<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">14<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Practical<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">A<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">18<\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Total<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">12<\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2014<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">100<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>\u03a3(C \u00d7 G) = 36 + 32 + 14 + 18 = 100<\/strong>; \u03a3C = 12<\/strong>.<\/span>\u03a3(C \u00d7 G) = 36 + 32 + 14 + 18 = 100<\/strong>; \u03a3C = 12<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>SGPA = 100 \/ 12 = 8.33<\/strong><\/span>SGPA = 100 \/ 12 = 8.33<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Note that the simple average of the four grade points would be (9+8+7+9)\/4 = 8.25. The SGPA is higher because the heavier four-credit papers carried the better grades<\/strong> \u2014 which is exactly what weighting is meant to capture.<\/span>\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0914\u0938\u0924 (9+8+7+9)\/4 = 8.25 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964 SGPA \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947 \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>C. The Cumulative Record Card<\/span>\u0917. \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n A cumulative record card (CRC)<\/strong> is a permanent, continuously maintained record of all significant information about a pupil<\/strong> \u2014 personal, physical, academic, social and psychological \u2014 gathered year after year throughout his school career<\/strong>. Where a mark sheet is a photograph of one moment, the CRC is a film of the whole journey<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 (CRC)<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940, \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937-\u0926\u0930-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 CRC \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u0932\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel neu\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u25b8<\/span>What it contains<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Identifying data<\/strong> \u2014 name, date of birth, address, parentage<\/span>\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0928\u093e\u092e, \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0925\u093f, \u092a\u0924\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Home background<\/strong> \u2014 parents' occupation and education, siblings, socio-economic condition<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092d\u093e\u0908-\u092c\u0939\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915-\u0906\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Health record<\/strong> \u2014 height, weight, vision, hearing, illnesses<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f-\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u2014 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0930, \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923, \u0930\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Academic record<\/strong> \u2014 marks or grades, attendance, promotion, subjects<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921, \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Test results<\/strong> \u2014 intelligence, aptitude, interest, personality (\u00a710.2, \u00a710.3)<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 (\u00a710.2, \u00a710.3)<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Co-curricular achievement<\/strong> \u2014 games, arts, NCC, NSS<\/span>\u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0916\u0947\u0932, \u0915\u0932\u093e, NCC, NSS<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Behavioural notes<\/strong> \u2014 anecdotal records, habits, special traits<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0906\u0926\u0924\u0947\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Guidance given<\/strong> and the pupil's own stated aims.<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel neu\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u25b8<\/span>Its uses<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Gives a comprehensive picture of the whole child<\/strong>, not merely his marks \u2014 the \"comprehensive\" of CCE made concrete<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 CCE \u0915\u093e \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Enables the teacher to see growth over time<\/strong> and to spot a sudden decline early<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0915\u0938\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0917\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0935\u091f \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Provides the evidence base for educational and vocational guidance<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Helps in diagnosing<\/strong> persistent difficulty by showing when it began<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u092c \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Passes information on when the pupil changes class, teacher or school<\/strong><\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Assists in writing testimonials and recommendations<\/strong> honestly<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Helps the school communicate with parents<\/strong> on evidence rather than impression<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Is the direct ancestor of the holistic progress card<\/strong> of NEP 2020.<\/span>NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-3\">\n 6.4<\/span>\n <h3>Methods of Feedback for Students<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What feedback is<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Feedback refers to the information teachers give to learners about their performance on an assessment.<\/strong> If the teacher's role is seen as that of a facilitator of learning<\/strong>, then assessment feedback becomes an opportunity for children to learn<\/strong> \u2014 which means it must provide constructive comments, suggestions on where the learner may improve, and acknowledgement of the learning and thinking already shown<\/strong>. Feedback may be written or verbal<\/strong>, and should address both how to improve and the effort made<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0936\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0924\u094b \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Positive feedback \u2014 what to do<\/span>\u0938\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Suggests to learners what they might do to improve<\/strong>. Examples given in the literature: \"I can see that you have tried very hard on this task.\"<\/em><\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923: \"\u092e\u0948\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0942\u0901 \u0915\u093f \u0906\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"You have been seriously thinking about this topic.\"<\/em><\/span>\"\u0906\u092a \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Try writing this sentence so it is clear that you are disagreeing with the author.\"<\/em><\/span>\"\u0907\u0938 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b \u0915\u093f \u0906\u092a \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"You have not included any labels for the diagram, check your exercise book if you are having trouble.\"<\/em><\/span>\"\u0906\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e; \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-divider\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side\">\n Negative feedback \u2014 what to avoid<\/span>\u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/span>\n <ul>\n <li>Usually does not help learners and should be avoided<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Makes learners feel unsuccessful, ashamed and unable to do the work<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0938\u092b\u0932, \u0932\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Instead of motivating, it tends to push learners away from accomplishing the desired tasks<\/strong>, and may hurt some children deeply<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0927\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0917\u0939\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u094b\u091f<\/strong> \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Expressions to avoid: \"Pull up your socks!\" \"You can do better.\" \"You have been lazy.\"<\/em><\/span>\u092c\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901: \"\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u0930 \u0915\u0938\u093f\u090f!\" \"\u0906\u092a \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\" \"\u0906\u092a \u0906\u0932\u0938\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\"<\/em><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u23f1\ufe0f Feedback must be timely<\/span>\u23f1\ufe0f \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/div>\n Learners should get back their assignments and projects with the feedback soon after they have handed them in<\/strong>. If a teacher waits too long to mark and hand back<\/strong> the work, the learners may not show much interest in the feedback, or may forget things about the work they did<\/strong> \u2014 and the feedback, however well written, then teaches nothing.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0935\u093e\u092a\u0938 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u092a\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0932\u0902\u092c<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0902, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0924\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0942\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u092c \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923, \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>The levels at which student feedback operates<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Lecturer<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>An individual lecturer or class<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/h5>\n The class teacher looks for endorsement of the teaching approach<\/strong>, but also for guidance on what worked, what did not, and how it might be improved next time<\/strong> \u2014 and may be more interested in how far the students understood what was taught than whether they liked it<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e, \u0928 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0938\u0902\u0926 \u0906\u092f\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Module<\/span>\u092e\u0949\u0921\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0932<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>A module or unit<\/span>\u092e\u0949\u0921\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908<\/span><\/h5>\n Feedback on a discrete teaching block, allowing revision of that block before it is taught again.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0916\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Programme<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>A course or programme<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/h5>\n The programme team looks for evidence that learning objectives had been met and that the programme as a whole cohered<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u0926\u0932 \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0916\u094b\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">4<\/span>Institution<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Departmental, institutional and beyond<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0917\u0940\u092f, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/span><\/h5>\n Committees examine feedback alongside a range of quality indicators<\/strong>, with interest in trend data, comparisons between programmes<\/strong>, and in using feedback to understand data from other sources \u2014 a higher than expected drop-out rate, or criticism by an external examiner<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u0947 \u2014 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f-\u0926\u0930, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f The failure mode: feedback as ritual<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a: \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n There is a real possibility that the purposes of the exercise have been lost in time<\/strong> \u2014 that it has become just another of the institution's rituals<\/strong>, that engagement has become largely an act of compliance<\/strong>, that feedback is collected but little is done with it<\/strong>, and that those involved see little point in it and have few expectations that change will occur<\/strong>. Where such a situation occurs, there is little point in collecting feedback data at all<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0907\u0938 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0916\u094b \u0917\u090f \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0921 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u093f \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0930\u0939 \u0917\u0908 \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0943\u0939\u0940\u0924 \u0924\u094b \u0939\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0928 \u091c\u093e\u090f<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0932\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0928 \u0939\u094b<\/strong>\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0939\u094b, \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923-\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n The remedy proposed is discussion about the purposes of student feedback \u2014 at suitable intervals, to check that purposes have not changed<\/strong> \u2014 including all who are involved: those providing data, those analysing and interpreting it, and those using it<\/strong>. The purposes of the users<\/strong> will have primacy.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u2014 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930, \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0932\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902: \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0917\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"7\" id=\"c7\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 7<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 7<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Examination Reform and Technology<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Semester System vs Annual System; Continuous Assessment; Portfolio Assessment; Question Bank; Use of Computer in Evaluation<\/span>\n \u0938\u0947\u092e\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940; \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915; \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-0\">\n 7.0<\/span>\n <h3>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Unit 2 dealt with tests of what the pupil has learnt<\/strong>. This unit turns to tests of what the pupil is<\/strong> \u2014 the psychological tests<\/strong> that measure intelligence, attitude, aptitude, interest and personality.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 2 \u0928\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e \u0915\u0940\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n A psychological test<\/strong> is \"an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour\"<\/strong> (Anne Anastasi)<\/em>. Two words carry the weight: the measurement is of a sample<\/strong> of behaviour, never of the whole person; and it is standardized<\/strong>, so that the same procedure is followed for everyone.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\"<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 (\u0910\u0928 \u090f\u0928\u093e\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0938\u0940)<\/em>\u0964 \u0926\u094b \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0939\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n Because psychological measurement is indirect and relative<\/strong> \u2014 as \u00a71.1 established \u2014 every such test is inferential: we observe responses and infer<\/strong> the trait behind them. This is why the qualities of \u00a72.1 matter more here than anywhere else.<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0939\u092e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u00a72.1 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>\n The second half of the unit turns from the instrument<\/strong> to the institution<\/strong> \u2014 the examination system as it stands, its defects, and the three reforms most discussed in India: examination reform generally, the open book examination and the semester system<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0927 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930, \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-4\">\n 7.1<\/span>\n <h3>Examination System: Current Strategies<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n An examination<\/strong> is the formal, institutional form of evaluation \u2014 the point at which the school's private judgement becomes a public certificate<\/strong>. \u00a71.8 listed fourteen purposes it serves. This section asks the harder question: how well does the present system actually serve them?<\/strong><\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u091c\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a71.8 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u094c\u0926\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?<\/strong><\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Features of the present examination system<\/span>\u0915. \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is largely external and terminal<\/strong> \u2014 a single public examination at the end of the year or course decides the pupil's fate.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is dominated by the essay-type written paper<\/strong>, with the defects of low objectivity and poor content sampling set out in \u00a79.1.<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u00a79.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It tests almost only the cognitive domain<\/strong>, and within that mainly the lowest level \u2014 knowledge and recall<\/strong> \u2014 leaving the affective and psychomotor domains of \u00a73.1 untouched.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a73.1 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u091b\u0942\u0924\u0947 \u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>It is norm-referenced and competitive<\/strong>: marks, divisions and merit lists rank pupils against one another rather than against a standard.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Recent decades have brought counter-currents \u2014 CCE, grading in place of marks, internal assessment, semesterization, the credit system and question banks<\/strong> \u2014 but these coexist with, rather than replace, the older pattern.<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0936\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0906\u0908 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 CCE, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u091a\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>B. Defects of the present examination system<\/span>\u0916. \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Low validity<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>It measures memory rather than understanding, application or the higher abilities the syllabus claims to develop.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u091d, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Low reliability<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>The same script marked by different examiners \u2014 or by the same examiner on a different day \u2014 receives different marks.<\/span>\u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u2014 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u2014 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Poor sampling<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/span><\/strong>A handful of questions cannot represent a year's syllabus, so success depends partly on the luck of the paper.<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u091f\u094d\u0920\u0940 \u092d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0939\u0926 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Encourages cramming<\/span>\u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Question-spotting, guide books and selective study are rational responses to a predictable, memory-based paper.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0905\u091f\u0915\u0932, \u0915\u0941\u0902\u091c\u0940-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0947\u092f, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Examination anxiety<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>A single terminal examination concentrates enormous pressure on a few days, producing stress and, at the extreme, tragedy.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u092a\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935 \u0914\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0926\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Malpractice<\/span>\u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>Because so much rides on one paper, copying, impersonation, leakage and other unfair means become attractive.<\/span>\u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0928\u0915\u0932, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923, \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0932\u0940\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>No diagnostic value<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/strong>A single aggregate mark tells neither pupil nor teacher where<\/em> the learning failed, so no remedial action follows.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/em> \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u0941\u0906, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Neglect of the whole child<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Attitudes, values, interests, practical and social skills go unrecorded, so what is not examined ceases to be taught.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u0928\u092d\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-43\">\n 7.2<\/span>\n <h3>Semester System<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Under the semester system<\/strong> the academic year is divided into two independent terms of about six months<\/strong>, each with its own courses, its own teaching and its own terminal examination. Achievement is certified at the end of every semester<\/strong> and accumulated, usually through a credit system<\/strong> and a cumulative grade point average (CGPA)<\/strong>, instead of being decided by one examination at the end of the year.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u091b\u0939-\u091b\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924 (CGPA)<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u2014 \u0928 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Traditional<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Annual System<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>One examination<\/strong> at the end of the session decides the whole year.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Syllabus is large and undivided<\/strong>; the pupil carries it all to the end.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong>; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u0924\u0915 \u0922\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Long gaps between teaching and testing, so feedback comes too late<\/strong> to be useful.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0930 \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Failure costs a whole year<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Simple to administer<\/strong> and cheap.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Reformed<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Semester System<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Two examinations<\/strong> a year, each certifying its own semester.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong>, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Syllabus is broken into manageable units<\/strong> and closed off as it is completed.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u092c\u0902\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Teaching and testing stay close together, so feedback is timely<\/strong> and remedial action is possible.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u094b\u091a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Failure costs one semester<\/strong>, and the credit already earned is not lost.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0928\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Heavy administrative load<\/strong> \u2014 twice the examinations, results and paperwork.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u094b\u091d<\/strong> \u2014 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Merits of the semester system<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Reduces the load<\/strong> on the pupil by dividing a year's syllabus into two<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Keeps students continuously engaged<\/strong> instead of studying only near the examination<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Brings frequent feedback<\/strong>, so weaknesses are found and corrected within the year<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Lowers examination anxiety<\/strong> \u2014 no single paper decides everything<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u092c \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0924\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Permits an elective and credit-based structure<\/strong>, giving the student choice and mobility<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Makes continuous internal assessment<\/strong> natural and workable<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Enables credit transfer<\/strong> between institutions, as NEP 2020 now provides<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e NEP 2020 \u0905\u092c \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Improves the reliability of the final result<\/strong>, since it rests on several measurements rather than one.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits and difficulties<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>The institution is in a state of perpetual examination<\/strong> \u2014 teaching time shrinks as evaluation time grows<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u093f\u0915\u0941\u0921\u093c \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Heavy administrative and clerical burden<\/strong>: two sets of papers, results, revaluations and convocations<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092c\u094b\u091d<\/strong>: \u0926\u094b-\u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e, \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Syllabus is often merely split, not redesigned<\/strong>, so the load is not really reduced<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Encourages short-term, unit-wise cramming<\/strong> and discourages wide reading<\/span>\u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0939\u0924\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Little time for co-curricular activity<\/strong>, projects or field work<\/span>\u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u092e<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Teachers become evaluators more than teachers<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Requires infrastructure, staff and computerization<\/strong> that many institutions lack<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Frequent internal assessment can invite favouritism and grade inflation<\/strong> unless moderated.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0906\u092e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-4\">\n 7.3<\/span>\n <h3>Continuous Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Continuous assessment is the mechanism whereby the final grading of a learner takes account of all performances during a given period of schooling<\/strong>, rather than resting on a single terminal examination. It is systematic, comprehensive, cumulative and guidance-oriented<\/strong>, and it is the operational answer to every criticism of the annual examination raised at \u00a77.1.<\/span>\n \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u0939 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0928 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u091f\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a77.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0920\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908 \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Systematic<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/strong>It follows a plan specifying what is to be assessed, when, by what instrument and against what criteria<\/strong> \u2014 not an accumulation of unplanned tests.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0915\u092c, \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0917\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0922\u0947\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Comprehensive<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915<\/span><\/strong>It covers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains<\/strong>, using the full range of tools and techniques set out at \u00a72.8 rather than the written test alone.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u00a72.8 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Cumulative<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Every decision about the learner draws on the record built up over time<\/strong>, so that a single bad day cannot determine an academic career.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092c\u0928\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0930\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0928 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0924\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Guidance-oriented<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0909\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916<\/span><\/strong>Its results are used to guide the learner and to inform remedial teaching<\/strong>, connecting it directly to the diagnostic testing of \u00a78.2.<\/span>\u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u00a78.2 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Advantages<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Reduces the chance element and examination stress<\/strong> of a single terminal test.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Yields a more reliable picture<\/strong>, since reliability rises with the number of independent observations.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Permits early identification of difficulty<\/strong> and hence timely remediation.<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Assesses qualities no single paper can reach<\/strong> \u2014 participation, practical skill, attitude, cooperation.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0939\u092d\u093e\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Problems<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Heavy demand on teacher time and record-keeping<\/strong>, particularly in large classes.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916-\u0930\u0916\u0930\u0916\u093e\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917<\/strong>, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Risk of subjectivity and favouritism<\/strong> where criteria are not explicit.<\/span>\u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094b\u0916\u093f\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Comparability across schools<\/strong> is hard to establish, which is why external moderation is required.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0949\u0921\u0930\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Degenerates into continuous testing rather than continuous assessment<\/strong> if every observation is turned into a mark.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u0924\u094b \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"toc-chapter collapsed\" data-chap=\"6\" style=\"margin-top: 10px;\">\n VI<\/span>\n \n Evaluation Systems<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span>\n <\/span>\n <svg class=\"chevron\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-width=\"3\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><polyline points=\"6 9 12 15 18 9\"><\/polyline><\/svg>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"toc-sub-wrapper\">\n <ul class=\"toc-sub\">\n <li><a href=\"#u6-0\">6.0<\/span>Introduction<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-1\">6.1<\/span>Integrated Approach of Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-2\">6.2<\/span>Marking System: Need, Problems, Components<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-3\">6.3<\/span>Methods of Feedback for Students<\/span>\u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-4\">6.4<\/span>Continuous Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-5\">6.5<\/span>Factors Influencing Test Scores<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <li><a href=\"#u6-6\">6.6<\/span>DEDU504 Syllabus Map<\/span>DEDU504 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-41\">\n 7.4<\/span>\n <h3>Reforms in the Examination System<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Every major Indian commission has said the same thing. The Secondary Education Commission (Mudaliar, 1952\u201353)<\/strong> attacked the single external examination; the Education Commission (Kothari, 1964\u201366)<\/strong> called for internal assessment and continuous evaluation; the National Policy on Education (1986)<\/strong> and the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005<\/strong> pressed for examination reform and CCE; and the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020<\/strong> has restated it once more.<\/span>\n \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0928\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917 (\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0930, 1952\u201353)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917 (\u0915\u094b\u0920\u093e\u0930\u0940, 1964\u201366)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0940; \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f (1986)<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e (NCF) 2005<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 CCE \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f (NEP) 2020<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Reform<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it corrects<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Spreads assessment across the year and across all three domains, so the terminal paper is no longer the only evidence. See \u00a71.3.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u00a71.3\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Internal assessment with external moderation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Brings in the teacher's continuous knowledge of the pupil, while moderation guards against inflation and bias.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Grading in place of raw marks<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Removes the false precision of a single mark and the cut-throat competition for one extra mark. Treated in Unit 5 \u00a76.3.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u091d\u0942\u0920\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0918\u093e\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u00a76.3 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Question banks and the blueprint<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A blueprint (\u00a73.9) guarantees content validity; a question bank of pre-tested items raises objectivity and ends question-spotting.<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f (\u00a73.9) \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0905\u091f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Mixed question paper<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Objective, short-answer and essay items together \u2014 objectivity and coverage from the first two, expression from the third.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923, \u0924\u0943\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td>\n <td>Scoring reforms<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Marking schemes with value points, question-wise rather than script-wise marking, central evaluation, double valuation of borderline scripts and coded answer books.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0942\u091f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td>\n <td>Semester system and credit system<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Breaks one annual verdict into several smaller ones and allows accumulation and transfer of credit. See \u00a77.2.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u00a77.2\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td>\n <td>Open book examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Removes the reward for memorization directly, by allowing the memorized material into the hall. See \u00a77.5.<\/span>\u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0930\u091f\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u00a77.5\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">9<\/td>\n <td>Technology in examination<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>On-screen marking, computer-based and on-demand testing, item-banking software and online result processing \u2014 treated in Unit 5 \u00a77.9.<\/span>\u0911\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0949\u092b\u093c\u094d\u091f\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5 \u00a77.9 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">10<\/td>\n <td>Anti-malpractice and welfare measures<\/span>\u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0923 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Multiple question-paper sets, secure transmission, flying squads; and on the welfare side, counselling, helplines and a second chance through supplementary examinations.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0947\u091f, \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0909\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0926\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0947; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0923-\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u0939\u0947\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n \n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-42\">\n 7.5<\/span>\n <h3>Open Book Examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n An open book examination<\/strong> is one in which candidates are permitted to consult their textbooks, notes or other prescribed material<\/strong> while answering. Its logic is simple and radical: if the material can be carried into the hall, then no question worth asking can be answered by memory alone<\/strong>. The examiner is therefore forced to set questions demanding understanding, application, analysis and judgement<\/strong> \u2014 the higher levels of \u00a73.1 A.<\/span>\n \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902, \u0928\u094b\u091f\u094d\u0938 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0939\u0948: \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u094b \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0932 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Three forms of the open book examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Restricted type<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>Only specified material<\/strong> \u2014 a prescribed textbook, a formula sheet or a statute book \u2014 may be brought in. The commonest form in practice.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0939\u093f\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Unrestricted type<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>The candidate may bring whatever material he wishes<\/strong>. Places the greatest demand on the quality of the question paper.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u091c\u094b \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u0932\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Take-home type<\/span>\u0917\u0943\u0939-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>The paper is taken away and answered over days<\/strong>, with full access to library and internet. Highest authenticity of task, lowest control over authorship.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0918\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u0915\u0908 \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u093e\u0932\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0928\u0947\u091f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0924\u092e, \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Kills rote memorization<\/strong> at the root \u2014 there is no point cramming material that may be carried in<\/span>\u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u0921\u093c \u0915\u093e\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Tests the higher cognitive abilities<\/strong>: application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a: \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Develops information-handling skills<\/strong> \u2014 locating, selecting and using a source, which is what adult professional work actually requires<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u0922\u0942\u0901\u0922\u093c\u0928\u093e, \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reduces examination anxiety<\/strong> and the fear of forgetting<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0942\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u092f \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discourages malpractice<\/strong>, since copying from a permitted book is no longer an offence and gains little<\/span>\u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0924\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0905\u092c \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093e\u092d \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u092e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Closer to real-life problem solving<\/strong>, where no doctor or engineer works from memory alone<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f, \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Encourages the reading of wider material<\/strong> during the course.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Setting the paper is very difficult<\/strong> \u2014 questions must be genuinely novel, and a lazy paper becomes a copying exercise<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0914\u0930 \u0906\u0932\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0915\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Scoring is harder and more subjective<\/strong>, since answers are longer and more varied<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Students may waste time searching<\/strong> instead of thinking, and the weak reader is penalized twice<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0922\u0942\u0901\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0917\u0901\u0935\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Not suitable for every subject<\/strong> \u2014 factual recall of terminology, formulae and vocabulary still has to be tested somewhere<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092d\u0902\u0921\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0928 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Requires more time<\/strong> per paper and a larger hall<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Can encourage superficial preparation<\/strong> in the belief that \"the book will be there\"<\/span>\"\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0924\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0917\u0940\" \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u0939\u0940 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0935\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>In the take-home form, authorship cannot be guaranteed<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0917\u0943\u0939-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u270d\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The point examiners look for.<\/strong> The open book examination does not make the examination easier \u2014 it makes it harder in a different way<\/strong>. It shifts the burden from the candidate's memory<\/strong> to the examiner's question-setting skill<\/strong>. A poorly set open book paper is worse than a closed book one; a well-set open book paper cannot be passed by cramming at all.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u094b \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0921\u093e\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0916\u0930\u093e\u092c \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u092c\u0941\u0930\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u091f\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-41\">\n 7.6<\/span>\n <h3>Issues and Problems<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Grade boundaries are arbitrary<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong>The line between B and C has to fall somewhere, and the pupil one mark below it suffers the full loss of a grade.<\/span>B \u090f\u0935\u0902 C \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0928 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0916\u0940\u0902\u091a\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0930\u0939 \u0917\u092f\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f \u0909\u0920\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Loss of fine discrimination<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Broad grades cannot separate candidates for a scholarship or a competitive admission, so marks are demanded again.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Grade inflation<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Where internal assessment is unmoderated, institutions compete by awarding ever-higher grades until the grade means nothing.<\/span>\u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u0947-\u0938\u0947-\u090a\u0901\u091a\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Comparability across institutions<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>An A from one college and an A from another may represent very different achievement, since standards and paper difficulty differ.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u093e A \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093e A \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Teacher preparation<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940<\/span><\/strong>Grading, CCE and the CRC all demand training that most teachers have never received; without it they become clerical rituals.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, CCE \u090f\u0935\u0902 CRC \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e; \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0921 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Record-keeping burden<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u091d<\/span><\/strong>A CRC properly maintained for forty pupils is heavy clerical work, and in overcrowded schools it is filled in hurriedly at the year's end \u2014 destroying its whole purpose.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0940\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e CRC \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092d\u0940\u0921\u093c\u092d\u093e\u0921\u093c \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u0932\u094d\u0926\u092c\u093e\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0928\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Subjectivity and bias<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/strong>Behavioural notes on a CRC reflect the recording teacher's impression; an early adverse remark can follow a child for years \u2014 the labelling danger noted in \u00a710.2.<\/span>CRC \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a710.2 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0932\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0947\u092c\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u0916\u093c\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Confidentiality<\/span>\u0917\u094b\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>The CRC holds sensitive family, health and psychological data. It must be kept secure and used only for the pupil's benefit, never as a means of exposure.<\/span>CRC \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-42\">\n 7.7<\/span>\n <h3>Inclusive and Equitable Assessment<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0932\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Every principle so far has assumed a pupil who can see the paper, hold a pen, sit for three hours and read the language of instruction. For a substantial minority that assumption is false \u2014 and when it is, the test stops measuring the trait it names and starts measuring the disability instead. This is a validity<\/strong> problem before it is anything else.<\/span>\n \u0905\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0947, \u0915\u0932\u092e \u092a\u0915\u0921\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0947, \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u0948\u0920 \u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0924\u092c \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 The governing principle<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/div>\n An accommodation is a change in how<\/strong> a pupil is assessed, never in what<\/strong> is assessed. Its purpose is to remove a barrier that is irrelevant to the construct<\/strong> \u2014 so that a mathematics test measures mathematics and not handwriting speed or eyesight. If a change alters the construct itself, it is no longer an accommodation but a modification<\/strong>, and the score is no longer comparable.<\/span>\n \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0907\u0938 \u092c\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u094b, \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u2014 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0935\u091f \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0926\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0939\u0940 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0947 \u0924\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Category<\/span>\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Accommodations commonly provided<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Presentation<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Question paper in Braille or large print<\/strong>; a reader<\/strong> for the visually impaired; oral delivery of instructions; sign-language interpretation for the hearing impaired; simplified language where language is not the construct.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u092c\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093e\u091a\u0915<\/strong>; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u091a\u0928; \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923\u092c\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0935\u093e\u0926; \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0917 \u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Response<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A scribe or amanuensis<\/strong>; use of a computer, typewriter or calculator; oral response in place of written; answers marked in the question booklet itself.<\/span>\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915 (\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0924\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915)<\/strong>; \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930, \u091f\u0902\u0915\u0923-\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0932\u0915\u0941\u0932\u0947\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917; \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930; \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Timing and scheduling<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Extra time<\/strong> \u2014 commonly 20 minutes per hour; supervised rest breaks; the paper split across sessions; scheduling at the pupil's best time of day.<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0918\u0902\u091f\u093e 20 \u092e\u093f\u0928\u091f; \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e-\u0905\u0935\u0915\u093e\u0936; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928; \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Setting<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0936<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A separate room<\/strong> or small group; special seating and lighting; a distraction-reduced environment; assistive technology permitted.<\/span>\u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939; \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928-\u0930\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923; \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Content and scoring<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Exemption<\/strong> from a component genuinely inaccessible \u2014 for example diagrams for a blind candidate or the oral component for the speech impaired \u2014 with an alternative question<\/strong> of equal weight; spelling errors not penalized for a dyslexic pupil in a non-language paper.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0917\u092e\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u0942\u091f<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0939\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d-\u092c\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924; \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0921\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Universal Design for Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092d\u094c\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/strong>Rather than adjusting a test afterwards for a few, design it from the start to be accessible to all<\/strong> \u2014 clear layout, plain language, multiple means of representation and response. UDL turns accommodation from an exception into a design principle.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0932\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f, \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092c\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u0941\u0917\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0907\u090f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0935\u093f\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938, \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u0964 UDL \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a-\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Test bias and fairness<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>An item is biased<\/strong> when pupils of equal ability but different background succeed on it at different rates \u2014 an item drawing on urban experience, for instance. This is the culture-fairness<\/strong> problem of \u00a710.2 stated at the level of the single item.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u0926 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0924\u092c \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0917\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u00a710.2 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Policy basis in India<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act 2016<\/strong> guarantees reasonable accommodation and lays down the scribe and extra-time provisions; NEP 2020<\/strong> requires assessment to be inclusive and equitable; and boards issue standing circulars listing permissible accommodations by category.<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0917\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930 (RPwD) \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e 2016<\/strong> \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; NEP 2020<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0947\u0936\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0932\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Equality versus equity<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong>Equality<\/strong> gives every pupil the identical paper under identical conditions. Equity<\/strong> gives each what he needs to show what he knows. Only the second yields a valid<\/strong> score, because the first measures disability along with attainment.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The sentence that settles the usual objection.<\/strong> People often say extra time or a scribe gives an \"unfair advantage\". The answer is that an accommodation does not raise the score of a pupil who does not need it \u2014 it only removes a source of error variance<\/strong> for the pupil who does. In the language of \u00a72.4, it reduces E<\/strong> so that the obtained score comes closer to the true score T<\/strong>. Far from distorting measurement, a correctly chosen accommodation improves both reliability and validity<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0906\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u0932\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915 \"\u0905\u0928\u0941\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u093e\u092d\" \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0909\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a72.4 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0935\u0939 E<\/strong> \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 T<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0906\u090f\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f, \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-43\">\n 7.8<\/span>\n <h3>Recent Trends, ICT-Supported Evaluation and the National Education Policy 2020<\/span>\u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, ICT-\u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Trends already covered in these units, and two that are not<\/span>\u0915. \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0928 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u094b \u091c\u094b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Trend<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Covered above?<\/span>\u090a\u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924?<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Note<\/span>\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Learner-centred assessment strategies<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0930\u0923\u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a71.3<\/td><td>CCE and self-assessment; the \"assessment AS learning\" of \u00a71.4.<\/span>CCE \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u00a71.4 \u0915\u093e \"\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\"\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Question banks<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a77.4<\/td><td>Pre-tested items drawn against a blueprint.<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Semester system<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a77.2<\/td><td>Fully treated with merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Continuous internal evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a77.4<\/td><td>Internal assessment with external moderation.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>CBCS and marking versus grading<\/span>CBCS \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a76.3<\/td><td>SGPA, CGPA and the grading debate.<\/span>SGPA, CGPA \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Open book examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2713 \u00a77.5<\/td><td>Three forms, merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a, \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#fff9ef;\"><td>On-demand examination<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u2717<\/strong><\/td><td>An ICT-enabled scheme<\/strong> letting the learner appear when he is ready<\/strong>, walking in at a selected centre at any time. A blend of ICT with the traditional system, made necessary by the demand for flexibility and the changing profile of learners \u2014 pioneered in India by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS)<\/strong>.<\/span>ICT-\u0938\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0926\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0915\u0930\u0964 ICT \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u0947\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 (NIOS)<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#fff9ef;\"><td>Online examination<\/span>\u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">~<\/strong><\/td><td>Touched at \u00a77.9, but note the distinction: it is ICT support to assessment<\/strong>, distinct from on-demand examination, which is about when<\/em> the pupil appears rather than how<\/em>.<\/span>\u00a77.9 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u0947\u0926 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093f\u090f: \u092f\u0939 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u094b ICT \u0938\u0939\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947<\/em> \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u092c<\/em> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0926\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>B. NEP 2020 on assessment and evaluation<\/span>\u0916. NEP 2020 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Notified 29 July 2020<\/strong>; restructured school education from 10+2 to the 5+3+3+4<\/strong> pattern. Frequently asked as a \"recent trends\" question, and the natural continuation of the CCE argument in \u00a71.3.<\/span>\n 29 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2020<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u0924; \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094b 10+2 \u0938\u0947 5+3+3+4<\/strong> \u0922\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \"\u0928\u0935\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\" \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00a71.3 \u0915\u0947 CCE \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Beyond rote learning<\/strong> to competency- and outcome-based<\/strong> assessment measuring analysis, critical thinking and conceptual clarity.<\/span>\u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/strong> \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u093e- \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>360-degree multi-dimensional assessment<\/strong> with a holistic progress card<\/strong> combining self, peer and teacher assessment<\/strong> \u2014 an important link between home and school (NEP 2020, pp. 17\u201318).<\/span>360-\u0905\u0902\u0936 \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935, \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0918\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0921\u093c\u0940 (NEP 2020, \u092a\u0943. 17\u201318)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Explicit assessment of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains<\/strong> \u2014 the three domains of \u00a73.1, now written into national policy.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u2014 \u00a73.1 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0905\u092c \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Multi-layered and multi-source<\/strong> assessment; self, peer and group<\/strong> assessment; assessment for holistic development<\/strong>; and assessment within a 10-day bag-less curriculum<\/strong> (NEP 2020, p. 16).<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u0938\u094d\u0935, \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941<\/strong> \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928; \u0924\u0925\u093e 10-\u0926\u093f\u0935\u0938\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e-\u0930\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 (NEP 2020, \u092a\u0943. 16)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>At higher levels, the Academic Bank of Credit<\/strong>, credit transfer<\/strong> and multiple entry and multiple exit (MEME)<\/strong> \u2014 making the credit reform of \u00a76.3 national policy.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0915\u093e\u0926\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 (MEME)<\/strong> \u2014 \u00a76.3 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>New bodies and platforms: PARAKH<\/strong> (Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development) as the national assessment centre, the National Testing Agency (NTA)<\/strong>, assessment under SWAYAM<\/strong> (Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds), and the National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE) 2023<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0902\u091a: \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 PARAKH<\/strong>, \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938\u0940<\/strong>, SWAYAM<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e NCFSE 2023<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <h4>C. System-level purposes of evaluation<\/span>\u0917. \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n \n \u00a71.8 lists fourteen purposes, almost all classroom-facing. These five look at the system and the institution<\/strong> and round out any long answer on \"why evaluate\".<\/span>\n \u00a71.8 \u091a\u094c\u0926\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\" \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>To identify problems<\/strong> that might hinder or prevent the achievement of set goals.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e \u0921\u093e\u0932\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>To predict the general trend<\/strong> in the development of the teaching\u2013learning process.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>To ensure the economical and efficient management of scarce resources<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0932\u092d \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>To provide an objective basis<\/strong> for promotion from one class to another and the award of certificates.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>To provide a just basis<\/strong> for determining at what level of education a certificate-holder should enter a career.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Tie this to \u00a75.1.<\/strong> Purposes 4 and 5 are exactly why norm-referenced<\/strong> testing survives despite its competitive drawbacks: promotion, certification and career entry all require pupils to be placed relative to one another<\/strong>. Purposes 1 and 2, by contrast, are served far better by criterion-referenced<\/strong> and diagnostic testing.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u00a75.1 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u092e\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0935\u091c\u0942\u0926 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0939\u0948: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u2014 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915-\u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 1 \u090f\u0935\u0902 2 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-5\">\n 7.9<\/span>\n <h3>Computer in Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Every operation described in Units 4 and 5 \u2014 tabulating frequencies, computing means and standard deviations, correlating two sets of scores, item analysis, preparing norms \u2014 is arithmetically simple but enormously laborious by hand<\/strong>. That is precisely the kind of work a computer does best, and its entry has changed not only the speed<\/strong> of evaluation but the kinds of evaluation that are possible at all<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u090f\u0935\u0902 5 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0928\u093e, \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u093e\u0925 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Uses of the computer in evaluation<\/span>\u0915. \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Function<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it does<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Item banking<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Stores thousands of pre-tested items with their difficulty and discrimination indices<\/strong> (\u00a73.9), from which a paper matching a given blueprint can be drawn in minutes \u2014 and a different but equivalent paper drawn for the next batch.<\/span>\u0939\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u00a73.9), \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093f\u0928\u091f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u0948\u091a \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Statistical analysis<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Spreadsheets and packages such as SPSS<\/strong> (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) compute the whole of Unit 4 instantly, and reliability and validity coefficients along with them \u2014 removing the arithmetical barrier that once kept teachers from using statistics at all.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u0936\u0940\u091f \u0924\u0925\u093e SPSS<\/strong> (\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0948\u0915\u0947\u091c \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930 \u0938\u094b\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u0902\u0938\u0947\u091c\u093c) \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0948\u0915\u0947\u091c \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u0940 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e \u0939\u091f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0930\u094b\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Online and computer-based testing<\/span>\u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Tests are delivered, timed, scored and reported without paper<\/strong>, and results are available immediately. Objective items are scored with perfect objectivity<\/strong> \u2014 the ideal of \u00a72.1 fully realized.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u090f, \u0938\u092e\u092f\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0964 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u2014 \u00a72.1 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Adaptive testing<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The computer selects the next item according to the answer just given<\/strong> \u2014 harder after a success, easier after a failure. It reaches an accurate estimate in far fewer items, and no pupil faces a paper wholly beyond or beneath him.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928, \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u092e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0928\u0947 \u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0947 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>On-screen marking<\/span>\u0911\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Scanned answer scripts are distributed question-wise<\/strong> to examiners anywhere, which enforces the question-wise marking recommended in \u00a79.1 and permits instant moderation of a lenient or severe examiner.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u092c\u0948\u0920\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092d\u0947\u091c\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u00a79.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u093e \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">6<\/td>\n <td>Record keeping<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The cumulative record card becomes a database<\/strong>, maintained without clerical drudgery, searchable, and transferable when a pupil changes school \u2014 answering directly the record-keeping burden of \u00a77.6.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0921\u0947\u091f\u093e\u092c\u0947\u0938 \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0916\u094b\u091c\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u00a77.6 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928-\u092c\u094b\u091d \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0927\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">7<\/td>\n <td>Result processing and analytics<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Tabulation, grading, SGPA and CGPA computation, and the publication of results \u2014 together with diagnostic analytics<\/strong> showing which topics a whole class failed, so remedial teaching can be planned at once.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, SGPA \u090f\u0935\u0902 CGPA \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u0940, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">8<\/td>\n <td>e-Portfolios and feedback<\/span>\u0908-\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Digital portfolios collect a pupil's work over years, supporting the performance assessment<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 C and the holistic progress card<\/strong> of NEP 2020, with automated feedback delivered as the pupil works.<\/span>\u0921\u093f\u091c\u093f\u091f\u0932 \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b \u00a73.1 \u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Limitations and cautions<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Cost and infrastructure.<\/strong> Hardware, software, electricity and connectivity are still beyond many schools, so computerized evaluation can widen the gap<\/strong> between well-resourced and poor institutions.<\/span>\u0932\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930, \u0938\u0949\u092b\u093c\u094d\u091f\u0935\u0947\u092f\u0930, \u092c\u093f\u091c\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0928\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0935\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0906\u091c \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>It favours the objective item.<\/strong> What a machine scores easily is what gets tested, so computerization can quietly push evaluation back towards recall and away from expression<\/strong> \u2014 the very defect \u00a77.1 complained of.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0936\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091a\u0941\u092a\u091a\u093e\u092a \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0942\u0930<\/strong> \u0927\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u092f\u0924 \u00a77.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Data security and privacy.<\/strong> A digital CRC holds sensitive personal data and can be leaked or misused on a scale no paper register ever could.<\/span>\u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u091c\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093f\u091f\u0932 CRC \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0947 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0948\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0932\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0930\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u093c\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0930\u091c\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0928 \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Technical failure and malpractice.<\/strong> Server breakdowns, power cuts and online cheating are new forms of the old examination problems.<\/span>\u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u092c\u093f\u091c\u0932\u0940-\u0915\u091f\u094c\u0924\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u0928\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u0941\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u090f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>The computer cannot judge.<\/strong> It computes; it does not evaluate. As \u00a71.1 established, evaluation requires a value judgement<\/strong>, and that remains the teacher's work.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0906, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-51\">\n 7.10<\/span>\n <h3>Multimedia in Education<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Multimedia<\/strong> is the integrated use of several media in one presentation \u2014 text, audio, still images, animation, video and interactivity<\/strong> \u2014 delivered through a computer. Its educational force lies in a simple fact: a learner who sees, hears and does<\/strong> retains far more than one who only reads, because more than one sense channel is engaged at once<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u093e\u0920, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0935\u0940\u0921\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948: \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0907\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Makes the abstract concrete<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Animation shows blood circulation, a chemical reaction or a geometrical proof unfolding \u2014 exactly the \"meaningful whole\" that Cognitive Learning Theory (\u00a73.1 A) asks the teacher to begin with.<\/span>\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0930\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u0902\u091a\u0930\u0923, \u0930\u093e\u0938\u093e\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091c\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0918\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \"\u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e\" \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 (\u00a73.1 \u0915) \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Serves all three domains<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong>Simulation and virtual laboratories allow psychomotor skills<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 C) to be practised and assessed where real equipment or safety would not permit it.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0936\u093e\u0932\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 \u0917) \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Allows self-pacing<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935<\/span><\/strong>The learner repeats, pauses and revisits at his own speed \u2014 individual differences are accommodated without extra staff.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u094b\u0915\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Immediate feedback<\/span>\u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Embedded questions correct an error at the moment it is made \u2014 the formative<\/strong> function of \u00a710.1 delivered instantly rather than a week later.<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u00a710.1 \u0915\u093e \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939 \u092d\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Raises motivation and retention<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Varied stimuli hold attention, and multi-sensory presentation is retained longer than reading alone.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u0930\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0907\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0924\u0915 \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Extends reach<\/span>\u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Through platforms such as SWAYAM<\/strong> and open resources, good teaching reaches distance learners and remote schools \u2014 the very function distance education itself performs.<\/span>SWAYAM<\/strong> \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0902\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u26a0\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The balanced conclusion to write.<\/strong> Multimedia and the computer are tools, not substitutes for the teacher<\/strong>. They can present, drill, score and record; they cannot diagnose a discouraged child, judge worth, or supply the affective domain<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 B. Poorly designed multimedia \u2014 decoration without instructional purpose \u2014 actually distracts<\/strong> from learning. The technology is only as good as the educational objectives<\/strong> it was built to serve, which returns the whole course to where Unit 1 began.<\/span>\n \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0964<\/strong> \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0935\u0947 \u0939\u0924\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947\u0964 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u2014 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u091c\u093e\u0935\u091f \u2014 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u092d\u091f\u0915\u093e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0932\u094c\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0925\u0940\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"8\" id=\"c8\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 8<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 8<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Achievement and Diagnostic Tests<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Achievement Test \u2014 Concept, Types and Construction; Diagnostic Test \u2014 Concept and Construction, Remedial Teaching<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923; \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-4\">\n 8.1<\/span>\n <h3>Measurement of Achievement<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n An achievement test<\/strong> is a systematic procedure for determining the amount and quality of learning a pupil has acquired<\/strong> in a given subject after a period of instruction. It measures the present status<\/strong> of attainment against the objectives that were set before teaching began.<\/span>\n \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Functions of achievement testing<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Instructional<\/strong> \u2014 to find how far the objectives of teaching have been realized, and to feed that back into the next lesson.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u090f, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Diagnostic<\/strong> \u2014 to reveal the areas in which pupils are weak, so that remedial measures may be planned.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Administrative<\/strong> \u2014 promotion, classification into sections, award of grades, certification and the preparation of merit lists.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Guidance<\/strong> \u2014 to advise pupils and parents on the choice of subjects, courses and careers on the basis of demonstrated strength.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Motivational<\/strong> \u2014 a fair and regular test induces sustained study and gives the pupil a sense of progress.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>Evaluative<\/strong> \u2014 to judge the effectiveness of the curriculum, the textbook and the method of teaching itself.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Achievement testing<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>60<\/span>Which one of the following statements about the basic principles of an Achievement test is not correct?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) It should be used to improve students\u2019 learning<\/li>\n <li>(b) It should be designed to fit the particular uses to be made of the results<\/li>\n <li>(c) It can be used as a standardized tool for measurement<\/li>\n <li>(d) It should measure clearly defined learning outcomes<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c)<\/b> A teacher-made achievement test is not a standardized tool \u2014 it has no try-out, item analysis or norms. Options (a), (b) and (d) are genuine principles: purpose-fit design, clearly defined outcomes and use for improving learning.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0939\u0948, \u0928 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0928 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0915), (\u0916) \u090f\u0935\u0902 (\u0918) \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span>\u00a73.8, \u00a78.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-5\">\n 8.2<\/span>\n <h3>Diagnostic Test: Construction and Usefulness<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923: \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 Definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n A diagnostic test<\/strong> is an instrument designed to locate the specific points of weakness<\/strong> in a pupil's learning and, so far as possible, the causes<\/strong> of those weaknesses, so that remedial instruction<\/strong> can be planned. Where the achievement test asks \"how much has been learnt?\"<\/em>, the diagnostic test asks \"exactly where and why is the learning breaking down?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span>\n \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u093e \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e?\"<\/em>, \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \"\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u091f\u0942\u091f \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948?\"<\/strong><\/em><\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n Achievement<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Achievement Test<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Purpose: to measure the level attained<\/strong> and grade or certify.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Covers a wide field thinly<\/strong> \u2014 a whole course sampled.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u0932\u093e<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are of graded difficulty<\/strong>, mostly of moderate difficulty.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0915\u0947, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Result: a single total score<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e: \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Given at the end<\/strong> of teaching.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Diagnostic<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Diagnostic Test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Purpose: to locate specific weaknesses<\/strong> and plan remedial work.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Covers a narrow field intensively<\/strong> \u2014 one skill broken into all its sub-steps.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0939\u0928<\/strong> \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a-\u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Items are deliberately easy<\/strong>, since the aim is to find where failure begins.<\/span>\u092a\u0926 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092f\u0939 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Result: a profile of strengths and weaknesses<\/strong>, not one score.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e: \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong>, \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Given whenever difficulty persists<\/strong> despite formative correctives.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0935\u091c\u0942\u0926 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Construction of a diagnostic test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"flow-wrap\">\n <div class=\"flow-note\">\n \ud83d\udd2c The governing principle is task analysis<\/strong>: break the skill into every sub-skill a pupil must master, then write items for each sub-skill separately so that failure can be pinpointed.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udd2c \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong>: \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-steps\">\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 1<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Identify the problem area<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Use achievement-test results, class observation and pupils' written work to fix the topic or skill<\/strong> in which difficulty persists.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 2<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Analyse the content into sub-skills<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Break the skill into its logical sequence of steps<\/strong> \u2014 for long division, for instance: place value \u2192 multiplication facts \u2192 subtraction \u2192 bringing down \u2192 remainder.<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u0930\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941: \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u2192 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u2192 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u2192 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u093e\u0930\u0928\u093e \u2192 \u0936\u0947\u0937\u092b\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 3<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Frame items for each sub-skill<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0926-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Write several easy items per sub-skill<\/strong>, so that a single careless slip is not mistaken for a real weakness. Arrange them in the sequence of the steps<\/strong>, not by difficulty.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0947\u0902, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0928 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 4<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Administer without time pressure<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong>\n Give ample time and a relaxed atmosphere<\/strong>; there are no marks and no pass or fail<\/strong>. Pupils should be told it is meant to help them, not to judge them.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u091c \u0935\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0902; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong>\u0964 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 5<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Analyse errors and prepare the profile<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/strong>\n Tabulate the errors sub-skill by sub-skill<\/strong> for each pupil and for the class as a whole, and look for the pattern<\/strong> \u2014 a repeated error is a weakness, a stray error is not.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u0935\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0915\u094d\u0915\u093e-\u0926\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"flow-step\">\n 6<\/span>\n <div class=\"fs-body\">\n Plan and apply remedial teaching<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/strong>\n Teach the failed sub-skill specifically<\/strong>, by a method different from the one that failed, and then re-test<\/strong> to confirm the weakness has been removed.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong>, \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0925\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0941\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0942\u0930 \u0939\u094b \u0917\u0908\u0964<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Usefulness of the diagnostic test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Pinpoints weakness<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Tells the teacher not merely that the pupil is weak in division, but that he fails specifically at borrowing in subtraction.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0932 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Basis of remedial teaching<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>Remedial work without diagnosis is guesswork; the test converts it into targeted instruction.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0905\u091f\u0915\u0932 \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Saves the pupil's time<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092c\u091a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Only the failed sub-skills are re-taught; what is already mastered is not repeated.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Reveals class-wide gaps<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>If most of the class fails the same sub-skill, the fault lies in the teaching, not in the pupils.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b, \u0924\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">5<\/span>Guides grouping<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928<\/span><\/strong>Pupils with the same weakness can be grouped for common remedial instruction.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">6<\/span>Reduces failure and dropout<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/strong>Early correction of a foundational gap prevents the cumulative failure that leads to dropout.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u0915\u092e\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0930\u094b\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">7<\/span>Helps guidance<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915<\/span><\/strong>Persistent weakness despite remedial teaching may point to a specific learning disability needing expert referral.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0935\u091c\u0942\u0926 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0938 \u092d\u0947\u091c\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">8<\/span>Improves the curriculum<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/strong>Recurring difficulties across batches show where the textbook or the sequence of topics needs revision.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc Limitations to remember<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>It is narrow in scope<\/strong> \u2014 one test covers only one skill area, so many tests are needed.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0922\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>It is laborious to construct and to analyse<\/strong>, since every sub-skill needs its own items.<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>It locates where<\/strong> learning fails but not always why<\/strong> \u2014 the cause may be physical, emotional, environmental or motivational, and needs further enquiry.<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u0917 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Diagnosis is useless unless followed by remedial teaching<\/strong> \u2014 the test is a means, not an end.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928 \u0939\u094b<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Diagnostic testing<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>48<\/span>Which one of the following tests should be conducted by a teacher in order to identify the strength and weakness of students in an area of study?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Achievement test<\/li>\n <li>(b) Aptitude test<\/li>\n <li>(c) Diagnostic test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Reasoning test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Diagnostic test<\/b> An achievement test gives a single total score and tells the teacher how much was learnt; only a diagnostic test, built by task analysis into sub-skills, shows exactly where the learning breaks down.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0915\u0941\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e; \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u091f\u0942\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a78.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>78<\/span>Which one of the following test scores can be reported to parents for improving their children\u2019s achievement?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Diagnostic test scores<\/li>\n <li>(b) Achievement test scores<\/li>\n <li>(c) Criterion-referenced test scores<\/li>\n <li>(d) Norm-referenced test scores<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) Diagnostic test scores<\/b> The question asks which score helps improve<\/em> achievement. Only the diagnostic profile tells parents which specific sub-skill has failed and therefore what remedial help is needed; the others merely report a level or a rank.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/em> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f; \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a78.2 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-51\">\n 8.3<\/span>\n <h3>Types of Diagnostic Tests<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Type<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>What it does<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Standardized diagnostic tests<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Prepared by experts with try-out, item analysis and norms; supplied with a manual and a diagnostic profile chart. Reliable but not always matched to the local syllabus. Example:<\/em> standardized diagnostic tests in arithmetic and reading.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0947\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Teacher-made diagnostic tests<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Built by the teacher for her own class from her own task analysis. Less rigorous but far better matched<\/strong> to what was actually taught, and available immediately.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u0915\u092e \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0932<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Subject-wise diagnostic tests<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Tests in reading<\/strong> (word recognition, comprehension, speed), arithmetic<\/strong> (the four operations, fractions, decimals), spelling<\/strong>, handwriting<\/strong> and language usage<\/strong> \u2014 the areas where cumulative skill failure is commonest.<\/span>\u092a\u0920\u0928<\/strong> (\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0917\u0924\u093f), \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/strong> (\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928, \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935), \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940<\/strong>, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0935\u091f<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Group vs. individual diagnostic tests<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Group<\/strong> tests screen the whole class quickly and identify who needs closer study. Individual<\/strong> tests then examine that pupil intensively, often orally, with the teacher watching how<\/em> he works, not only what he answers.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0917\u0939\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0909\u0938 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947<\/em> \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Informal diagnostic techniques<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Not tests in the formal sense but essential aids \u2014 observation, oral questioning, the interview, analysis of homework and answer scripts, checklists, the cumulative record card and the anecdotal record<\/strong>. Physical checks such as vision and hearing tests<\/strong> also belong here, as noted in Unit 1 \u00a710.1.<\/span>\u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0917\u0943\u0939\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0940 \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u0940 \u092f\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u00a710.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd17<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Tie this back to Unit 1.<\/strong> The four-fold sequence of \u00a710.1 now completes itself: placement<\/strong> tests decide where the pupil begins \u2192 formative<\/strong> tests monitor him as he goes \u2192 when formative correctives fail, the diagnostic<\/strong> test built in this unit finds the exact broken sub-skill \u2192 and the summative<\/strong> achievement test of \u00a78.1 certifies the final result.<\/span>\n \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/strong> \u00a710.1 \u0915\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u092c \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u2192 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2192 \u091c\u092c \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0902, \u0924\u092c \u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0920\u0940\u0915-\u0920\u0940\u0915 \u091f\u0942\u091f\u093e \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2192 \u0914\u0930 \u00a78.1 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Subject-wise diagnostic tests<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>56<\/span>Match List I (Basic skill) with List II (Sub test): A. Reading B. Language C. Mathematics D. Study skills \u2014 1. Reading maps 2. Computation 3. Expression 4. Comprehension<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 4 3 2 1<\/li>\n <li>(b) 4 2 3 1<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 3 2 4<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1 2 3 4<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1<\/b> Reading is tested by comprehension (4); language by expression (3); mathematics by computation (2); and study skills by a practical task such as reading maps (1) \u2014 these are the standard sub-tests of a diagnostic battery.<\/span>\u092a\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0938\u0947 (4); \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 (3); \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0923\u0928 \u0938\u0947 (2); \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0920\u0928 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 (1) \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a78.3 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"9\" id=\"c9\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 9<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 9<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Types of Test Items<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Objective Type Test, Short Answer Type Test and Essay Type Test \u2014 Advantages and Limitations<\/span>\n \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0932\u0918\u0941-\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-42\">\n 9.1<\/span>\n <h3>Relative Merits and Demerits of Different Test Items<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Test items fall into three families<\/strong> by the kind of response demanded. The essential trade-off runs through all of them: as items become more objective<\/strong>, they gain in reliability and content coverage but lose the power to test organization and expression<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u0941\u0932\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0928 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092e\u092f \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947-\u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0916\u094b \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"scale-strip\">\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n A<\/span>\n <h6>Essay type<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/h6>\n Long, free response. High freedom, low objectivity.<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n B<\/span>\n <h6>Short answer<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/h6>\n Restricted response in a few sentences. A middle ground.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n C<\/span>\n <h6>Objective type<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/span><\/h6>\n One definite answer, selected or supplied. Low freedom, high objectivity.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930, \u091a\u092f\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0964 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e, \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"scale-step\">\n \u2192<\/span>\n <h6>The trade-off<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092e\u092f<\/span><\/h6>\n Moving A \u2192 C: objectivity and coverage rise; expression and organization fall.<\/span>A \u2192 C \u091a\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930: \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. Essay-type items<\/span>\u0915. \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>The only form that tests the power to organize, argue and express<\/strong> ideas in one's own language<\/span>\u092f\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0915\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Measures the higher objectives<\/strong> \u2014 analysis, synthesis and evaluation<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Easy and quick to set<\/strong>; a few questions suffice<\/span>\u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930<\/strong>; \u0915\u0941\u091b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Eliminates guessing<\/strong> altogether<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Encourages wide, connected study<\/strong> rather than isolated facts<\/span>\u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Reveals the pupil's attitudes and creativity<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2717<\/span>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Low scorer objectivity<\/strong> \u2014 the same script gets different marks from different examiners, and even from the same examiner on different days<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947, \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Poor content sampling<\/strong>: five questions cannot cover a year's syllabus, so luck of the question paper matters<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932<\/strong>: \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0922\u0915 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Very time-consuming to score<\/strong><\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Marks are influenced by handwriting, length, language and the halo effect<\/strong><\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0935\u091f, \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908, \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Encourages selective study and question-spotting<\/strong><\/span>\u091a\u092f\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0905\u091f\u0915\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u0928<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Unsuitable for pupils weak in written expression though strong in the subject.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udee0\ufe0f How to improve essay questions \u2014 six rules<\/span>\ud83d\udee0\ufe0f \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u091b\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Use many short, restricted-response<\/strong> questions instead of a few long ones \u2014 this improves content sampling.<\/span>\u0915\u0941\u091b \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0932\u0918\u0941, \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Frame the question with a precise directive verb<\/strong> \u2014 \"compare\", \"justify\", \"trace\" \u2014 not the vague \"write about\".<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \"\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\", \"\u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\", \"\u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\" \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \"\u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\" \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Indicate the marks and the expected length<\/strong> for every question.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0907\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Prepare a marking scheme with value points<\/strong> before evaluation begins.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Score question-wise, not script-wise<\/strong> \u2014 mark Q1 in all scripts, then Q2 \u2014 to keep the standard uniform.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902, \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930.1, \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930.2 \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>6<\/span>Avoid optional questions<\/strong>, since different pupils then sit different tests and scores cease to be comparable.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u0947\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0924\u092c \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Short-answer items<\/span>\u0916. \u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n \n A restricted response of a few sentences or a small computation, usually carrying 2\u20135 marks. It is a compromise form<\/strong>: it retains some scope for expression while allowing many questions<\/strong> and therefore better content coverage, and it can be scored against a value-point scheme with fair consistency. Its weakness is that it still needs judgement in scoring<\/strong>, and it cannot test extended argument.<\/span>\n \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u094c\u0924\u093e-\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> \u0939\u0948: \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0917\u0941\u0902\u091c\u093e\u0907\u0936 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092c \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>C. Objective-type items<\/span>\u0917. \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Item form<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Merits<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Demerits<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Multiple choice<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/strong> a stem plus four or five alternatives<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932-\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>The most versatile and widely used<\/strong> objective form<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091a\u0932\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/li><li>Can test knowledge, understanding and even application<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Guessing is low<\/strong> (20\u201325%)<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928<\/strong> (20\u201325%)<\/span><\/li><li>Wrong alternatives (distractors) themselves reveal misconceptions.<\/span>\u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915) \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Difficult and slow to construct<\/strong> \u2014 plausible distractors are hard to write<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u0940\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/span><\/li><li>Cannot test organization or expression<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li><li>Consumes much paper and printing.<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>True\u2013False<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong> a statement judged right or wrong<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092f\u093e \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Very easy and quick<\/strong> to write and to score \u00b7 Large numbers of items can be set, giving wide content coverage<\/strong> in little time.<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u00b7 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>50% chance of guessing correctly<\/strong> \u2014 the most serious defect<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 50% \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930 \u0926\u094b\u0937<\/span><\/li><li>Tends to test rote memory of isolated facts<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091f\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Statements are easily made ambiguous or trivially true.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0924\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Matching<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/strong> two columns to be paired<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e\u0928<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Economical of space<\/strong> \u2014 many associations tested in a small area<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940<\/strong> \u2014 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Excellent for who\u2013what, term\u2013definition, event\u2013date<\/strong> relationships<\/span>\u0915\u094c\u0928\u2013\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u092a\u0926\u2013\u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u2013\u0924\u093f\u0925\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e<\/span><\/li><li>Objective and quick to score.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Confined almost entirely to factual association and rote recall<\/strong><\/span>\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u091f\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/li><li>The last pairs can be got by elimination<\/strong> unless the response column is longer<\/span>\u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0928 \u0939\u094b, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li><li>Difficult to keep both columns homogeneous.<\/span>\u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Completion \/ Fill in the blanks<\/span>\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/strong> the answer is supplied, not selected<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Eliminates guessing<\/strong>, because the pupil must recall rather than recognize<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Easy to construct<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/li><li>Well suited to terminology, formulae and numerical answers<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <td><ul class=\"cell-list\"><li>Tends to encourage verbatim memorization of the textbook<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u0936\u0903 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>More than one answer may be defensible<\/strong>, which reduces scoring objectivity<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0918\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li><li>Too many blanks in one sentence destroy its meaning.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li><\/ul><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"callout red\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\u26a0\ufe0f Common defects of objective items \u2014 and the cure<\/span>\u26a0\ufe0f \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u2014 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:4px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Verbal clues in the stem<\/strong> \u2014 grammatical agreement (\"an ____\") betrays the answer. Cure:<\/em> use \"a\/an\" or restructure the stem.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932-\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>The longest alternative is the right one<\/strong> \u2014 a habit of item writers. Cure:<\/em> keep all alternatives of similar length.<\/span>\u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0926-\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0926\u0924\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Implausible distractors<\/strong> reduce a four-choice item to a two-choice one. Cure:<\/em> draw distractors from pupils' actual errors.<\/span>\u0905\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/strong> \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Absolute words<\/strong> \u2014 \"always\", \"never\" \u2014 are usually false; \"generally\" is usually true. Cure:<\/em> avoid such determiners.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935\", \"\u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\" \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \"\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903\" \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0928 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Interlinked items<\/strong> \u2014 the answer to item 8 gives away item 9. Cure:<\/em> keep every item independent.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u0926 8 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0926 9 \u092c\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930:<\/em> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQ from this section \u2014 Matching-type items<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQ \u2014 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>63<\/span>In the context of matching type test items, which one of the following is correct?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Premises should be longer than responses<\/li>\n <li>(b) Responses should be longer than premises<\/li>\n <li>(c) Premises and responses should be of equal length<\/li>\n <li>(d) Length of premises and responses is not important<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a)<\/b> The premise column carries the fuller statement and the response column the short label, so that the candidate reads each long premise once and scans short responses. Keeping the response list longer in number (not in wording) also prevents the last pairs being got by elimination.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0902\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 (\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902) \u0932\u0902\u092c\u0940 \u0930\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u092d\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a79.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">Correction for guessing \u2014 the answer to the guess factor<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n S = R \u2212 [ W \/ ( n \u2212 1 ) ]<\/span>\n S = R \u2212 [ W \/ ( n \u2212 1 ) ]<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n S<\/b> = corrected score \u00b7 R<\/b> = number of right answers \u00b7 W<\/b> = number of wrong answers \u00b7 n<\/b> = number of alternatives per item. The formula assumes that a candidate who guesses at random will get one item right for every (n \u2212 1) he gets wrong, and it deducts exactly that. For a true\u2013false<\/b> item n = 2, so S = R \u2212 W<\/b> \u2014 one full mark lost per wrong answer. For a four-option multiple choice<\/b> item n = 4, so S = R \u2212 W\/3<\/b>, which is the familiar one-third negative marking<\/b> of competitive examinations. Note:<\/b> omitted<\/em> items are not penalized \u2014 only wrong ones. The formula is why \u00a79.1 criticized the true\u2013false item so heavily: with a 50 per cent guess factor, the correction that keeps it honest is also the harshest.<\/span>\n S<\/b> = \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u00b7 R<\/b> = \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u00b7 W<\/b> = \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u00b7 n<\/b> = \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u093e\u0926\u0943\u091a\u094d\u091b\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 (n \u2212 1) \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u092a\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0917\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/b> \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 n = 2, \u0905\u0924\u0903 S = R \u2212 W<\/b> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f<\/b> \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 n = 4, \u0905\u0924\u0903 S = R \u2212 W\/3<\/b>, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0915-\u0924\u093f\u0939\u093e\u0908 \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/b> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902:<\/b> \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0917\u090f<\/em> \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u00a79.1 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0907\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0906\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940: 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925, \u091c\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example \u2014 correction for guessing<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>A 100-item test of four-option<\/strong> multiple choice items. Anil attempts 90, of which 66 are right and 24 wrong<\/strong>; 10 are left blank.<\/span>100-\u092a\u0926\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0932 90 \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 66 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 24 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924<\/strong>; 10 \u0916\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>S = 66 \u2212 24\/(4 \u2212 1) = 66 \u2212 24\/3 = 66 \u2212 8 = 58<\/strong>.<\/span>S = 66 \u2212 24\/(4 \u2212 1) = 66 \u2212 24\/3 = 66 \u2212 8 = 58<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>His raw score of 66 becomes a corrected score of 58<\/strong>. The 10 unattempted items cost him nothing, which is precisely the behaviour the formula is designed to encourage \u2014 the candidate answers when he knows and leaves the item when he does not<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e 66 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0915\u0930 58<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 10 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0914\u0930 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0938\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0926 \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"10\" id=\"c10\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n SYLLABUS ITEM 10<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0926 10<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Formative, Summative and Psychological Measurement<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Formative and Summative Evaluation; Measurement of Attitude, Aptitude, Personality and Intelligence<\/span>\n \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"keyfact-grid\">\n <div class=\"keyfact-card navy-hi\">\n \ud83e\udde0<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">The Founding Test<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">Binet\u2013Simon, 1905<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947\u2013\u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928, 1905<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">The first practical intelligence scale; IQ arrived with Stern in 1912<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940; IQ 1912 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0906\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"keyfact-card teal-hi\">\n \ud83d\udd04<\/span>\n <div class=\"kf-label\">Examination Reform<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-value\" style=\"font-size:14px;\">Open Book \u00b7 Semester \u00b7 CCE<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u00b7 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u00b7 CCE<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"kf-sub\">Three answers to the same complaint \u2014 that examinations reward memory<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u092f\u0924 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u2014 \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0941\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-4\">\n 10.1<\/span>\n <h3>Placement, Diagnostic, Formative and Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Evaluation is a process of judging the value or worth of a process or product<\/strong> \u2014 which may be achievement, aptitude, interest, skill or any other aspect of the student's personality, or the method of teaching and learning itself. Four types are distinguished by when<\/strong> in the instructional cycle they occur.<\/span>\n \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f, \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0907\u0938 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092c<\/strong> \u0918\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83d\udd50<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n Sequence memory hook:<\/strong> Placement<\/strong> comes before<\/em> instruction (entry) \u2192 Formative<\/strong> runs during<\/em> instruction (monitoring) \u2192 Diagnostic<\/strong> steps in when formative correctives fail<\/em> (deep probe) \u2192 Summative<\/strong> comes after<\/em> instruction (certification).<\/span>\n \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930:<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/em> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936) \u2192 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/em> (\u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940) \u2192 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0924\u092c \u091c\u092c \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0902<\/em> (\u0917\u0939\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a) \u2192 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/em> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928)\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">P<\/span>Before<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Placement Evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Assesses the entry behaviour<\/strong> of the student. Admission to new courses is granted according to intelligence, attitude, motivation and aptitude. Its goal is to determine, for each student, the position in the instructional sequence and the mode of instruction that is most beneficial.<\/strong><\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0964 \u0928\u090f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0932\u093e\u092d\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">The three questions it asks<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>Does the student possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin<\/strong> the planned instruction?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0938 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>To what extent has the student already developed<\/strong> the understanding and skills that are the goals of the planned instruction?<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u0947 \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>To what extent do the student's interests, work habits and personality<\/strong> indicate that one mode of instruction might be better than another?<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0906\u0926\u0924\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u090f\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0917\u0940?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u270e<\/span>Example:<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/span><\/em> the B.Ed. entrance test.<\/span>\u092c\u0940.\u090f\u0921. \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">F<\/span>During<\/span>\u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Formative Evaluation<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Done during<\/strong> the teaching\u2013learning process to assess the ongoing formation<\/em> of knowledge and understanding. It is a monitoring type<\/strong> of evaluation used to track progress during the class, course or session. Feedback is given after it<\/strong> so students can proceed accordingly. Aim: improving the quality of the teaching\u2013learning process.<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u091d \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/em> \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0924\u0926\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">The five questions it asks<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Are the objectives of teaching the topic \/ content \/ course \/ curriculum being achieved?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \/ \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \/ \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \/ \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Are the student's cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains forming properly?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Are the learner's scholastic and non-scholastic areas developing properly?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0939-\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Is the learner's progress satisfactory?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0937\u091c\u0928\u0915 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Are the predetermined objectives of the ongoing educational programme being fulfilled?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0932\u0942 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">D<\/span>Deep probe<\/span>\u0917\u0939\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Diagnostic Evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Concerned with persistent learning difficulties left unresolved by the corrective prescriptions of formative assessment<\/strong>. It identifies or diagnoses the weaknesses<\/strong> of students in a given course of instruction, using specially prepared diagnostic tests and various observational techniques<\/strong>. Its aim is to determine the causes<\/strong> of persistent learning problems and to formulate a plan for remedial action<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u091c\u094b \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0941\u0908\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\/\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">When it is invoked<\/span>\u0915\u092c \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/b>When a teacher finds that in spite of<\/em> using various alternative methods and techniques the student still faces learning difficulties, he takes recourse to a detailed diagnosis. It includes vision tests, hearing tests<\/strong> and tests of how the student approaches a reading assignment \u2014 whether he relies on pictures, sound, context clues, or skips over unfamiliar words.<\/span>\u091c\u092c \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0935\u091c\u0942\u0926<\/em> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092c\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u092c \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0920\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0927\u094d\u0935\u0928\u093f, \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u0902\u0915\u0947\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091b\u094b\u0921\u093c \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">S<\/span>After<\/span>\u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n Done at the end<\/strong> of a course, semester, class or topic, to evaluate the quality of the final product<\/strong> and find the extent to which instructional objectives have been achieved. No remedial teaching is given after it.<\/strong> Certification<\/strong> is done on the basis of its results, which also reflect the effectiveness of the curriculum transaction process.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/strong> \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u092d\u0940 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples, tools and features<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/b>\n <div class=\"kv-block\">\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Examples<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n Annual exams \u00b7 Semester-end exams \u00b7 Terminal exams<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u00b7 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u00b7 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0948\u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Tools<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n Achievement test \u00b7 Rating scales \u00b7 Project evaluation by experts \u00b7 Interviews \u00b7 Viva-voce<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00b7 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u00b7 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e-\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u00b7 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u00b7 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"kv-row\">\n Features<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/span>\n \n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:0;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Conducted at the end<\/strong> of a topic, class, chapter, unit or course.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Results give the final progress<\/strong> of students.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Results are used for preparing the merit list<\/strong>, finalizing position, taking pass \/ fail \/ promotion<\/strong> decisions and awarding degrees or diplomas<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u091f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947, \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \/ \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \/ \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0932\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0927\u093f \u092f\u093e \u0921\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0932\u094b\u092e\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Table 1.1 \u2014 Formative vs. Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e 1.1 \u2014 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">#<\/th>\n <th>Formative Evaluation<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Summative Evaluation<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">1<\/td>\n <td>Conducted during<\/strong> the process of teaching and learning \u2014 during the class, semester or session.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Conducted at the end<\/strong> of the process \u2014 end of class, end of semester, end of session.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924, \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">2<\/td>\n <td>Determines achievement in a small task<\/strong> learned in a short duration<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Determines achievement in a major task<\/strong> learned over a longer duration<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">3<\/td>\n <td>Conducted regularly<\/strong> during the class, course or session.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Conducted at the end<\/strong> of the course, session or programme.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">4<\/td>\n <td>Gives limited generalization<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Gives broad generalizations<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td class=\"narrow\">5<\/td>\n <td>Limited<\/strong> content area and ability are covered.<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Large<\/strong> content areas and abilities are covered.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>External vs. Internal Evaluation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n External<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>External Evaluation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Evaluators or examiners are invited from outside<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u090f<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Teachers who teach a group are not involved<\/strong> in evaluating them \u2014 teacher and examiner are never the same<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0935\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u2014 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> all board examinations; viva by an outside expert; annual school examinations where the paper comes from outside.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901; \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915\u0940; \u0910\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Significance:<\/strong> it eliminates the element of bias<\/strong> from the evaluation system.<\/span>\u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935:<\/strong> \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n Internal<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Internal Evaluation<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>The teacher and the examiner are the same person<\/strong>; no external expert is invited.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong>; \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> class test, unit test, weekly test, monthly test, quarterly test.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0915, \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0948\u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Helps find out students' progress<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Remedial teaching<\/strong> can be organized for weaker students.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0906\u092f\u094b\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The teacher comes to know his\/her own weak areas as well as the students'<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Helps in building a strong foundation<\/strong> for students.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Placement, Formative, Diagnostic, Summative<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>37<\/span>The evaluation of pupils\u2019 learning difficulties during instruction is known as:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Placement<\/li>\n <li>(b) Formative<\/li>\n <li>(c) Diagnostic<\/li>\n <li>(d) Summative<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Diagnostic<\/b> Note the exact wording \u2014 \"learning difficulties\" is diagnostic. Formative monitors learning progress; diagnostic locates the specific difficulty behind persistent failure.<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u2014 \"\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u093e\u0901\" \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.1, \u00a78.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>38<\/span>Which one of the following statements indicates formative evaluation?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Pupils\u2019 entry performance in a sequence of instruction<\/li>\n <li>(b) Pupils\u2019 learning progress during instruction<\/li>\n <li>(c) Pupils\u2019 learning difficulties during instruction<\/li>\n <li>(d) Pupils\u2019 achievement at the end of instruction<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> The four options are precisely the four types: (a) placement, (b) formative, (c) diagnostic, (d) summative. Formative is progress-monitoring during instruction.<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902: (\u0915) \u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, (\u0916) \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, (\u0917) \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, (\u0918) \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0964 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.1 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>70<\/span>Formative assessment is conducted to: 1. monitor student learning 2. provide ongoing feedback 3. improve teaching-learning process 4. know the position of a student in the group<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1, 2 and 4<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 3 and 4<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(a) 1, 2 and 3<\/b> Item 4 is the purpose of norm-referenced summative testing, not formative. Formative assessment monitors, feeds back and improves \u2014 it does not rank.<\/span>\u092e\u0926 4 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940, \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.1, \u00a75.1 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-2\">\n 10.2<\/span>\n <h3>Testing in Intelligence<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>A. What is intelligence?<\/span>\u0915. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 The problem of definition<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n Intelligence is a construct<\/strong>, not a thing \u2014 it cannot be seen, only inferred from behaviour. Psychologists have therefore defined it in at least three different directions: by the ability to adjust<\/strong>, by the ability to think abstractly<\/strong>, and by the ability to learn<\/strong>. A fourth group simply defines it operationally.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e-\u0938\u0947-\u0915\u092e \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948: \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>, \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964 \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u094c\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"def-stack\">\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">William SternAdjustment view<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Intelligence is the general capacity of an individual to adjust his thinking consciously to new requirements<\/strong> \u2014 a general mental adaptability to new problems and conditions of life.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u091a\u0947\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0908 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0922\u093e\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0908 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0936\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Lewis TermanAbstract-thinking view<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924-\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n An individual is intelligent in proportion as he is able to carry on abstract thinking<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">Alfred BinetJudgement view<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Intelligence consists of judgement, good sense, initiative and the ability to adapt oneself<\/strong>. Its four elements are comprehension, invention, direction and criticism<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f, \u0938\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915, \u092a\u0939\u0932 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0906\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0932\u094b\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">David WechslerGlobal view \u2014 most quoted<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0943\u0924<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u091f\u0947<\/strong>\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"def-card\">\n <div class=\"def-who\">E. G. BoringOperational view<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/small><\/div>\n <div class=\"def-text\">\n Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure<\/strong>. Circular, but it is the honest operational definition \u2014 and it matches exactly the operational definition<\/em> described in \u00a71.1.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u00a71.1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Theories of intelligence \u2014 what is being measured?<\/span>\u0916. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u2014 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/h4>\n \n The design of any intelligence test depends on what its author believes intelligence to be<\/em>. A one-factor view yields a single IQ; a multi-factor view yields a profile<\/strong> of scores.<\/span>\n \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0930\u091a\u092f\u093f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/em> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u090f\u0915-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0915\u0932 IQ \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Theory & author<\/span>\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0915<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Core claim<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Effect on testing<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Unifactor \/ Monarchic<\/span>\u090f\u0915-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/strong> Binet, Terman, Stern<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Intelligence is a single, unitary power<\/strong> that operates in every mental task.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u090f\u0915\u0932, \u0905\u0916\u0902\u0921 \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Justifies reporting one global IQ<\/strong>.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 IQ<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Two-factor theory<\/span>\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong> Charles Spearman, 1904<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Every mental act involves a general factor 'g'<\/strong>, common to all tasks, plus a specific factor 's'<\/strong> peculiar to that task. 'g' is inborn; 's' is acquired.<\/strong><\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 'g'<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 's'<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 'g' \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u091c\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948; 's' \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/td>\n <td>A good test should be saturated with 'g'<\/strong> \u2014 hence the emphasis on reasoning items.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 'g' \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0943\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Multifactor theory<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong> E. L. Thorndike<\/em><\/td>\n <td>There is no general factor at all<\/strong> \u2014 intelligence is a bundle of many independent abilities; what looks like 'g' is only overlap between them.<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0902\u091c \u0939\u0948; \u091c\u094b 'g' \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Supports separate ability tests<\/strong> rather than one composite.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Group-factor theory<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/strong> L. L. Thurstone<\/em><\/td>\n <td>Intelligence consists of seven primary mental abilities<\/strong> \u2014 verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, space, memory, reasoning and perceptual speed.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939, \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Produces a profile of seven scores<\/strong> instead of one IQ.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 IQ \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Structure of Intellect<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/strong> J. P. Guilford<\/em><\/td>\n <td>A three-dimensional model<\/strong> \u2014 operations \u00d7 contents \u00d7 products<\/em> \u2014 yielding a large number of distinct abilities. This is where convergent and divergent thinking<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 A) come from.<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u00d7 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u00d7 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/em> \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/strong> (\u00a73.1 \u0915) \u092f\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Legitimizes creativity testing<\/strong> as part of intelligence.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Multiple Intelligences<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/strong> Howard Gardner, 1983<\/em><\/td>\n <td>There are several relatively independent intelligences<\/strong> \u2014 linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0915, \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915-\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0924\u092e\u092f, \u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915-\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Argues that a single IQ is far too narrow<\/strong>; supports portfolio and performance assessment.<\/span>\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915\u0932 IQ \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>C. The Intelligence Quotient<\/span>\u0917. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/h4>\n\n \n Alfred Binet<\/strong> and Theodore Simon<\/strong> produced the first practical intelligence scale in 1905<\/strong>, to identify children in Paris schools who could not profit from ordinary instruction. Their key invention was mental age (MA)<\/strong> \u2014 the age level at which a child performs. William Stern (1912)<\/strong> then expressed this as a ratio, and Terman (1916)<\/strong> multiplied it by 100 to remove the decimal.<\/span>\n \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0921\u094b\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 1905 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0908, \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093e\u092d \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0909\u0920\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0925\u0947\u0964 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 (MA)<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0906\u092f\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0932\u093f\u092f\u092e \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928 (1912)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928 (1916)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0936\u092e\u0932\u0935 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 100 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"formula-card\">\n <div class=\"fx-eyebrow\">The IQ formula \u2014 memorize this<\/span>IQ \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-body\">\n IQ = Mental Age (MA)<\/em> \/ Chronological Age (CA)<\/em> \u00d7 100<\/span>\n IQ = \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 (MA)<\/em> \/ \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 (CA)<\/em> \u00d7 100<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"fx-note\">\n If MA = CA, IQ is exactly 100<\/b> \u2014 the definition of average. MA > CA<\/b> gives an IQ above 100; MA < CA<\/b> gives an IQ below 100. The formula holds only while mental growth continues. Since mental growth levels off around age 16<\/b>, CA is capped at 16<\/b> for adults \u2014 otherwise every adult's IQ would fall each birthday. Modern tests avoid the problem altogether by using the deviation IQ<\/b>, a standard score with mean 100 and SD 15 or 16 (see Unit 4 \u00a74.12).<\/span>\n \u092f\u0926\u093f MA = CA \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b IQ \u0920\u0940\u0915 100<\/b> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 MA > CA<\/b> \u0938\u0947 IQ 100 \u0938\u0947 \u090a\u092a\u0930; MA < CA<\/b> \u0938\u0947 IQ 100 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0924\u092d\u0940 \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0942 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u091a\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0930\u0939\u0947\u0964 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 16 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930<\/b> \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 CA \u0915\u094b 16 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/b> \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u093e IQ \u0939\u0930 \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0926\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/b> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0907\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u091a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u094b 100 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 15 \u092f\u093e 16 SD \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948 (\u0926\u0947\u0916\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u00a74.12)\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"enrich-box\">\n Worked Example<\/span>\u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <h4>Computing IQ for two children<\/span>\u0926\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 IQ \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/h4>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Meena<\/strong> is 10 years old and performs at the level of an average 12-year-old. MA = 12, CA = 10. IQ = 12\/10 \u00d7 100 = 120<\/strong> \u2014 superior.<\/span>\u092e\u0940\u0928\u093e<\/strong> 10 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924 12-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0940\u092f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 MA = 12, CA = 10\u0964 IQ = 12\/10 \u00d7 100 = 120<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Rohit<\/strong> is 10 years old and performs at the level of an average 8-year-old. MA = 8, CA = 10. IQ = 8\/10 \u00d7 100 = 80<\/strong> \u2014 dull normal.<\/span>\u0930\u094b\u0939\u093f\u0924<\/strong> 10 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924 8-\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0940\u092f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 MA = 8, CA = 10\u0964 IQ = 8\/10 \u00d7 100 = 80<\/strong> \u2014 \u092e\u0902\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Note carefully:<\/strong> both children are the same age, but Meena's mental age exceeds her chronological age while Rohit's falls short of his. IQ expresses the ratio, not the level<\/strong> \u2014 a 6-year-old and a 12-year-old can both have an IQ of 120.<\/span>\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f:<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0940\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u0930\u094b\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u092e\u0964 IQ \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 6 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 12 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 IQ 120 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>Classification of IQ<\/span>IQ \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n The bands below follow Terman's classification. Note that they mirror the normal probability curve<\/strong> of Unit 4 \u00a74.10 \u2014 roughly half the population falls between 90 and 110.<\/span>\n \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0947 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4 \u00a74.10 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u092c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e 90 \u0938\u0947 110 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">IQ<\/span>IQ<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Classification<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">IQ<\/span>IQ<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Classification<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">140+<\/td><td>Genius \/ near genius<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940 \/ \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">80\u201389<\/td><td>Dull normal<\/span>\u092e\u0902\u0926 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">120\u2013139<\/td><td>Very superior<\/span>\u0905\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">70\u201379<\/td><td>Borderline<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">110\u2013119<\/td><td>Superior<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/span><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">50\u201369<\/td><td>Mild intellectual disability<\/span>\u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">90\u2013109<\/td><td>Average \/ normal<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \/ \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td class=\"narrow\">Below 50<\/td><td>Moderate to severe intellectual disability<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0902\u092d\u0940\u0930 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>D. Types of intelligence tests<\/span>\u0918. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"vs-compare\">\n <div class=\"vs-side left\">\n By administration<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Individual Tests<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Administered to one examinee at a time<\/strong> by a trained examiner.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The examiner can observe how the child works<\/strong> \u2014 his confidence, persistence, method of attack.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938, \u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Suitable for young children, the illiterate and clinical cases<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u0948\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Costly and time-consuming<\/strong>; needs an expert.<\/span>\u092e\u0939\u0901\u0917\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong>; \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> Binet\u2013Simon, Stanford\u2013Binet, Wechsler scales, Kohs Block Design.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947\u2013\u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928, \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921\u2013\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947, \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901, \u0915\u094b\u0939\u094d\u0938 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915 \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-mid\">VS<\/div>\n <div class=\"vs-side right\">\n By administration<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Group Tests<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul>\n <li>Administered to many examinees simultaneously<\/strong>, usually paper-and-pencil.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c-\u092a\u0947\u0902\u0938\u093f\u0932 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Born of military necessity \u2014 the Army Alpha<\/strong> (verbal) and Army Beta<\/strong> (non-verbal, for illiterate recruits) of the First World War.<\/span>\u0938\u0948\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0947 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e<\/strong> (\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e<\/strong> (\u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930 \u092d\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915)\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Economical of time, money and expertise<\/strong>; scoring is objective and quick.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092f, \u0927\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940<\/strong>; \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>But the examiner cannot observe the individual<\/strong>, and a child's poor reading can depress the score.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u0920\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Examples:<\/em> Army Alpha and Beta, Raven's Progressive Matrices, most school-used tests.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e, \u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Classification by the medium used<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/h5>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Verbal tests<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Use language<\/strong> in both the items and the responses \u2014 vocabulary, analogies, comprehension, arithmetic reasoning. Quick and economical, but useless for the illiterate and unfair across languages.<\/span>\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u2014 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940, \u0938\u093e\u0926\u0943\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0964 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Non-verbal tests<\/span>\u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Use pictures, figures and symbols<\/strong>; instructions may be spoken but the items are not language-bound. Raven's Progressive Matrices<\/em> is the classic example.<\/span>\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0906\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0926 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c<\/em> \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Performance tests<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Require the actual manipulation of objects<\/strong> \u2014 blocks, form boards, mazes. Language plays no part at all, so they suit the deaf, the illiterate and cross-cultural work. Examples:<\/em> Kohs Block Design, Seguin Form Board, Alexander's Pass-along.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u2014 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915, \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e \u092c\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0921, \u092d\u0942\u0932-\u092d\u0941\u0932\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092c\u0927\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930-\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0915\u094b\u0939\u094d\u0938 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915 \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0928, \u0938\u0947\u0917\u0941\u0907\u0928 \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e \u092c\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0921, \u0905\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0921\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0938-\u0905\u0932\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">4<\/span>Culture-fair tests<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Designed so that no cultural or educational group is favoured<\/strong> \u2014 generally non-verbal and free of school-taught content. Example:<\/em> Cattell's Culture Fair Test.<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u093e\u092d \u0928 \u0939\u094b<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923:<\/em> \u0915\u0948\u091f\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u0932\u094d\u091a\u0930 \u092b\u093c\u0947\u092f\u0930 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h5 class=\"sub\">The principal intelligence scales<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Scale<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Description<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Binet\u2013Simon Scale (1905, revised 1908 & 1911)<\/span>\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947\u2013\u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1905, \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 1908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 1911)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The first practical intelligence test<\/strong>, built for the Paris school authorities to identify children needing special instruction. Introduced the idea of mental age<\/strong> and arranged items by age level.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0938 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0926\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u092f\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Stanford\u2013Binet Scale (Terman, 1916)<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921\u2013\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (\u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928, 1916)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The American revision at Stanford University; standardized on American children<\/strong> and the first to express results as an IQ<\/strong>. Repeatedly revised since; still an individual verbal test.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928; \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0915\u094b IQ<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e\u0964 \u0924\u092c \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924; \u0906\u091c \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Wechsler Scales \u2014 WAIS, WISC and WPPSI<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 WAIS, WISC, WPPSI<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Individual scales for adults (WAIS<\/strong>), children (WISC<\/strong> \u2014 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) and pre-schoolers (WPPSI<\/strong> \u2014 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence). Their innovation is a verbal scale and a performance scale side by side<\/strong>, giving a Verbal IQ, a Performance IQ and a Full Scale IQ<\/strong> \u2014 so a child weak in language is not simply written off. They use the deviation IQ<\/strong>. Recall from \u00a71.1 that WAIS is a good test but very difficult to administer<\/em>.<\/span>\u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 (WAIS<\/strong>), \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 (WISC<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0921\u094d\u0930\u0928) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 (WPPSI<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u090f\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938) \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0928\u0935\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0925-\u0938\u093e\u0925<\/strong>, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 IQ, \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 IQ \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 IQ<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u0928\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u00a71.1 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f WAIS \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Army Alpha and Army Beta (1917)<\/span>\u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e (1917)<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>The first group<\/strong> tests, developed to classify American recruits in the First World War. Alpha<\/strong> was verbal, for the literate; Beta<\/strong> was non-verbal, for the illiterate and non-English-speaking. They made mass testing possible.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915; \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915\u0964 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0939\u094b\u0902\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Raven's Progressive Matrices<\/span>\u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>A non-verbal group test<\/strong> of abstract reasoning in which the examinee completes a pattern. Widely used because it is largely culture-fair<\/strong> and highly saturated with Spearman's 'g'<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u0947 'g'<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0924\u0943\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Indian adaptations<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Indian work includes Rice's Hindustani Binet Performance Point Scale<\/strong>, Mohsin's and Jalota's group tests of general mental ability<\/strong>, and Bhatia's Battery of Performance Tests (1955)<\/strong> \u2014 the last being the most used performance battery in India, comprising the Kohs Block Design, Alexander Pass-along, Pattern Drawing, Immediate Memory and Picture Construction sub-tests.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u093e\u0907\u0938 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u092a\u0949\u0907\u0902\u091f \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/strong>, \u092e\u094b\u0939\u0938\u093f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091c\u0932\u094b\u091f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u092a\u0930\u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0938 (1955)<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u094d\u0938 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915 \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0928, \u0905\u0932\u0947\u0915\u094d\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0921\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0938-\u0905\u0932\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917, \u092a\u0948\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928 \u0921\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0907\u0902\u0917, \u0924\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>E. Uses and limitations of intelligence testing<\/span>\u0919. \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"pc-grid\">\n <div class=\"pc-panel pro\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">\u2713<\/span>Educational uses<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>Classification<\/strong> of pupils into homogeneous groups<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Identification of the gifted<\/strong> and of children with intellectual disability<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Diagnosis of under-achievement<\/strong> \u2014 the pupil whose achievement falls well below his IQ<\/span>\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928-\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 IQ \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u092b\u093c\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0939\u094b<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Educational and vocational guidance<\/strong><\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Selection<\/strong> for courses and scholarships<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong><\/span><\/li>\n <li>Providing the criterion<\/strong> against which other tests are validated<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u093e\u0928\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Research<\/strong> into learning and development.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"pc-panel con\">\n <div class=\"pc-head\">!<\/span>Limitations and cautions<\/span>\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <ul>\n <li>IQ measures only a sample of abilities<\/strong>, chiefly verbal and logical \u2014 it says nothing of creativity, character, motivation or social skill<\/span>IQ \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Scores are affected by language, schooling and cultural background<\/strong>, so they can be unfair to rural and disadvantaged children<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0940\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/span><\/li>\n <li>An IQ is not fixed for life<\/strong>; it can shift with environment and health<\/span>IQ \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>; \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0926\u0932 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>The label sticks<\/strong> \u2014 a low IQ recorded once can lower a teacher's expectation permanently, producing a self-fulfilling prophecy<\/span>\u0932\u0947\u092c\u0932 \u091a\u093f\u092a\u0915 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong> \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 IQ \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0923\u0940 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Test results are confidential<\/strong> and must never be announced in class or used to shame a pupil.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0917\u094b\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f \u0914\u0930 \u0928 \u0939\u0940 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Intelligence testing<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>42<\/span>Verbal comprehension is:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Identifying similarities and differences in words, letters, numbers and geometric figures<\/li>\n <li>(b) Demonstrating an understanding of the meaning of words, sentences and directions<\/li>\n <li>(c) Identifying similarities and differences in spoken words or sounds<\/li>\n <li>(d) Identifying letters of the alphabet, words and numerals<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> Verbal comprehension is the first of Thurstone\u2019s seven primary mental abilities and means understanding the meaning of language. Option (a) is perceptual speed, (c) auditory discrimination and (d) mere letter recognition.<\/span>\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u094b\u0927 \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a (\u0915) \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0939\u0948, (\u0917) \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e (\u0918) \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>62<\/span>Which one of the following is an example of a group test?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Individual intelligence test<\/li>\n <li>(b) Group intelligence test<\/li>\n <li>(c) Individual aptitude test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Individual projective test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b)<\/b> A group test is administered to many examinees at once, usually paper-and-pencil \u2014 Army Alpha and Beta and Raven\u2019s Progressive Matrices are the classic examples. The other three options are individual by definition.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0915\u093e\u0917\u091c\u093c-\u092a\u0947\u0902\u0938\u093f\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u2014 \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>103<\/span>Statement-I: An individual with IQ 120 is twice as capable and intelligent as one with IQ 60. Statement-II: IQ gives a direct proportional comparison.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Both correct and II explains I<\/li>\n <li>(b) Both correct but II does not explain I<\/li>\n <li>(c) I correct, II incorrect<\/li>\n <li>(d) Both Statements I and II are incorrect<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) Both incorrect<\/b> IQ is on an interval scale, not a ratio scale \u2014 it has no absolute zero, since \"zero intelligence\" is meaningless. Ratios therefore cannot be taken: IQ 120 is not twice IQ 60, any more than 40\u00b0C is twice as hot as 20\u00b0C.<\/span>IQ \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \"\u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\" \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947: IQ 120, IQ 60 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 40\u00b0C, 20\u00b0C \u0938\u0947 \u0926\u0941\u0917\u0941\u0928\u093e \u0917\u0930\u094d\u092e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a71.7, \u00a710.2 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-3\">\n 10.3<\/span>\n <h3>Attitude and Personality Tests<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Intelligence belongs to the cognitive<\/strong> domain. Attitude and personality belong to the affective<\/strong> domain of \u00a73.1 B \u2014 and because a person can conceal or misreport<\/strong> what he feels, their measurement is far more difficult than the measurement of what he knows.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u091a\u0942\u0901\u0915\u093f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u091b\u093f\u092a\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u092c\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Attitude scales<\/span>\u0915. \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Attitude was defined in \u00a73.1 B as a positive or negative evaluation<\/strong> of people, objects, events or ideas (Zimbardo, 1999)<\/em>, with three components \u2014 cognitive, affective and behavioural<\/strong>. Four standard scaling techniques are used.<\/span>\n \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094b \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> (\u091c\u093c\u093f\u092e\u094d\u092c\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u094b, 1999)<\/em> \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0918\u091f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong>\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Scale<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>How it works<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Note<\/span>\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr>\n <td>Thurstone scale (1928)<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1928)<\/span><\/strong> Equal-appearing intervals<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>A large pool of statements is sorted by judges<\/strong> into eleven piles from most favourable to most unfavourable; the median<\/strong> pile position becomes the statement's scale value<\/strong>. The respondent ticks only those he agrees with, and his score is the average scale value<\/strong> of the ticked statements.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u0924\u0915 \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0922\u0947\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0901\u091f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> \u0922\u0947\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0938 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940-\u092e\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092c\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u0928\u094d\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>The first formal method<\/strong>; laborious and dependent on judges' bias.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong>; \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Likert scale<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong> Summated ratings<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Each statement is answered on a five-point agree\u2013disagree continuum<\/strong>; the values are added and averaged<\/strong>. Discussed fully in \u00a73.1 B, together with the forced-choice<\/strong> variant and the three biases that limit it.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0938\u093e\u0924\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0915\u0930 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0932\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u0939\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>The most widely used<\/strong> \u2014 simpler than Thurstone and needs no judges.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u2014 \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0930\u0932 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Guttman scale<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u091f\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong> Cumulative scaling<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/em><\/td>\n <td>Statements are arranged in increasing intensity<\/strong>, so that agreeing with one implies agreement with all the milder ones below it. The score is simply how far up the ladder<\/strong> the respondent goes.<\/span>\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0935\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0932\u094d\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0922\u093c\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u090a\u092a\u0930<\/strong> \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Elegant, but few attitudes are truly unidimensional<\/strong> enough to scale this way.<\/span>\u0938\u0941\u0902\u0926\u0930, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0924 \u0915\u092e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <tr>\n <td>Bogardus Social Distance Scale<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td>\n <td>Measures attitude towards a social group<\/strong> by asking how close a relationship the respondent would accept \u2014 from \"would marry into the group\" down to \"would exclude from my country\".<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0915\u0930 \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0917\u093e \u2014 \"\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0939 \u0915\u0930\u0942\u0901\u0917\u093e\" \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0915\u0930 \"\u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0930\u0916\u0942\u0901\u0917\u093e\" \u0924\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <td>Widely used in studies of caste, communal and racial prejudice<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u093e\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/td>\n <\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <h4>B. Personality tests<\/span>\u0916. \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What is personality?<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/div>\n Gordon Allport:<\/strong> personality is \"the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.\"<\/strong> Three words matter \u2014 dynamic<\/strong> (it changes), organization<\/strong> (it is a whole, not a list of traits) and unique<\/strong> (no two are alike). The word derives from the Latin persona<\/em>, the mask worn by an actor.<\/span>\n \u0917\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0928 \u0911\u0932\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f:<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u094b-\u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964\"<\/strong> \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932<\/strong> (\u092f\u0939 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948), \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928<\/strong> (\u092f\u0939 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f<\/strong> (\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0926\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902)\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u0932\u0948\u091f\u093f\u0928 persona<\/em> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0939\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094c\u091f\u093e \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"ladder\">\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">1<\/span>Self-report<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u0925\u0928<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Inventories and questionnaires<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n The subject answers a long list of statements about himself, usually Yes \/ No \/ Cannot say<\/strong>. Scoring is objective and quick<\/strong>, and the tests can be given to large groups.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0939\u093e\u0901 \/ \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \/ \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0939 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947<\/strong>\u0964 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Examples and the built-in weakness<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>MMPI<\/strong> (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) \u2014 clinical; includes lie scales<\/em> to catch faking.<\/span>MMPI<\/strong> (\u092e\u093f\u0928\u0947\u0938\u094b\u091f\u093e \u092e\u0932\u094d\u091f\u0940\u092b\u093c\u0947\u091c\u093c\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940) \u2014 \u0928\u0948\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091d\u0942\u0920 \u092a\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0932\u093e\u0908 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Cattell's 16 PF<\/strong> \u2014 sixteen personality factors yielding a profile.<\/span>\u0915\u0948\u091f\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u093e 16 PF<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u094b\u0932\u0939 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Eysenck Personality Inventory<\/strong> \u2014 measures extraversion\u2013introversion<\/em> and neuroticism\u2013stability<\/em>.<\/span>\u0906\u0907\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u2014 \u092c\u0939\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0924\u093e\u2013\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0928\u093e\u092f\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u2013\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>!<\/span>The weakness:<\/strong> the subject knows what is being asked and can answer as he wishes to appear. This is exactly the social desirability bias<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 B.<\/span>\u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e:<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u00a73.1 \u0916 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0902\u091b\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">2<\/span>Indirect<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Projective techniques<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n The subject is shown a deliberately vague, unstructured stimulus<\/strong> and asked what he sees or what is happening. Having no \"right answer\" to aim at, he projects<\/strong> his own needs, conflicts and feelings on to it \u2014 which is how these techniques reach the sub-conscious and pre-conscious mind<\/strong>, as \u00a71.7 noted.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f, \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \"\u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\" \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0926\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0909\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0907\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u00a71.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">The four best-known<\/span>\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924<\/span><\/b>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>a<\/span>Rorschach Ink Blot Test<\/strong> (Hermann Rorschach, 1921) \u2014 ten symmetrical ink blots, five in black and white, five with colour.<\/span>\u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e \u0907\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u091f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> (\u0939\u0930\u092e\u0928 \u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e, 1921) \u2014 \u0926\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u0940-\u0927\u092c\u094d\u092c\u0947, \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0924-\u0936\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092e, \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0930\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>b<\/span>Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)<\/strong> (Morgan and Murray, 1935) \u2014 ambiguous pictures about which the subject tells a story. The Indian adaptation is Uma Chowdhury's TAT<\/strong>; the children's version is the CAT<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (TAT)<\/strong> (\u092e\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0930\u0947, 1935) \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0909\u092e\u093e \u091a\u094c\u0927\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u093e TAT<\/strong>; \u092c\u093e\u0932-\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 CAT<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>c<\/span>Sentence Completion Test<\/strong> \u2014 incomplete sentences such as \"My greatest fear is \u2026\" are finished by the subject.<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \"\u092e\u0947\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0921\u093c\u093e \u092d\u092f \u0939\u0948 \u2026\" \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>d<\/span>Word Association Test<\/strong> and Draw-a-Person Test<\/strong> \u2014 free response to a stimulus word, and analysis of a free drawing.<\/span>\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u0938\u093e\u0939\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915-\u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"rung\">\n <div class=\"rung-step\">3<\/span>Observed<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/span><\/div>\n <div>\n <h5>Observational and situational methods<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h5>\n Instead of asking, the examiner watches<\/strong>. Rating scales<\/strong> record a judge's estimate of a trait; checklists<\/strong> record its presence or absence; the anecdotal record<\/strong> and cumulative record card<\/strong> accumulate evidence over years; and situational tests<\/strong> place the subject in a contrived but realistic situation \u2014 a group discussion, a leaderless task, an obstacle course \u2014 and observe how he actually behaves.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u091b\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f; \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e, \u0928\u0947\u0924\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0935\u0939\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u092c\u093e\u0927\u093e-\u0926\u094c\u0921\u093c \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <div class=\"rung-eg\">Also under this head<\/span>\u0907\u0938\u0940 \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924<\/span><\/b>Sociometry<\/strong> \u2014 mapping who chooses whom in a class, to reveal leaders, isolates and cliques; and the interview<\/strong> and case study<\/strong>, which combine several of these sources into a single portrait.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e, \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0907\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0947\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\u2696\ufe0f<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The trade-off to state in any answer on personality testing.<\/strong> Inventories<\/strong> are objective, reliable and economical but easily faked<\/strong>, because the subject can see what is being asked. Projective techniques<\/strong> cannot be faked, since the subject does not know what his response reveals \u2014 but they are highly subjective to interpret<\/strong>, need a trained clinician, and have low objectivity and reliability. Neither is complete; a full assessment uses several methods together.<\/span>\n \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092f\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092e\u092f \u0905\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/strong> \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0942\u091b\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0930\u0939\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> \u091b\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u091a\u093f\u0915\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0938\u0915 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0915\u0947\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"mcq-box\">\n <div class=\"mcq-title\">\n Previous Year<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0917\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/span>\n MCQs from this section \u2014 Attitude and personality measurement<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0938\u0947 MCQs \u2014 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/span>\n <\/div>\n <div class=\"mcq-note\">GNCTD Principal (17 July 2022) and Vice-Principal (11 December 2022). Questions are given in the original English; explanations are bilingual. Click to reveal the answer.<\/span>GNCTD \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (17 \u091c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u0908 2022) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f (11 \u0926\u093f\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0930 2022)\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u0940\u0964 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>51<\/span>Which one of the following tests is used for personality diagnosis?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Aptitude test<\/li>\n <li>(b) Projective test<\/li>\n <li>(c) Intelligence test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Achievement test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Projective test<\/b> Projective techniques \u2014 Rorschach, TAT, sentence completion, word association \u2014 present a vague unstructured stimulus onto which the subject projects his own needs and conflicts, which is why they reach the sub-conscious and resist faking.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u2014 \u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e, TAT, \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u0938\u093e\u0939\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0940\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0935\u0947 \u0905\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u091b\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0930\u094b\u0927 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>52<\/span>Thurstone\u2019s equal appearing intervals scale is used for measuring:<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Aptitude<\/li>\n <li>(b) Attitude<\/li>\n <li>(c) Achievement<\/li>\n <li>(d) Creativity<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(b) Attitude<\/b> Thurstone (1928) is an attitude scale: judges sort statements into eleven piles and the median position gives each statement its scale value. Note that Thurstone also gave the seven primary mental abilities \u2014 do not confuse the two contributions.<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 (1928) \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0939\u0948: \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0917\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0939 \u0922\u0947\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940-\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092d\u0940 \u0926\u0940\u0902 \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u0926\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3, \u00a710.2 \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>79<\/span>Which one of the following is not a Projective Technique?<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) Sentence Completion<\/li>\n <li>(b) Word Associations<\/li>\n <li>(c) Situational Test<\/li>\n <li>(d) Rorschach Inkblot Test<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) Situational Test<\/b> A situational test places the subject in a contrived but realistic situation and observes<\/em> his actual behaviour \u2014 it is an observational or situational method, not a projective one. The other three all use vague stimuli onto which the subject projects.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u093e<\/em> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0940\u092a\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u091c\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>80<\/span>In which situations are sociometric techniques necessarily used by students? 1. When they elect their monitor 2. When they do homework regularly 3. When they choose sides for a game 4. When they listen attentively<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 4 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 4 only<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(c) 1 and 3 only<\/b> Sociometry maps who chooses whom within a group, to reveal leaders, isolates and cliques. Electing a monitor and choosing sides for a game are both acts of choosing peers; doing homework and listening attentively involve no interpersonal choice at all.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e, \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964 \u092e\u0949\u0928\u093f\u091f\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0916\u0947\u0932 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u093e \u2014 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u092a\u093e\u0920\u0940 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0917\u0943\u0939\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3 \u00b7 Vice-Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <details class=\"mcq-q\">\n <summary>64<\/span>Consider: 1. Interview is a face-to-face interaction. 2. In a structured interview, questions are predetermined and the sequence fixed. 3. In an unstructured interview, the interviewer has greater freedom to ask questions as per the situation.<\/span><\/summary>\n <ul class=\"mcq-opts\">\n <li>(a) 1 and 2 only<\/li>\n <li>(b) 2 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(c) 1 and 3 only<\/li>\n <li>(d) 1, 2 and 3<\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"mcq-ans\">(d) All three<\/b> All three statements are correct descriptions. The structured form makes responses comparable across candidates; the unstructured form yields depth but not comparability; the semi-structured form combines a fixed core with free probing.<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0905\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0917\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0908 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\u00a710.3, \u00a74.15 F \u00b7 Principal 2022<\/span><\/div>\n <\/details>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-31\">\n 10.4<\/span>\n <h3>Aptitude, Interest and Creativity Tests<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Intelligence tells us what a pupil can do in general<\/em>; personality and attitude tell us what he is<\/em>. Three further families of test complete the picture \u2014 what he could learn to do (aptitude<\/strong>), what he wants to do (interest<\/strong>), and what he can produce that is new (creativity<\/strong>). Together with intelligence they are the basis of all educational and vocational guidance<\/strong>.<\/span>\n \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>; \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/em>\u0964 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0914\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>), \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f<\/strong>), \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0928\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 (\u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>)\u0964 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092f\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>A. Aptitude tests<\/span>\u0915. \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Aptitude<\/strong> is the capacity to acquire proficiency<\/strong> in a specified field with training. As \u00a72.7 put it, achievement looks backward<\/em> and aptitude looks forward<\/em>. An aptitude test is therefore validated by its predictive validity<\/strong> (\u00a72.2).<\/span>\n \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0940\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u093e \u00a72.7 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947<\/em> \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0917\u0947<\/em>\u0964 \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> (\u00a72.2) \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n <div class=\"feat-grid\">\n <div class=\"feat-card\">1<\/span>Differential Aptitude Test (DAT)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (DAT)<\/span><\/strong>The best-known battery<\/strong>, giving a profile<\/strong> across eight abilities \u2014 verbal reasoning, numerical ability, abstract reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical reasoning, space relations, spelling and language usage.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/strong>, \u091c\u094b \u0906\u0920 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e, \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928-\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">2<\/span>Specialized aptitude tests<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>Single-field tests: clerical, mechanical, musical (Seashore), artistic, teaching and scholastic aptitude<\/strong>. The entrance examination is in effect a scholastic aptitude test.<\/span>\u090f\u0915\u0932-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923: \u0932\u093f\u092a\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f, \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0940\u0924 (\u0938\u0940\u0936\u094b\u0930), \u0915\u0932\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"feat-card\">3<\/span>Battery versus single test<\/span>\u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/strong>A battery<\/strong> yields a profile of several scores and so supports guidance across careers; a single<\/strong> aptitude test answers one question only. The profile is what makes counselling possible.<\/span>\u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u090f\u0915\u0932<\/strong> \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <h4>B. Interest inventories<\/span>\u0916. \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h4>\n \n Interest<\/strong> is a preference for one activity over another<\/strong> \u2014 a motivational, affective variable, not an ability. A pupil may have high mechanical aptitude and no mechanical interest, and guidance must attend to both. The standard instruments are the Strong Vocational Interest Blank<\/strong>, the Kuder Preference Record<\/strong> (which uses forced choice among triads), and in India S. P. Kulshrestha's<\/strong> and Chatterjee's<\/strong> interest inventories.<\/span>\n \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f \u092c\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0915\u0941\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0917\u0947\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917 \u0935\u094b\u0915\u0947\u0936\u0928\u0932 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0921\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u092b\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0921<\/strong> (\u091c\u094b \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948), \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0938. \u092a\u0940. \u0915\u0941\u0932\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0937\u094d\u0920<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u091f\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <h4>C. Tests of creativity<\/span>\u0917. \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h4>\n <div class=\"callout purple\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udcd8 What creativity testing measures<\/span>\ud83d\udcd8 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Creativity tests measure the divergent thinking<\/strong> of \u00a73.1 A \u2014 the ability to generate many different answers<\/strong> where a conventional test wants one right answer. Guilford's Structure of Intellect (\u00a710.2) is what made such testing theoretically respectable. Four qualities are scored:<\/span>\n \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u00a73.1 \u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u091c\u092c\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0902\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091a\u093e\u0939\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e (\u00a710.2) \u0928\u0947 \u0910\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e \u0926\u0940\u0964 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902:<\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\" style=\"margin-top:10px;\">\n <li>1<\/span>Fluency<\/strong> \u2014 the number<\/em> of responses produced.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939<\/strong> \u2014 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/em>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Flexibility<\/strong> \u2014 the number of different categories<\/em> the responses fall into.<\/span>\u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Originality<\/strong> \u2014 how statistically rare<\/em> a response is in the group.<\/span>\u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0932\u092d<\/em> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Elaboration<\/strong> \u2014 the amount of detail<\/em> added to an idea.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n Instruments:<\/strong> the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)<\/strong>, verbal and figural; Guilford's Unusual Uses<\/em> test; and in India Baqer Mehdi's<\/strong> and Passi's<\/strong> tests of creative thinking.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923:<\/strong> \u091f\u0949\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0938 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u090f\u091f\u093f\u0935 \u0925\u093f\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0902\u0917 (TTCT)<\/strong>, \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915; \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/em> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0915\u093c\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0939\u0926\u0940<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0938\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"exam-tip\">\n <div class=\"et-icon\">\ud83c\udfaf<\/div>\n <div class=\"et-body\">\n The relationship examiners ask about.<\/strong> Intelligence and creativity are related but not the same<\/strong>. The threshold hypothesis<\/strong> holds that a certain minimum intelligence (around IQ 120) is necessary<\/em> for creativity, but beyond that point the correlation between the two nearly disappears \u2014 a very high IQ does not guarantee a creative person. This is the strongest single argument against judging a pupil by IQ alone, and it connects directly to the limitations listed in \u00a710.2.<\/span>\n \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u091b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0926\u0947\u0939\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f (\u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 IQ 120) \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915<\/em> \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 \u0932\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902\u0924 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a IQ \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940\u0964 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 IQ \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0930\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092c\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u00a710.2 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0917\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u0927\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n \n <\/section>\n\n \n <section class=\"chapter-content\" data-chap=\"11\" id=\"c11\">\n <div class=\"chapter-heading-block\">\n REVISION<\/span>\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/span>\n <h2>Revision and Reference<\/span>\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d<\/span><\/h2>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout amber\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">\ud83d\udccc What this chapter covers<\/span>\ud83d\udccc \u0907\u0938 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/div>\n Objectives, Summaries, Key Terms, Formula Sheet, Abbreviations, Questions and Exercises, Syllabus Map and Further Reading<\/span>\n \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936, \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938, \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928<\/span>\n <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-1\">\n 11.1<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Identify different measurement scales<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Discuss the nature of educational measurement and evaluation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the types and techniques of evaluation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains<\/strong> and how their objectives are formulated and assessed.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-1\">\n 11.2<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Distinguish teacher-made<\/strong> from standardized<\/strong> tests and state when each is appropriate.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain criterion-referenced<\/strong> and norm-referenced<\/strong> testing.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the essential qualities<\/strong> of a good measuring instrument.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Discuss the types of educational tests<\/strong> and the measurement of achievement.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the construction and standardization<\/strong> of an achievement test and compare different test items<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the construction, usefulness and types of diagnostic tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-1\">\n 11.3<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the concept of intelligence<\/strong> and describe the main types of intelligence tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Compute and interpret the Intelligence Quotient<\/strong> and state its uses and limitations.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the tools used in attitude and personality<\/strong> measurement.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Discuss the defects of the present examination system<\/strong> and the reforms proposed for it.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the open book examination<\/strong> and the semester system<\/strong>, with their merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0940, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-1\">\n 11.4<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Organize raw scores into a frequency distribution<\/strong> and represent it graphically<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Compute and interpret the mean, median and mode<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Compute and interpret the range, quartile deviation, average deviation and standard deviation<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938, \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928, \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Compute the coefficient of correlation<\/strong> by the product-moment and rank-difference methods.<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Calculate percentiles and percentile ranks<\/strong>, and explain skewness and kurtosis<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the normal probability curve<\/strong> and its applications, and convert raw scores into Z-scores and T-scores<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-1\">\n 11.5<\/span>\n <h3>Objectives: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"callout teal\">\n <div class=\"callout-label\">On completing this unit, the learner will be able to<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0917\u093e<\/span><\/div>\n <ul class=\"icon-list\" style=\"margin-top:8px; margin-bottom:0;\">\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain the concept of reliability<\/strong> and the factors affecting it.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the four methods<\/strong> of determining the reliability coefficient and state when each is used.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917-\u0905\u0935\u0938\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Explain validity<\/strong>, its types and uses, and how the validity coefficient is determined.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong>, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>State the relationship between validity and reliability<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Discuss grading, the credit system and the cumulative record card<\/strong>, with their issues and problems.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u0940, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u2713<\/span>Describe the role of the computer and multimedia<\/strong> in evaluation and education.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <\/div>\n\n <hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-7\">\n 11.6<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Measurement<\/strong> is the process by which the attributes or dimensions of an object are determined \u2014 the assignment of numbers to persons or objects according to established rules. It answers \"how much\"<\/strong> and is precise, objective and quantitative<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e\"<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Measurement is of two types<\/strong> \u2014 physical<\/strong> (direct, absolute zero, always accurate) and mental or educational<\/strong> (indirect, relative, no absolute zero, both qualitative and quantitative).<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915<\/strong> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915<\/strong> (\u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A good measuring tool must be valid, reliable, objective, usable, comprehensive, easy to administer, economical, easy to score, easily available<\/strong> and of good get-up<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u0927, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932, \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u0932, \u0938\u0941\u0932\u092d<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0938\u093e\u091c-\u0938\u091c\u094d\u091c\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Scaling<\/strong> is the process of measuring in the social sciences; it may be comparative<\/strong> (items compared directly) or non-comparative<\/strong> (each item scaled independently). Cronbach (1949)<\/strong> classified the functions of measurement as prognosis, diagnosis and research<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> (\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e) \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> (\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928) \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 (1949)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Evaluation<\/strong> assigns value<\/strong> to a measure. Its equation is quantitative and\/or qualitative description + value judgement<\/strong>. It is philosophical, subjective and continuous<\/strong>, and draws its data from measurement.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0914\u0930\/\u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u093f\u0915, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The evaluation process has three aspects<\/strong> \u2014 quantitative measurement<\/strong>, qualitative assessment<\/strong> and teachers' opinion<\/strong> \u2014 each compensating for the limits of the previous one.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/strong>, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u093e\u092f<\/strong> \u2014 \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u093f\u091b\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)<\/strong> is \"comprehensive\" because it assesses all three domains and \"continuous\" because learning results from continuous formal and informal experience. Its central insight is that the student's competition is with themselves, not with others<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 (CCE)<\/strong> \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u0938\u0924\u0924\" \u0907\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0948, \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Formative and summative<\/strong> are the two most commonly used types. Formative<\/strong> is a monitoring type<\/strong> conducted during<\/em> the teaching\u2013learning process, aimed at improving its quality<\/strong>, with feedback given after it. Summative<\/strong> is conducted at the end<\/strong> of a course, semester, class or topic, evaluates the quality of the final product, involves no remedial teaching<\/strong>, and is the basis of certification<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0926\u094b \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928<\/em> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Placement<\/strong> evaluation assesses entry behaviour<\/strong> and determines each student's position in the instructional sequence. Diagnostic<\/strong> evaluation addresses persistent difficulties left unresolved by formative correctives<\/strong>, determines their causes and formulates a plan for remedial action.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0930 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u094b \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u0941\u0908\u0902<\/strong>, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>External<\/strong> evaluation invites examiners from outside and eliminates bias<\/strong>; internal<\/strong> evaluation has the teacher as examiner and permits remedial teaching<\/strong> for weaker students.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0932\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092f\u0939 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Teaching, learning experiences and assessment are interrelated<\/strong>. Assessment enters at the planning stage<\/strong>, and its purpose is to improve learning, not merely to measure achievement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e-\u091a\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Bloom (1948\u20131956, University of Chicago)<\/strong> classified educational objectives into cognitive, affective and psychomotor<\/strong> domains, corresponding to Gandhi's mind, soul and body<\/strong>. The domains are interrelated and hierarchical<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e (1948\u20131956, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0917\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f)<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u091c\u094b \u0917\u093e\u0902\u0927\u0940\u091c\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0928, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The cognitive domain<\/strong> has six levels \u2014 knowledge, understanding, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation \u2014 and requires five thinking skills: convergent, divergent, critical thinking, problem solving and decision making<\/strong>.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928, \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The affective domain<\/strong> (Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia, 1964) has five levels \u2014 receiving, responding, valuing, organization and characterization. Attitude is measured by direct observation, direct questioning, projective techniques, the Thurstone scale (1928) and the Likert scale<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> (\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u092f\u093e, 1964) \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939\u0923, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 (1928) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The psychomotor domain<\/strong> (R. H. Dave, 1969, adapted) has five levels \u2014 initiation\/observation, manipulation, precision, articulation and naturalization \u2014 and is assessed through performance assessment<\/strong> using open-ended answers, extended tasks and portfolios.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> (\u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947, 1969, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u093f\u0924) \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0928\/\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0936\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The 2001 revision<\/strong> by Anderson, Krathwohl, Cruikshank<\/strong> and others converted the six cognitive nouns into verbs<\/strong>, replacing \"Knowledge\" with \"Remembering\" because knowledge was a product<\/strong> of thinking rather than a category of thinking.<\/span>2001 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u090f\u0902\u0921\u0930\u0938\u0928, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0925\u0935\u094b\u0932, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0907\u0915\u0936\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u2014 \u0928\u0947 \u091b\u0939 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e \"\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\" \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \"\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\" \u0930\u0916\u093e, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926<\/strong> \u0925\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-6\">\n 11.7<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A tool<\/strong> is the instrument that collects evidence; a technique<\/strong> is the manner of collecting it. A rating scale is a tool, observation is a technique.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u0939\u0948; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f\u0964 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A teacher-made test<\/strong> is built by the class teacher for her own pupils \u2014 economical, flexible and matched to what was taught, but lacking norms, item analysis and computed reliability. A standardized test<\/strong> is built by experts with try-out, item analysis, established norms and a published manual, and its scores are comparable across schools.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940, \u0932\u091a\u0940\u0932\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0938\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0932 \u0916\u093e\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0930\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A criterion-referenced test<\/strong> compares performance against a fixed pre-declared standard and reports mastery or non-mastery<\/strong>; a norm-referenced test<\/strong> compares performance against the group and reports a rank or percentile<\/strong>. CRT suits mastery learning and CCE; NRT suits selection and entrance examinations.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0918\u094b\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092f\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 CRT \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 CCE \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941, NRT \u091a\u092f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The primary qualities<\/strong> of a good instrument are validity, reliability, objectivity and norms<\/strong>; the secondary qualities<\/strong> are usability, comparability and discriminating power<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/strong>; \u0917\u094c\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e, \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Validity<\/strong> has four types \u2014 content, criterion-related (concurrent and predictive), construct and face<\/strong>. Reliability<\/strong> is determined by test\u2013retest, parallel forms, split-half and rational equivalence<\/strong>. Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity<\/strong>: a test can be consistently wrong, but it cannot be truly right while being inconsistent.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093f\u0924 (\u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915), \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940<\/strong>\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a, \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Educational tests are classified by what they measure<\/strong> (achievement, aptitude, intelligence, diagnostic, prognostic, personality), by administration<\/strong> (individual\/group), by time pressure<\/strong> (speed\/power), by medium<\/strong> (verbal\/non-verbal\/performance) and by scoring<\/strong> (objective\/essay).<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0935\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902<\/strong> (\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e, \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935), \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928<\/strong> (\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\/\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915), \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935<\/strong> (\u0917\u0924\u093f\/\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f), \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> (\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915\/\u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915\/\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong> (\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\/\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915) \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Achievement<\/strong> looks backward and asks how much has been learnt; aptitude<\/strong> looks forward and asks how much can be learnt.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u092a\u0940\u091b\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e; \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Achievement-test construction runs through four stages \u2014 planning (producing the blueprint), preparing, trying out and evaluating<\/strong>. The blueprint<\/strong> is a two-way grid of objectives against content units and is the chief guarantee of content validity<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e (\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f), \u0924\u0948\u092f\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/strong>\u0964 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/strong> \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0932 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0917\u093e\u0930\u0902\u091f\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Item analysis<\/strong> yields the difficulty value P<\/strong> and the discrimination index D<\/strong>, computed from the top and bottom 27% of scripts. Items with P between 40% and 60%<\/strong> and D of 0.30 or more<\/strong> are retained; an item with negative D<\/strong> is rejected.<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 P<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 D<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u094b \u090a\u092a\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0947 27% \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930-\u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 P 40%\u201360%<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e D 0.30 \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 D<\/strong> \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Essay items<\/strong> test organization and expression but suffer from low scorer objectivity and poor content sampling; objective items<\/strong> give high objectivity and wide coverage but cannot test expression and are slow to construct. Short-answer items<\/strong> are the compromise between the two.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0906\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0940\u092e\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926<\/strong> \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u094c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Among objective forms, multiple choice<\/strong> is the most versatile, true\u2013false<\/strong> suffers from 50% guessing, matching<\/strong> is economical but confined to factual association, and completion<\/strong> eliminates guessing but may admit more than one defensible answer.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f<\/strong> \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 50% \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u093f\u0924\u0935\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A diagnostic test<\/strong> locates the specific sub-skill at which learning breaks down. It is built by task analysis<\/strong>, its items are deliberately easy<\/strong> and arranged in the sequence of steps, it carries no marks and no pass or fail<\/strong>, and it yields a profile<\/strong> rather than a score.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0909\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0924\u093e \u0932\u0917\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u091f\u0942\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u092c\u0942\u091d\u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0928 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923-\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932<\/strong> \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Diagnostic tests may be standardized or teacher-made, subject-wise, group or individual<\/strong>, and are supported by informal techniques<\/strong> \u2014 observation, oral questioning, interview, analysis of written work, checklists and cumulative records. Diagnosis is useless unless it is followed by remedial teaching and a re-test.<\/strong><\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u094c\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092e\u094c\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u2014 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0924\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u092c \u0924\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-5\">\n 11.8<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A psychological test<\/strong> is an objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour<\/strong> (Anastasi). It is always inferential<\/strong>, because psychological measurement is indirect.<\/span>\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/strong> \u0939\u0948 (\u090f\u0928\u093e\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0938\u0940)\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Intelligence<\/strong> has been defined as the capacity to adjust<\/strong> (Stern), to think abstractly<\/strong> (Terman), to exercise judgement<\/strong> (Binet), and as the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally and deal effectively with the environment<\/strong> (Wechsler). Boring's operational definition \u2014 intelligence is what intelligence tests measure \u2014 is circular but honest.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e (\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928), \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924<\/strong> \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e (\u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928), \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e (\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947), \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f, \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> (\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930) \u0915\u0939\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092c\u094b\u0930\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u0939 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Theories differ on how many factors<\/strong> intelligence has: unifactor<\/strong> (Binet), two-factor 'g' and 's'<\/strong> (Spearman), multifactor<\/strong> (Thorndike), seven primary abilities<\/strong> (Thurstone), the Structure of Intellect<\/strong> (Guilford, source of convergent and divergent thinking) and multiple intelligences<\/strong> (Gardner). A one-factor view yields a single IQ; a multi-factor view yields a profile.<\/span>\u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u0915\u093f \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u090f\u0915-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> (\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947), \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 'g' \u090f\u0935\u0902 's'<\/strong> (\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928), \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/strong> (\u0925\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0921\u093e\u0907\u0915), \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> (\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928), \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> (\u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0924) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/strong> (\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0928\u0930)\u0964 \u090f\u0915-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u090f\u0915\u0932 IQ \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u092b\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>IQ = MA \/ CA \u00d7 100.<\/strong> Binet and Simon gave the first practical scale in 1905<\/strong> and the idea of mental age<\/strong>; Stern expressed it as a ratio in 1912 and Terman multiplied by 100 in 1916. CA is capped at about 16 for adults, and modern tests use the deviation IQ<\/strong> instead.<\/span>IQ = MA \/ CA \u00d7 100\u0964<\/strong> \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928 \u0928\u0947 1905<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941<\/strong> \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0926\u0940; \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0930\u094d\u0928 \u0928\u0947 1912 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0914\u0930 \u091f\u0930\u092e\u0928 \u0928\u0947 1916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 100 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964 \u0935\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 CA \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 16 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Intelligence tests are classified as individual or group<\/strong>, and as verbal, non-verbal, performance or culture-fair<\/strong>. The principal scales are the Binet\u2013Simon<\/strong>, the Stanford\u2013Binet<\/strong>, the Wechsler scales<\/strong> (verbal + performance + full scale IQ), Army Alpha and Beta<\/strong>, Raven's Progressive Matrices<\/strong>, and in India the Bhatia Battery of Performance Tests<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915, \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915, \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947\u2013\u0938\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0928<\/strong>, \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0948\u0928\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921\u2013\u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947<\/strong>, \u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/strong> (\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 + \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 + \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 IQ), \u0906\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0940 \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0940\u091f\u093e<\/strong>, \u0930\u0947\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0938\u093f\u0935 \u092e\u0948\u091f\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0938\u0940\u091c\u093c<\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092d\u093e\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u092a\u0930\u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0938<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>IQ is useful for classification, identification of the gifted, diagnosis of under-achievement, guidance and selection<\/strong>, but it samples only a narrow band of abilities, is affected by language and culture<\/strong>, is not fixed for life, and can produce a damaging label<\/strong>. Results are confidential.<\/span>IQ \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0936\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928, \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928-\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u091a\u092f\u0928<\/strong> \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u091f\u094d\u091f\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0940\u0935\u0928 \u092d\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0930\u0939\u0924\u0940, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u0932\u0947\u092c\u0932<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u0917\u094b\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Attitude is measured by four standard scales \u2014 Thurstone<\/strong> (equal-appearing intervals, judges), Likert<\/strong> (summated ratings, most used), Guttman<\/strong> (cumulative) and Bogardus<\/strong> (social distance).<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928<\/strong> (\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915), \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f<\/strong> (\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924), \u0917\u0941\u091f\u092e\u0948\u0928<\/strong> (\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938<\/strong> (\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Personality \u2014 \"the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment\"<\/strong> (Allport) \u2014 is measured by inventories<\/strong> (MMPI, Cattell\u2019s 16 PF, the Eysenck Personality Inventory), projective techniques<\/strong> (Rorschach, TAT, sentence completion, word association) and observational and situational methods<\/strong> (rating scales, anecdotal records, sociometry, case study).<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u2014 \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u094b-\u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0935\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\"<\/strong> (\u0911\u0932\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f) \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (MMPI, \u0915\u0948\u091f\u0947\u0932 \u0915\u093e 16 PF, \u0906\u0907\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940), \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (\u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e, TAT, \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u0938\u093e\u0939\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/strong> (\u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932, \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928) \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The central trade-off in personality testing: inventories are objective but easily faked; projective techniques cannot be faked but are subjective to interpret.<\/strong> A full assessment uses several methods together.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092e\u092f: \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u091b\u0932\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u091b\u0932\u0940 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The present examination system is external, terminal, essay-dominated, cognitive-only and norm-referenced<\/strong>. Its main defects are low validity and reliability, poor sampling, cramming, anxiety, malpractice, absence of diagnostic value and neglect of the whole child<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e, \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928, \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u0930\u091f\u0928\u093e, \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e, \u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Reforms recommended by the Mudaliar, Kothari, NPE 1986, NCF 2005<\/strong> and NEP 2020<\/strong> include CCE, internal assessment with moderation, grading, question banks and blueprints, mixed question papers, scoring reforms, semesterization, open book examinations, technology and anti-malpractice measures<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0926\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u0930, \u0915\u094b\u0920\u093e\u0930\u0940, NPE 1986, NCF 2005<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 CCE, \u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f, \u092e\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930-\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The open book examination<\/strong> permits consultation of material and so kills rote memorization, tests higher abilities and reduces anxiety and malpractice \u2014 but it makes question-setting and scoring far harder<\/strong> and is unsuitable where factual recall must be tested. It exists in restricted, unrestricted and take-home<\/strong> forms.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u0921\u093c \u0915\u093e\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0926\u093e\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928<\/strong> \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0939\u094b\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u0905\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0943\u0939-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/strong> \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The semester system<\/strong> divides the year into two independent terms with their own examinations and credits. It reduces load, keeps students engaged, gives timely feedback and improves reliability<\/strong>, but creates perpetual examination, heavy administration, unit-wise cramming and little time for co-curricular work<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928 \u0930\u0916\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u092e\u092f\u094b\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u0930\u091f\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f<\/strong> \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-9\">\n 11.9<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Statistics<\/strong> is the science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analysing and interpreting numerical data. Descriptive<\/strong> statistics describes the group measured; inferential<\/strong> statistics generalizes from a sample to a population. This unit is entirely descriptive.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Statistical treatment follows five steps \u2014 collection, organization, presentation, analysis and interpretation<\/strong>. Measurement becomes evaluation only at the last step, when the numbers are given educational meaning.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e<\/strong>\u0964 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092c\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u092c \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A frequency distribution<\/strong> groups scores into class intervals. The exact limits<\/strong> of 50\u201359 are 49.5\u201359.5 and its midpoint<\/strong> is 54.5. Graphs: the histogram<\/strong> (exact limits, no gaps), the frequency polygon<\/strong> (midpoints, allows comparison of two distributions), the ogive<\/strong> (cumulative, S-shaped, used to read medians and percentiles), the bar diagram<\/strong> (categorical, with gaps) and the pie diagram<\/strong>.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 50\u201359 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/strong> 49.5\u201359.5 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941<\/strong> 54.5 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916: \u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> (\u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902), \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092d\u0941\u091c<\/strong> (\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941, \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935), \u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923<\/strong> (\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940, S-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941), \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/strong> (\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The three measures of central tendency<\/strong> are the mean<\/strong> (\u03a3f<\/em>X\/N; uses every score; affected by extremes; the basis of all later statistics), the median<\/strong> (positional; unaffected by extremes; preferred in skewed distributions) and the mode<\/strong> (most frequent; least stable). They are linked by Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> (\u03a3f<\/em>X\/N; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924; \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930), \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/strong> (\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092a\u0930\u0915; \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/strong> (\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930; \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928\u0924\u092e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930)\u0964 \u092f\u0947 Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The measures of variability<\/strong> are the range<\/strong> (crudest, uses two scores), the quartile deviation<\/strong> (partner of the median, used with skewed or open-ended data), the average deviation<\/strong> (uses all scores but discards signs arbitrarily) and the standard deviation<\/strong> \u2014 the most reliable, algebraically sound, and the foundation of correlation, derived scores, the normal curve, reliability and validity.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/strong> (\u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932\u0924\u092e, \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915), \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/strong> (\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u0925\u0940, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0916\u0941\u0932\u0947 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941), \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/strong> (\u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0922\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u090f) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/strong> \u2014 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f, \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0943\u0922\u093c, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Correlation<\/strong> expresses the relationship between two sets of scores as a number from \u22121.00 to +1.00<\/strong>. Pearson's product-moment r<\/strong> is used with interval data and a linear relationship; Spearman's rank-difference \u03c1<\/strong> with ordinal data or small N. Remember: correlation is not causation<\/strong>, r is not a percentage<\/strong> (square it for shared variance), and a negative r is not a weak r<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/strong> \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u094b \u22121.00 \u0938\u0947 +1.00<\/strong> \u0924\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 r<\/strong> \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941; \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u03c1<\/strong> \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u091b\u094b\u091f\u0947 N \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923 \u0930\u0916\u0947\u0902: \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, r \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> (\u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f), \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 r \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932 r \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A percentile<\/strong> is a score below which a given percentage lies; a percentile rank<\/strong> is the percentage lying below a given score. They are inverse operations. P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, P50<\/sub> = Median, P75<\/sub> = Q3<\/sub><\/strong>, and the percentile formula is the median formula generalized.<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0939\u094b; \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/strong> \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 P25<\/sub> = Q1<\/sub>, P50<\/sub> = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, P75<\/sub> = Q3<\/sub><\/strong>, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e-\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Skewness<\/strong> measures departure from symmetry: positive<\/strong> means most scores are low and the paper was too hard; negative<\/strong> means most are high and it was too easy. Kurtosis<\/strong> measures peakedness: Ku = 0.263 is normal (mesokurtic)<\/strong>; below it is leptokurtic<\/strong> (homogeneous group, low variability); above it is platykurtic<\/strong> (heterogeneous group, high variability).<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948: \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928; \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0924\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948: Ku = 0.263 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f (\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940)<\/strong>; \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092e \u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/strong> (\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e); \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/strong> (\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The normal probability curve<\/strong> is bell-shaped, perfectly symmetrical, unimodal and asymptotic, with mean = median = mode<\/strong>. Its areas are fixed: 68.26 per cent within \u00b11\u03c3, 95.44 per cent within \u00b12\u03c3 and 99.73 per cent within \u00b13\u03c3<\/strong>. It is used to determine percentages of cases, convert scores, assign grades, compare groups, standardize tests and interpret IQs.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u090f\u0915\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e = \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/strong>\u0964 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u00b11\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 68.26 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924, \u00b12\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 95.44 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u00b13\u03c3 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 99.73 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/strong>\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u0928\u0947, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 IQ \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Derived scores<\/strong> re-express a raw score as its distance from its own mean in SD units, so scores on different tests become comparable. Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3<\/strong> has mean 0 and SD 1; T = 50 + 10Z<\/strong> has mean 50 and SD 10 and avoids negatives; the deviation IQ<\/strong> uses mean 100 and SD 15; the stanine<\/strong> uses mean 5 and SD 2.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 SD-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092c\u0928\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 Z = (X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 1; T = 50 + 10Z<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 10, \u091c\u094b \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u091a\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 100 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 15; \u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928<\/strong> \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 5 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 2\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-6\">\n 11.10<\/span>\n <h3>Summary: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Reliability<\/strong> is the consistency, stability and dependability of test scores. On the true-score model, X = T + E<\/strong>: every obtained score contains a true component and an error component, and reliability is the proportion of obtained variance that is true variance.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0947\u092e\u0902\u0926\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 X = T + E<\/strong>: \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Reliability rises with the length of the test<\/strong> and the range of ability in the group<\/strong>, and with objectivity of scoring<\/strong> and moderate item difficulty<\/strong>. It is lowered by guessing, poor testing conditions, speededness<\/strong> and examinee variables<\/strong> such as fatigue and anxiety.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908<\/strong>, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930<\/strong>, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u092a\u0926-\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928, \u0926\u094b\u0937\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0926\u0936\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0917\u0924\u093f-\u0926\u092c\u093e\u0935<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0941\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u093e \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940-\u091a\u0930<\/strong> \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0918\u091f\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Four methods determine the reliability coefficient \u2014 test\u2013retest<\/strong> (stability over time; threatened by memory and by real growth), parallel forms<\/strong> (equivalence; the best single index but laborious to build), split-half<\/strong> (internal consistency; odd against even items, corrected by Spearman\u2013Brown<\/strong>) and rational equivalence<\/strong> (Kuder\u2013Richardson and Cronbach's alpha, from a single administration).<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/strong> (\u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e; \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0943\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u091f\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924), \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/strong> (\u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e; \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094b\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0938\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f), \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926<\/strong> (\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e \u092a\u0926, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928<\/strong> \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong> (\u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e, \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947)\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The Spearman\u2013Brown formula, rtt<\/sub> = 2rhh<\/sub>\/(1 + rhh<\/sub>)<\/strong>, corrects the split-half coefficient for length, because the half-test always understates the reliability of the whole.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930, rtt<\/sub> = 2rhh<\/sub>\/(1 + rhh<\/sub>)<\/strong>, \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0915\u092e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Validity<\/strong> is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is specific to a purpose<\/strong> and a matter of degree, not of kind<\/strong>. Its types are content, concurrent, predictive, construct<\/strong> and face<\/strong> validity.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/strong> \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941, \u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940, \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e<\/strong> \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940<\/strong> \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The validity coefficient is the same product-moment r<\/strong> of \u00a74.7, but computed between the test and an outside criterion<\/strong> rather than between the test and itself. It can never exceed the quality of the criterion, and 0.40 to 0.60 is considered good<\/strong> \u2014 far lower than the 0.80 to 0.95 expected of reliability.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u00a74.7 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 r \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/strong> \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0924\u0925\u093e 0.40 \u0938\u0947 0.60 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e<\/strong> \u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 0.80\u20130.95 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of validity.<\/strong> A test can be reliable without being valid \u2014 the wrongly calibrated weighing machine \u2014 but it cannot be valid without being reliable. Numerically, validity cannot exceed the square root of reliability<\/strong>, so reliability sets the ceiling on validity.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0917\u093c\u0932\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0936\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0941\u090f \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u092e\u0942\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong> \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Grading<\/strong> reports achievement in broad letter categories instead of exact marks, acknowledging the error of measurement and ending the competition for one extra mark. Absolute grading<\/strong> uses fixed mark ranges and is criterion-referenced; relative grading<\/strong> uses \u03c3-distances on the normal curve and is norm-referenced.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928-\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948; \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/strong> \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>A credit<\/strong> measures the volume of learning in a course; SGPA = \u03a3(C \u00d7 G) \/ \u03a3C<\/strong> and CGPA is the same across all semesters. This is a weighted mean<\/strong>, with credits as weights. The CBCS<\/strong> adds course choice, and NEP 2020's Academic Bank of Credit<\/strong> allows storage and transfer.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; SGPA = \u03a3(C \u00d7 G) \/ \u03a3C<\/strong> \u0924\u0925\u093e CGPA \u0935\u0939\u0940, \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/strong> \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964 CBCS<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0915\u093e\u0926\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/strong> \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The cumulative record card<\/strong> is a permanent, continuously maintained record of all significant information about a pupil \u2014 personal, health, academic, test, co-curricular and behavioural. It makes the \"comprehensive\" of CCE concrete and is the ancestor of NEP 2020's holistic progress card<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u2014 \u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915, \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u094d\u092f, \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0939-\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0917\u0924 \u2014 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940, \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 CCE \u0915\u0947 \"\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/strong> \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The chief issues<\/strong> in these trends are arbitrary grade boundaries, loss of fine discrimination, grade inflation<\/strong>, doubtful comparability across institutions, inadequate teacher training, the record-keeping burden, subjectivity and bias in behavioural notes, and confidentiality<\/strong> of sensitive data.<\/span>\u0907\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u0928\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u0938\u0942\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092e \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f, \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/strong>, \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u093f\u0917\u094d\u0927 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0905\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092c\u094b\u091d, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930-\u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0926\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u094b\u092a\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>The computer<\/strong> serves evaluation through item banking, statistical analysis, online and adaptive testing, on-screen marking, record keeping, result processing and e-portfolios<\/strong>. Its limitations are cost and infrastructure, a bias towards objective items, data security, technical failure \u2014 and the fact that a computer computes but cannot make a value judgement<\/strong>.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930<\/strong> \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0911\u0928\u0932\u093e\u0907\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0911\u0928-\u0938\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0928, \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0908-\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f\u092b\u093c\u094b\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b<\/strong> \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0932\u093e\u0917\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0935\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u091d\u0941\u0915\u093e\u0935, \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0924\u0915\u0928\u0940\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u0925\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e<\/strong>\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>\u25b8<\/span>Multimedia<\/strong> integrates text, audio, images, animation, video and interactivity, engaging more than one sense channel at once. It makes the abstract concrete, serves all three domains, allows self-pacing and immediate feedback, and extends reach \u2014 but it is a tool, not a substitute for the teacher<\/strong>, and is only as good as the educational objectives it serves.<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/strong> \u092a\u093e\u0920, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f, \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0935\u0940\u0921\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0925 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0907\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f-\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0938\u0902\u0932\u0917\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0905\u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0917\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0932 \u092a\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0920\u092a\u094b\u0937\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0939\u0941\u0901\u091a \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/strong>, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-8\">\n 11.11<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/b>Assignment of numbers to persons or objects according to established rules; answers \"how much\".<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902\/\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e; \"\u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e\" \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Evaluation<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Assigning value to a measure; quantitative and\/or qualitative description plus value judgement.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0915\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e; \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0914\u0930\/\u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923 + \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Physical measurement<\/span>\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/b>Direct measurement of objects with absolute existence, starting from an absolute zero.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Mental \/ educational measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \/ \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928<\/span><\/b>Indirect and relative measurement of traits inferred from responses; no absolute zero.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928; \u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Scaling<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/b>The process of measuring in the social sciences; comparative or non-comparative.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e; \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The truthfulness of a test \u2014 the extent to which it measures what it intends to measure.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u2014 \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u092d\u0940\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The consistency or faithfulness of an instrument across repeated administrations.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930-\u092c\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Objectivity<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Item objectivity (one definite answer) plus scoring objectivity (same score whoever scores).<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e (\u090f\u0915 \u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930) \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928-\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e (\u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Usability<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The degree to which teachers and administrators can successfully use a tool in practice.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092b\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Prognosis function<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/b>Use of measurement to predict future behaviour; carries the administrative functions.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093e\u0938\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Diagnosis function<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/b>Identification of weaknesses in learning, establishing a cause\u2013effect relationship.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928, \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u2013\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Research function<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/b>Use of measurement to verify scientific hypotheses and permit valid generalizations.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Rating scale<\/span>\u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/b>A 5-, 7-, 9- or 11-point scale on which judges rate a relative psychological trait.<\/span>5, 7, 9 \u092f\u093e 11 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Projective technique<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>Ambiguous, subjective technique reflecting the sub-conscious and pre-conscious mind, e.g. TAT.<\/span>\u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928 \u092e\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 TAT\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">CCE<\/span>CCE<\/span><\/b>Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation \u2014 continuous in time, comprehensive across all three domains.<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u2014 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u0924, \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Placement evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Assessment of entry behaviour to fix the learner's position in the instructional sequence.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936-\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Formative evaluation<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Monitoring-type evaluation during instruction, aimed at improving teaching-learning quality.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094c\u0930\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0928\u0940-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Diagnostic evaluation<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Deep probe into persistent difficulties unresolved by formative correctives; leads to remedial plans.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0938\u0941\u0932\u091d\u0940 \u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0939\u0928 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a; \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Summative evaluation<\/span>\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>End-of-course evaluation of the final product; basis of certification; no remedial teaching after it.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u093f\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930; \u0907\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">External evaluation<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Examiners invited from outside; teacher and examiner are never the same; eliminates bias.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0930 \u0938\u0947; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902; \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Internal evaluation<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/b>Teacher is the examiner; class, unit, weekly and monthly tests; enables remedial teaching.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915; \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e, \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908, \u0938\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Taxonomy<\/span>\u091f\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0938\u094b\u0928\u0949\u092e\u0940<\/span><\/b>The study of classification; in education, the systematic classification of aims and objectives.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928; \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Cognitive domain<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/b>Objectives developing intellectual abilities \u2014 knowing, understanding, thinking, problem solving.<\/span>\u092c\u094c\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0928\u093e, \u0938\u092e\u091d\u0928\u093e, \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928, \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Affective domain<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/b>Objectives developing emotions, values, attitudes, interests and appreciation.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0935\u0947\u0917\u094b\u0902, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Psychomotor domain<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937<\/span><\/b>Objectives developing manipulative and motor skills; requires psychological readiness.<\/span>\u0939\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0947\u0936\u0940\u092f \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f; \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Convergent thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/b>Guilford's term for the ability to give the correct answer to standard questions using logic.<\/span>\u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u2014 \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Divergent thinking<\/span>\u0905\u092a\u0938\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/b>Spontaneous, free-flowing generation of many original ideas about a topic in a short time.<\/span>\u0905\u0932\u094d\u092a \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092a\u0930 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u094c\u0932\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0903\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924, \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0943\u091c\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Critical thinking<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928<\/span><\/b>Reasonable reflective thinking focused on what to believe and what not to believe.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u0915\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u2014 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0938 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Learning set<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f<\/span><\/b>Harlow's concept \u2014 having \"learned how to learn\", which transfers positively to similar problems.<\/span>\u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u2014 \"\u0938\u0940\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e\", \u091c\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Attitude<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/b>A positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, events, activities or ideas (Zimbardo, 1999).<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902, \u0918\u091f\u0928\u093e\u0913\u0902, \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 (\u091c\u093c\u093f\u092e\u094d\u092c\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u094b, 1999)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Likert scale<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>Balanced attitude scale summing responses to multiple items; also called the Summative Scale.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0924\u0941\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u094b \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948; \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u0915\u0939\u0932\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Thurstone scale<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>The first official attitude-measurement method (1928), using numerically valued statements.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u0914\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f (1928), \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Interest inventory<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span><\/b>Career-assessment tool developed by E. K. Strong (1927) to identify a person's interest areas.<\/span>\u0908.\u0915\u0947. \u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0949\u0928\u094d\u0917 (1927) \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u093e\u092f-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0939\u091a\u093e\u0928 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Self-concept<\/span>\u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u092f<\/span><\/b>How we assess ourselves as individuals; comprises self-image, self-esteem and the ideal self.<\/span>\u0939\u092e \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902; \u0907\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e, \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Performance assessment<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/b>Testing that requires students to perform a task rather than select an answer from a list.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-7\">\n 11.12<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Tool<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The instrument through which evidence is collected \u2014 a test, inventory, scale or schedule.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Technique<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>The method or manner in which evidence is collected \u2014 observation, interview, self-reporting.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0930\u0940\u0924\u093f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0938\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u0925\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Teacher-made test<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test constructed by the class teacher for her own pupils, without try-out or norms.<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941, \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Standardized test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>An expert-built test with uniform directions, established norms and reported reliability and validity.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u091c\u094d\u091e-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u090f\u0915\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094b\u0902, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Criterion-referenced test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test interpreting a score against a fixed standard; reports mastery or non-mastery.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092f\u093e \u0905\u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Norm-referenced test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test interpreting a score against the performance of a reference group; reports rank or percentile.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092f\u093e \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Norms<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915<\/span><\/b>The average performance of a defined reference group, used to give meaning to a raw score.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d-\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928, \u091c\u094b \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Content validity<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which items adequately sample the whole syllabus and all objectives.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0932\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Predictive validity<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which present scores forecast performance on a future criterion.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Construct validity<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which a test really measures the psychological trait it claims to measure.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0909\u0938 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Split-half method<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>Reliability found by correlating odd and even items, corrected by the Spearman\u2013Brown formula.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Discriminating power<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928-\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The ability of a test or item to separate the able from the less able.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u092e \u092f\u094b\u0917\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Achievement test<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test of how much has been learnt after a period of instruction; backward-looking.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0938\u0940\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e, \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092d\u0942\u0924\u094b\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Aptitude test<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test of the capacity to acquire a skill with training; forward-looking.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932-\u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923; \u092d\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0928\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Speed test<\/span>\u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Easy items with a strict time limit; measures the rate of work.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u0932 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0920\u094b\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e; \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Power test<\/span>\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Items of rising difficulty with liberal time; measures the level of ability reached.<\/span>\u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u092f; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Blueprint<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f<\/span><\/b>A two-way table of objectives against content units showing the marks allotted to each cell.<\/span>\u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f-\u0906\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0940 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u094b\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0902\u091f\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Item analysis<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Examination of each item after try-out for its difficulty value and discrimination index.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Difficulty value (P)<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 (P)<\/span><\/b>The percentage of examinees answering an item correctly; a higher P means an easier item.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924; P \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Discrimination index (D)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 (D)<\/span><\/b>The difference between correct responses of the upper and lower groups, divided by group size.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0939\u0940 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930, \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Distractor<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915<\/span><\/b>A wrong alternative in a multiple-choice item; a good distractor is drawn from pupils' real errors.<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0932\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a; \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Halo effect<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935<\/span><\/b>The examiner's general impression of a pupil influencing the marks given on a particular answer.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Diagnostic test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>An easy, sub-skill-wise test that locates the exact point at which learning breaks down.<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u0932, \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u0935\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u0939 \u0938\u091f\u0940\u0915 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0916\u094b\u091c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u091f\u0942\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Task analysis<\/span>\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Breaking a skill into the logical sequence of sub-skills a pupil must master.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u094b \u0909\u0928 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0928\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Remedial teaching<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Targeted re-teaching of the failed sub-skill by a method different from the one that failed.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0909\u092a-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u0915\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e, \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-6\">\n 11.13<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Psychological test<\/span>\u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>An objective and standardized measure of a sample of behaviour (Anastasi).<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u092a (\u090f\u0928\u093e\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0938\u0940)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Mental age (MA)<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 (MA)<\/span><\/b>The age level at which a child performs on an intelligence scale; Binet's key invention.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0906\u092f\u0941-\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u0930 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0930 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u092c\u093f\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0906\u0935\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Intelligence Quotient (IQ)<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f (IQ)<\/span><\/b>Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u0947\u0915\u0930 100 \u0938\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Deviation IQ<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ<\/span><\/b>A standard score with mean 100 and SD 15 or 16, used in place of the ratio IQ in modern tests.<\/span>100 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 15 \u092f\u093e 16 SD \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u091c\u094b \u0906\u0927\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924-IQ \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">'g' factor<\/span>'g' \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/b>Spearman's general factor, common to all mental tasks and largely inborn.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915, \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936\u0924\u0903 \u091c\u0928\u094d\u092e\u091c\u093e\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">'s' factor<\/span>'s' \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/b>Spearman's specific factor, peculiar to a particular task and acquired through experience.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915, \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935 \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Primary mental abilities<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/b>Thurstone's seven group factors: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number, space, memory, reasoning, perceptual speed.<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915: \u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u094b\u0927, \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093e\u0939, \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928, \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f, \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Multiple intelligences<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>Gardner's view that there are several relatively independent intelligences, not one general ability.<\/span>\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0928\u0930 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0924 \u0915\u093f \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902, \u0905\u092a\u093f\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0928\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Performance test<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test requiring actual manipulation of objects, with no language element \u2014 e.g. Kohs Block Design.<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e-\u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0930\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0939\u094d\u0938 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0949\u0915 \u0921\u093f\u091c\u093c\u093e\u0907\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Culture-fair test<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>A test designed so that no cultural or educational group is favoured; usually non-verbal.<\/span>\u0910\u0938\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u094b \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u092f\u093e \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u094b \u0932\u093e\u092d \u0928 \u0926\u0947; \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u0903 \u0905\u0936\u093e\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Bhatia Battery<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/span><\/b>The Indian performance battery (1955) of five sub-tests, the most used in India.<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0909\u092a-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092c\u0948\u091f\u0930\u0940 (1955), \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Thurstone scale<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>Attitude scale of equal-appearing intervals in which judges assign scale values to statements.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u093e\u092f\u0915 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940-\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Guttman scale<\/span>\u0917\u0941\u091f\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>Cumulative attitude scale in which agreeing with one item implies agreement with all milder ones.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0939\u0948 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0939\u0932\u094d\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Bogardus Social Distance Scale<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940<\/span><\/b>Measures attitude to a social group by the closeness of relationship the respondent will accept.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u0909\u0938 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Personality<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935<\/span><\/b>The dynamic organization within the individual of the psycho-physical systems determining his unique adjustment (Allport).<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0909\u0928 \u092e\u0928\u094b-\u0936\u093e\u0930\u0940\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0940\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0905\u0926\u094d\u0935\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 (\u0911\u0932\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Personality inventory<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940<\/span><\/b>A self-report list of statements about oneself, objectively scored \u2014 e.g. MMPI, 16 PF, EPI.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0925\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0935-\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940, \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u2014 \u091c\u0948\u0938\u0947 MMPI, 16 PF, EPI\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Rorschach test<\/span>\u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Projective test of ten symmetrical ink blots (Rorschach, 1921).<\/span>\u0926\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u0940-\u0927\u092c\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (\u0930\u094b\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e, 1921)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">TAT<\/span>TAT<\/span><\/b>Thematic Apperception Test (Morgan and Murray, 1935) \u2014 stories told about ambiguous pictures.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 (\u092e\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0930\u0947, 1935) \u2014 \u0905\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u0941\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u0917\u0908 \u0915\u0939\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Situational test<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Places the subject in a contrived but realistic situation and observes his actual behaviour.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u0915\u0930 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0939\u093e\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Sociometry<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/b>Mapping who chooses whom within a group, to reveal leaders, isolates and cliques.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u092d\u0940\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u094c\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0923, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0947\u0924\u093e, \u090f\u0915\u093e\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u0941\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u091f \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Open book examination<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/b>An examination in which candidates may consult books and notes while answering.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u0924\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915\u0947\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u094b\u091f\u094d\u0938 \u0926\u0947\u0916 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Take-home examination<\/span>\u0917\u0943\u0939-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e<\/span><\/b>An open book form in which the paper is answered at home over several days.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0918\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u0908 \u0926\u093f\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Semester system<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940<\/span><\/b>Division of the academic year into two independent terms, each with its own courses and examination.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u093e \u0926\u094b \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u093e\u091c\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">CGPA<\/span>CGPA<\/span><\/b>Cumulative Grade Point Average \u2014 the weighted average of grade points across all semesters.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u2014 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Question bank<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>A stored collection of pre-tested items from which papers are drawn, raising objectivity.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0943\u0939\u0940\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u090f \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u092c\u0922\u093c\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">PARAKH<\/span>PARAKH<\/span><\/b>The national assessment centre established under NEP 2020.<\/span>NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0924 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-10\">\n 11.14<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms and Formula Sheet<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n Formula Sheet<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5 class=\"sub\">Every formula in this unit, in one place<\/span>\u0907\u0938 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930<\/span><\/h5>\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Statistic<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Formula<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Remember<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td>Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>M = \u03a3f<\/em>X \/ N<\/td><td>\u03a3x = 0 always \u2014 use as a check<\/span>\u03a3x \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 0 \u2014 \u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Median<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Md = L + [(N\/2 \u2212 cf<\/em>)\/f<\/em>] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/td><td>L is the exact<\/em> lower limit<\/span>L \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925<\/em> \u0928\u093f\u092e\u094d\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Mode<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Mo = L + [(f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub>)\/(2f<\/em>1<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>0<\/sub> \u2212 f<\/em>2<\/sub>)] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/td><td>Cross-check: Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a: Mo = 3Md \u2212 2M<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Range<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>R = H \u2212 L<\/td><td>Uses only two scores<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Quartile deviation<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Q = (Q3<\/sub> \u2212 Q1<\/sub>) \/ 2<\/td><td>Goes with the median<\/span>\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Average deviation<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>AD = \u03a3|x| \/ N<\/td><td>Signs ignored<\/span>\u091a\u093f\u0939\u094d\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Standard deviation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>\u03c3 = \u221a(\u03a3f<\/em>x\u00b2 \/ N)<\/td><td>Variance = \u03c3\u00b2; goes with the mean<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 = \u03c3\u00b2; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u0925<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Pearson's r<\/span>\u092a\u093f\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928 \u0915\u093e r<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>r = \u03a3xy \/ \u221a(\u03a3x\u00b2 \u00d7 \u03a3y\u00b2)<\/td><td>Interval data, linear relation<\/span>\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u0947, \u0930\u0948\u0916\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Spearman's \u03c1<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>\u03c1 = 1 \u2212 [6\u03a3D\u00b2 \/ N(N\u00b2 \u2212 1)]<\/td><td>Ranks; \u03a3D must be 0<\/span>\u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901; \u03a3D \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0939\u094b\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Percentile<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Pp<\/sub> = L + [(pN\/100 \u2212 cf<\/em>)\/f<\/em>] \u00d7 i<\/em><\/td><td>p = 50 gives the median<\/span>p = 50 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Percentile rank<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>PR = [(cf<\/em> + ((X \u2212 L)\/i<\/em>)f<\/em>) \/ N] \u00d7 100<\/td><td>Answer is a percentage<\/span>\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Skewness<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Sk = 3(M \u2212 Md) \/ \u03c3<\/td><td>+ = too hard; \u2212 = too easy<\/span>+ = \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928; \u2212 = \u0905\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0930\u0932<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Kurtosis<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Ku = Q \/ (P90<\/sub> \u2212 P10<\/sub>)<\/td><td>0.263 = normal<\/span>0.263 = \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>Z-score<\/span>Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>Z = (X \u2212 M) \/ \u03c3<\/td><td>Mean 0, SD 1<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0, SD 1<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td>T-score<\/span>T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/strong><\/td><td>T = 50 + 10Z<\/td><td>Mean 50, SD 10; always positive<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50, SD 10; \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc Three numbers to memorize outright: 68.26 \u2013 95.44 \u2013 99.73<\/strong> (areas under the normal curve at \u00b11\u03c3, \u00b12\u03c3, \u00b13\u03c3) and 0.263<\/strong> (kurtosis of a normal curve).<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0905\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0902\u0920\u0938\u094d\u0925 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902: 68.26 \u2013 95.44 \u2013 99.73<\/strong> (\u00b11\u03c3, \u00b12\u03c3, \u00b13\u03c3 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0930\u092b\u0932) \u0924\u0925\u093e 0.263<\/strong> (\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e)\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Statistics<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/b>The science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analysing and interpreting numerical data.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0921\u093c\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0920\u0928, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Descriptive statistics<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/b>Describes the group actually measured and claims nothing beyond it.<\/span>\u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0939\u0941\u0906 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928, \u0909\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Inferential statistics<\/span>\u0906\u0917\u092e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/b>Generalizes from a sample to the population from which it was drawn.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0938 \u091c\u0928\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0939 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Frequency distribution<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>A tabular arrangement of scores into class intervals showing how many cases fall in each.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0940\u092c\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Exact limits<\/span>\u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901<\/span><\/b>The true boundaries of a class, extending half a unit beyond the written limits.<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901, \u091c\u094b \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u092b\u0948\u0932\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Ogive<\/span>\u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The cumulative frequency curve, S-shaped, used to read medians, quartiles and percentiles.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930, S-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Central tendency<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/b>A single value representing the point round which the scores cluster.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u090f\u0915\u0932 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u091c\u094b \u0909\u0938 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0928\u093f\u0927\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0930\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0913\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Variability \/ dispersion<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \/ \u0905\u092a\u0915\u093f\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The extent to which scores stray from the centre of the distribution.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u092d\u091f\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Variance<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/b>The square of the standard deviation, \u03c3\u00b2 \u2014 the mean of the squared deviations.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917, \u03c3\u00b2 \u2014 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Correlation<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927<\/span><\/b>The relationship between two sets of scores from the same group, expressed from \u22121 to +1.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u22121 \u0938\u0947 +1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Coefficient of determination<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>r\u00b2, the proportion of variance shared by the two variables.<\/span>r\u00b2, \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091a\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u093e\u091d\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Percentile<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/b>A point on the score scale below which a stated percentage of cases lies.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0915\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Percentile rank<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940<\/span><\/b>The percentage of cases lying below a given score.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u0940\u091a\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Quartiles<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915<\/span><\/b>The three points dividing a distribution into four equal parts: Q\u2081 = P\u2082\u2085, Q\u2082 = median, Q\u2083 = P\u2087\u2085.<\/span>\u0935\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092d\u093e\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093e\u0901\u091f\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902: Q\u2081 = P\u2082\u2085, Q\u2082 = \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e, Q\u2083 = P\u2087\u2085\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Skewness<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Departure from symmetry; positive means a right tail, negative a left tail.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928; \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u0926\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0928\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091b, \u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u094d \u092c\u093e\u0908\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Kurtosis<\/span>\u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Degree of peakedness; 0.263 is normal (mesokurtic).<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e; 0.263 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f (\u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940)\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Leptokurtic<\/span>\u0924\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/b>More peaked than normal; homogeneous group, low variability.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0936\u093f\u0916\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924; \u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u0928\u094d\u092f\u0942\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Platykurtic<\/span>\u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e\u0936\u093f\u0916\u0940<\/span><\/b>Flatter than normal; heterogeneous group, high variability.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u091a\u092a\u091f\u093e; \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939, \u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Normal probability curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/b>The bell-shaped, symmetrical, asymptotic curve in which mean, median and mode coincide.<\/span>\u0918\u0902\u091f\u0940-\u0906\u0915\u093e\u0930, \u0938\u092e\u092e\u093f\u0924, \u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0940 \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Asymptotic<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0902\u0924\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0940<\/span><\/b>Approaching the base line without ever touching it.<\/span>\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930-\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u091f \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u0936 \u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Derived score<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>A raw score re-expressed as its distance from its own mean in SD units.<\/span>\u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u091c\u094b \u0905\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 SD-\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Z-score<\/span>Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>(X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3; a standard score with mean 0 and SD 1.<\/span>(X \u2212 M)\/\u03c3; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 0 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 1 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">T-score<\/span>T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>50 + 10Z; a standard score with mean 50 and SD 10, always positive.<\/span>50 + 10Z; \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 50 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 10 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915, \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0927\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Stanine<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0928\u093e\u0907\u0928<\/span><\/b>A nine-point standard scale with mean 5 and SD 2.<\/span>\u0928\u094c-\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940, \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f 5 \u090f\u0935\u0902 SD 2\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-7\">\n 11.15<\/span>\n <h3>Key Terms: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"glossary\">\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Reliability<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The consistency, stability and dependability of the scores a test yields.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092d\u0930\u094b\u0938\u0947\u092e\u0902\u0926\u0940\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">True score<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>The component of an obtained score representing the pupil's real standing on the trait.<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u091c\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u092a\u0930 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Error score<\/span>\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>The component caused by chance factors \u2014 noise, fatigue, guessing, a lenient examiner.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u092f\u094b\u0917\u091c\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0936 \u2014 \u0936\u094b\u0930, \u0925\u0915\u093e\u0928, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928, \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Coefficient of stability<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>Reliability found by the test\u2013retest method; consistency over time.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e; \u0938\u092e\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Coefficient of equivalence<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0924\u0941\u0932\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>Reliability found by correlating two parallel forms of a test.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0938\u092e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Split-half method<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/b>Reliability from one administration by correlating odd-numbered against even-numbered items.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u0938\u0947, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092e \u0938\u092e \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Spearman\u2013Brown formula<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/b>rtt<\/sub> = 2rhh<\/sub>\/(1 + rhh<\/sub>); corrects the split-half coefficient for test length.<\/span>rtt<\/sub> = 2rhh<\/sub>\/(1 + rhh<\/sub>); \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Kuder\u2013Richardson formulae<\/span>\u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/b>K\u2013R 20 and K\u2013R 21; estimate reliability from item consistency in a single administration.<\/span>K\u2013R 20 \u090f\u0935\u0902 K\u2013R 21; \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0932\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0906\u0901\u0915\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Cronbach's alpha<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e<\/span><\/b>The general index of internal consistency; in effect the average of all possible split-half coefficients.<\/span>\u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915; \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u0903 \u0938\u092d\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u092d\u0935 \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u0938\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Validity<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure, and nothing else.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u0939\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0926\u093e\u0935\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u0941\u091b \u0914\u0930 \u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Criterion<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921<\/span><\/b>The outside standard against which a test is validated \u2014 examination marks, ratings, later success.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u2014 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0905\u0902\u0915, \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u092c\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092b\u0932\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Concurrent validity<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Agreement of test scores with a criterion available at present.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Predictive validity<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>The extent to which present scores forecast a future criterion.<\/span>\u0935\u0939 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u091c\u093f\u0938 \u0924\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Face validity<\/span>\u0906\u092d\u093e\u0938\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/b>Whether the test merely looks appropriate; the weakest form, but it affects motivation.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947\u0935\u0932 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948; \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0932\u0924\u092e \u0930\u0942\u092a, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Grading<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/b>Reporting achievement in broad letter categories instead of exact numerical marks.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094b \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0905\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930-\u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Absolute grading<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/b>Grades fixed by predetermined mark ranges; criterion-referenced.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0905\u0902\u0915-\u092a\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Relative grading<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/b>Grades fixed by position in the group using \u03c3-distances; norm-referenced.<\/span>\u03c3-\u0926\u0942\u0930\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0924\u092f \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921; \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Grade inflation<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/b>The drift towards ever-higher grades where internal assessment is unmoderated.<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u093f\u092f\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u090a\u0901\u091a\u0947-\u0938\u0947-\u090a\u0901\u091a\u0947 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u0926\u0947\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Credit<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f<\/span><\/b>A unit measuring the volume of learning \u2014 one hour of theory or two of practical per week per semester.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 \u2014 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0939 \u090f\u0915 \u0918\u0902\u091f\u093e \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0926\u094b \u0918\u0902\u091f\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">SGPA \/ CGPA<\/span>SGPA \/ CGPA<\/span><\/b>\u03a3(Credit \u00d7 Grade Point) \u00f7 \u03a3Credits, for one semester or cumulatively \u2014 a weighted mean.<\/span>\u03a3(\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u00d7 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941) \u00f7 \u03a3\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f, \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u2014 \u090f\u0915 \u092d\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">CBCS<\/span>CBCS<\/span><\/b>Choice Based Credit System \u2014 core, elective and foundation courses chosen by the student.<\/span>\u091a\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0907\u0938 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u092e \u2014 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u091a\u0941\u0928\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0915\u094b\u0930, \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u092d\u0942\u0924 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Cumulative record card<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/b>A permanent, continuously maintained record of all significant information about a pupil.<\/span>\u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092f\u0940, \u0938\u0924\u0924 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Item bank<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/b>A stored collection of pre-tested items with their difficulty and discrimination indices.<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Adaptive testing<\/span>\u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u0942\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/b>Computer-based testing in which each next item is chosen according to the answer just given.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930-\u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0917\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0905\u092d\u0940 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0941\u0928\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <div class=\"gloss-item\">Multimedia<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e<\/span><\/b>The integrated use of text, audio, images, animation, video and interactivity in one presentation.<\/span>\u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920, \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0935\u094d\u092f, \u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u091a\u0947\u0924\u0928\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928, \u0935\u0940\u0921\u093f\u092f\u094b \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0903\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u092e\u0947\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span><\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-11\">\n 11.16<\/span>\n <h3>Abbreviations Used Throughout<\/span>\u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Each abbreviation is also expanded where it first appears in the text. This table is placed here for quick reference while revising, and covers all five units.<\/span>\n \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092a\u0930 \u092d\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u092f\u0939 \u0924\u093e\u0932\u093f\u0915\u093e \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u092e\u092f \u0936\u0940\u0918\u094d\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u092f\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <div class=\"abbr-grid\">\n <div>\n <table>\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Abbr.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Full form<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">AD<\/td><td>Average Deviation (Mean Deviation)<\/span>\u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 (\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">ANOVA<\/td><td>Analysis of Variance<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">ANCOVA<\/td><td>Analysis of Covariance<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CA<\/td><td>Chronological Age<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CAT<\/td><td>Children\u2019s Apperception Test<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0932 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CBCS<\/td><td>Choice Based Credit System<\/span>\u091a\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0907\u0938 \u092c\u0947\u0938\u094d\u0921 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u0938\u093f\u0938\u094d\u091f\u092e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CCE<\/td><td>Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CGPA<\/td><td>Cumulative Grade Point Average<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CLT<\/td><td>Cognitive Learning Theory<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CRC<\/td><td>Cumulative Record Card<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CRT<\/td><td>Criterion-Referenced Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">CV<\/td><td>Coefficient of Variation<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">DAT<\/td><td>Differential Aptitude Test<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">df<\/td><td>Degrees of Freedom<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0924\u0902\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">EPI<\/td><td>Eysenck Personality Inventory<\/span>\u0906\u0907\u091c\u093c\u0947\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">ICT<\/td><td>Information and Communication Technology<\/span>\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u094c\u0926\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">IQ<\/td><td>Intelligence Quotient<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">K\u2013R<\/td><td>Kuder\u2013Richardson (formulae 20 and 21)<\/span>\u0915\u0942\u0921\u0930\u2013\u0930\u093f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938\u0928 (\u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 20 \u090f\u0935\u0902 21)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">MA<\/td><td>Mental Age<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">MEME<\/td><td>Multiple Entry and Multiple Exit<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0947\u0936 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941-\u0928\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">MMPI<\/td><td>Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory<\/span>\u092e\u093f\u0928\u0947\u0938\u094b\u091f\u093e \u092e\u0932\u094d\u091f\u0940\u092b\u093c\u0947\u091c\u093c\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u094d\u0938\u0928\u0948\u0932\u093f\u091f\u0940 \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0935\u0947\u0902\u091f\u0930\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NCF<\/td><td>National Curriculum Framework<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NCFSE<\/td><td>National Curriculum Framework for School Education<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u091a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a\u0930\u0947\u0916\u093e<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <\/div>\n <div>\n <table>\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th>Abbr.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Full form<\/span>\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0930\u0942\u092a<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NEP<\/td><td>National Education Policy<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0928\u0940\u0924\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NIOS<\/td><td>National Institute of Open Schooling<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u0940 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NPC<\/td><td>Normal Probability Curve<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NRT<\/td><td>Norm-Referenced Test<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">NTA<\/td><td>National Testing Agency<\/span>\u0930\u093e\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938\u0940<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">PARAKH<\/td><td>Performance Assessment, Review and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0938 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928, \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">QD<\/td><td>Quartile Deviation<\/span>\u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">RPwD<\/td><td>Rights of Persons with Disabilities (Act, 2016)<\/span>\u0926\u093f\u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0917\u091c\u0928 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0930 (\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e, 2016)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SD (\u03c3)<\/td><td>Standard Deviation<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SEm<\/sub><\/td><td>Standard Error of Measurement<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SEM<\/sub><\/td><td>Standard Error of the Mean<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0941\u091f\u093f<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SGPA<\/td><td>Semester Grade Point Average<\/span>\u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0914\u0938\u0924<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SOI<\/td><td>Structure of Intellect (Guilford)<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u0938\u0902\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e (\u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921)<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SPSS<\/td><td>Statistical Package for the Social Sciences<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u092a\u0948\u0915\u0947\u091c \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930 \u0938\u094b\u0936\u0932 \u0938\u093e\u0907\u0902\u0938\u0947\u091c\u093c<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">SWAYAM<\/td><td>Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u2014 \u0938\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092f\u0928 \u092e\u0902\u091a<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">TAT<\/td><td>Thematic Apperception Test<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094b\u0927 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">TTCT<\/td><td>Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking<\/span>\u091f\u0949\u0930\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u091f\u0947\u0938\u094d\u091f\u094d\u0938 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u090f\u091f\u093f\u0935 \u0925\u093f\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0902\u0917<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">UDL<\/td><td>Universal Design for Learning<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u092d\u094c\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">UGC<\/td><td>University Grants Commission<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">WAIS<\/td><td>Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u090f\u0921\u0932\u094d\u091f \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">WISC<\/td><td>Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u092b\u093c\u0949\u0930 \u091a\u093f\u0932\u094d\u0921\u094d\u0930\u0928<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"ab\">WPPSI<\/td><td>Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0940\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0942\u0932 \u090f\u0902\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0907\u092e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0911\u092b\u093c \u0907\u0902\u091f\u0947\u0932\u093f\u091c\u0947\u0902\u0938<\/span><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n<hr class=\"section-divider\">\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-10\">\n 11.17<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Measurement, Evaluation and Scales<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Define measurement and state the question it answers.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092f\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State the three essentials of any measurement.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between physical and mental measurement.<\/span>\u092d\u094c\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is meant by the validity and reliability of a test?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Write the evaluation equation and explain each of its terms.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is scaling? Distinguish comparative from non-comparative scaling.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905-\u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name Cronbach's three functions of measurement.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a checklist? How does it differ from a rating scale?<\/span>\u091c\u093e\u0901\u091a-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092f\u0939 \u0930\u0947\u091f\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0947\u0932 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is evaluation called \"continuous and comprehensive\"?<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \"\u0938\u0924\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915\" \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any four purposes of assessment.<\/span>\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Differentiate between external and internal evaluation.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0939\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the Likert scale? Name its five standard responses.<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the forced choice method and why is it used?<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f-\u091a\u092f\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0907\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name and explain the three biases that limit Likert scales.<\/span>\u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092a\u093e\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an interest inventory? Who developed it and when?<\/span>\u0930\u0941\u091a\u093f-\u0938\u0942\u091a\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0907\u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u092c \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>List the five categories of the psychomotor domain according to R. H. Dave.<\/span>\u0906\u0930.\u090f\u091a. \u0926\u0935\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the three methods of performance assessment.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why was \"Knowledge\" replaced by \"Remembering\" in the revised taxonomy?<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \"\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\" \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \"\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\" \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e?<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Explain the concept and nature of measurement. Discuss the definitions given by Thorndike, Bradfield, Guilford and Gronlund.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964 \u0925\u0949\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0921\u093e\u0907\u0915, \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0948\u0921\u092b\u093c\u0940\u0932\u094d\u0921, \u0917\u093f\u0932\u092b\u093c\u0930\u094d\u0921 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u0932\u0902\u0921 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0926\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss in detail the characteristics of a good measuring tool.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Evaluation is broader than measurement.\" Justify this statement with a full comparison of the two.<\/span>\"\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0941\u090f \u0907\u0938 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the different methods and tools of educational measurement.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain Cronbach's three functions of measurement with suitable examples.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the need and importance of measurement and evaluation in education, with special reference to CCE.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f, \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u0903 CCE \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain placement, formative, diagnostic and summative evaluation, bringing out clearly when each is used.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928, \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u092c \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare formative and summative evaluation on at least five points.<\/span>\u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092f\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u092e-\u0938\u0947-\u0915\u092e \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941\u0913\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the role of the teacher in an evaluation programme.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092d\u0942\u092e\u093f\u0915\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a taxonomy of educational objectives? Explain Bloom's three domains and their interrelationship.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0930\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the six levels of the cognitive domain with suitable classroom examples.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0947 \u091b\u0939 \u0938\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the five thinking skills required in cognitive learning.<\/span>\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u091a\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0928-\u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the three theoretical approaches to problem solving, and explain how Harlow's learning-set concept resolves the controversy between them.<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e-\u0938\u092e\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0948\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u0917\u092e\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0939\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0917\u092e-\u0938\u092e\u0941\u091a\u094d\u091a\u092f \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0926 \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0932\u091d\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the five categories of the affective domain and the techniques used to measure attitude.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the psychomotor domain and discuss performance assessment as a method of assessing it.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the 2001 revision of Bloom's taxonomy and explain the rationale behind the changes.<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092e \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 2001 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0936\u094b\u0927\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the guidance functions of evaluation and their relevance in the present school system.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928-\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-9\">\n 11.18<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Tests, Construction and Item Analysis<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Distinguish between a tool and a technique of evaluation.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Give any four points of difference between a teacher-made and a standardized test.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a norm? Name any three types of norms.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Define criterion-referenced testing with one example.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u090f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the four types of validity.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the four methods of determining reliability.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is objectivity called the foundation of reliability?<\/span>\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0928\u0940\u0902\u0935 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0939\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Differentiate between an achievement test and an aptitude test.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a power test? How does it differ from a speed test?<\/span>\u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092f\u0939 \u0917\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092d\u093f\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a blueprint and why is it prepared?<\/span>\u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Write the formulae for difficulty value and discrimination index, explaining each symbol.<\/span>\u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>An item has RU<\/sub> = 18, RL<\/sub> = 12, NU<\/sub> = NL<\/sub> = 25. Compute P and D and state whether the item should be retained.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0926 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 RU<\/sub> = 18, RL<\/sub> = 12, NU<\/sub> = NL<\/sub> = 25 \u0939\u0948\u0964 P \u090f\u0935\u0902 D \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u0926 \u0930\u0916\u093e \u091c\u093e\u090f \u092f\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is an item with a negative discrimination index rejected?<\/span>\u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any three merits of the essay-type question.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0917\u0941\u0923 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a distractor? What makes a good distractor?<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the halo effect in the scoring of essay answers.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u092e\u0902\u0921\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is task analysis in the construction of a diagnostic test?<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Give any three uses of a diagnostic test.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Compare teacher-made and standardized tests, discussing the merits and limitations of each and the situations in which each is appropriate.<\/span>\u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain criterion-referenced and norm-referenced testing with examples, and state the situations in which each should be preferred.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915-\u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss in detail the essential qualities of a good measuring instrument.<\/span>\u0905\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is validity? Describe its types and the factors that affect it.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of validity.\" Discuss.<\/span>\"\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964\" \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Classify educational tests on different bases and explain each class with examples.<\/span>\u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093f\u0927 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an achievement test? Discuss its functions in the school system.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the steps in the construction and standardization of an achievement test.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is item analysis? Explain difficulty value and discrimination index with a worked example, and state the criteria for accepting or rejecting an item.<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0915\u0920\u093f\u0928\u093e\u0908 \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u092d\u0947\u0926\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0926 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092f\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare essay-type and objective-type items on the basis of objectivity, content sampling, scoring and the abilities each can test.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936, \u0905\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the merits and demerits of multiple-choice, true\u2013false, matching and completion items.<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u0935\u093f\u0915\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f, \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u2013\u0905\u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u093f\u0932\u093e\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0930\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0924-\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>How can the reliability of essay examinations be improved? Suggest concrete measures.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0922\u093c\u093e\u0908 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948? \u0920\u094b\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a diagnostic test? Describe the steps in its construction and its usefulness to the teacher.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u093f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between achievement and diagnostic tests, and describe the types of diagnostic tests.<\/span>\u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Diagnosis without remediation is futile.\" Discuss with reference to the diagnostic\u2013remedial cycle.<\/span>\"\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u2013\u0909\u092a\u091a\u093e\u0930 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-8\">\n 11.19<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Psychological Testing and Examination Reform<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Define a psychological test after Anastasi and explain the two key words in the definition.<\/span>\u090f\u0928\u093e\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0947\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Give any three definitions of intelligence.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Write the IQ formula and explain each term.<\/span>IQ \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A child of CA 12 has MA 9. Find his IQ and classify it.<\/span>12 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0937 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u092c\u093e\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 9 \u0939\u0948\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 IQ \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is chronological age capped at about 16 in the IQ formula?<\/span>IQ \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0906\u092f\u0941 \u0932\u0917\u092d\u0917 16 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the deviation IQ?<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 IQ \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between 'g' and 's' factors.<\/span>'g' \u090f\u0935\u0902 's' \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name Thurstone's seven primary mental abilities.<\/span>\u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0925\u092e\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0938\u093f\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between individual and group intelligence tests.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u0942\u0939\u093f\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a performance test? Give two examples.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u093e\u0926\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0926\u094b \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a culture-fair test and why is it needed?<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the special feature of the Wechsler scales?<\/span>\u0935\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0938\u0932\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any three limitations of intelligence testing.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the Bogardus Social Distance Scale.<\/span>\u092c\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0921\u0938 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u091c\u093f\u0915 \u0926\u0942\u0930\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Define personality after Allport.<\/span>\u0911\u0932\u092a\u094b\u0930\u094d\u091f \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why can projective tests not easily be faked?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0938\u0930\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091b\u0932\u0947 \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0924\u0947?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is sociometry?<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u093e\u091c\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the three forms of the open book examination.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a question bank and how does it reform examination?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is CGPA?<\/span>CGPA \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>What is intelligence? Discuss the main theories of intelligence and show how each affects the design of an intelligence test.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0902\u0924\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0930\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the concept of IQ, its computation and its classification, with examples.<\/span>IQ \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e, \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Classify intelligence tests and describe the principal scales in each class.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the educational uses and the limitations of intelligence testing.<\/span>\u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the techniques of attitude measurement, comparing the Thurstone and Likert scales.<\/span>\u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0925\u0930\u094d\u0938\u094d\u091f\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u0915\u0930\u094d\u091f \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is personality? Describe the main techniques of personality assessment with their merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u0906\u0915\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare inventories with projective techniques as tools of personality measurement.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935-\u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Critically examine the defects of the present examination system in India.<\/span>\u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092e\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the reforms suggested for the examination system, with reference to the recommendations of the major commissions and NEP 2020.<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0938\u0941\u091d\u093e\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0941\u0916 \u0906\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 NEP 2020 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an open book examination? Describe its forms and evaluate its merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"The open book examination shifts the burden from the candidate's memory to the examiner's skill.\" Discuss.<\/span>\"\u0916\u0941\u0932\u0940 \u092a\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f \u0938\u0947 \u0939\u091f\u093e\u0915\u0930 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094c\u0936\u0932 \u092a\u0930 \u0921\u093e\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare the annual and semester systems and state which is preferable for Indian universities, with reasons.<\/span>\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092d\u093e\u0930\u0924\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0932\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u094c\u0928-\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the merits and demerits of the semester system in higher education.<\/span>\u0909\u091a\u094d\u091a \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"What is not examined ceases to be taught.\" Discuss this statement with reference to examination reform and the three domains of educational objectives.<\/span>\"\u091c\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0922\u093c\u093e\u092f\u093e \u091c\u093e\u0928\u093e \u092c\u0902\u0926 \u0939\u094b \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0907\u0938 \u0915\u0925\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-12\">\n 11.20<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Statistics and Scores<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer & Numerical<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly or compute (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Define statistics and distinguish its two branches.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0926\u094b \u0936\u093e\u0916\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What are the exact limits and midpoint of the class 65\u201369?<\/span>\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 65\u201369 \u0915\u0940 \u092f\u0925\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0925 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between a histogram and a bar diagram.<\/span>\u0906\u092f\u0924\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0906\u0930\u0947\u0916 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an ogive and what is it used for?<\/span>\u0924\u094b\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0932\u093f\u090f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Find the mean of 12, 15, 18, 20, 25, 30.<\/span>12, 15, 18, 20, 25, 30 \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Find the median of 7, 3, 9, 5, 11, 8.<\/span>7, 3, 9, 5, 11, 8 \u0915\u0940 \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State the empirical relation between mean, median and mode.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091a \u0906\u0928\u0941\u092d\u0935\u093f\u0915 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is the sum of deviations from the mean always zero?<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0936\u0942\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compute the SD of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10.<\/span>2, 4, 6, 8, 10 \u0915\u093e SD \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is variance? How is it related to the SD?<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e SD \u0938\u0947 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>In what circumstances is the quartile deviation preferred to the standard deviation?<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Given \u03a3D\u00b2 = 10 and N = 5, compute Spearman's \u03c1.<\/span>\u03a3D\u00b2 = 10 \u090f\u0935\u0902 N = 5 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u03c1 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"An r of 0.50 means 50 per cent agreement.\" Comment.<\/span>\"0.50 \u0915\u093e r 50 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u0936\u0924 \u0938\u0939\u092e\u0924\u093f \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u091f\u093f\u092a\u094d\u092a\u0923\u0940 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is r = \u22120.85 a stronger relationship than r = +0.40?<\/span>r = \u22120.85, r = +0.40 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092c\u0932 \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State the relation between P25<\/sub>, P50<\/sub>, P75<\/sub> and the quartiles.<\/span>P25<\/sub>, P50<\/sub>, P75<\/sub> \u0924\u0925\u093e \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0925\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What does a negatively skewed distribution indicate about a test?<\/span>\u090b\u0923\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Give the value of kurtosis for a normal curve and name the three types.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0924\u0940\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0928\u093e\u092e \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>List any four characteristics of the normal probability curve.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Convert a raw score of 68 into Z and T, given M = 60 and \u03c3 = 4.<\/span>M = 60 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u03c3 = 4 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0915\u091a\u094d\u091a\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 68 \u0915\u094b Z \u090f\u0935\u0902 T \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0926\u0932\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why is the T-score preferred to the Z-score for reporting results?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0935\u0930\u0940\u092f \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>What is statistics? Discuss its need and importance in measurement and evaluation.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the steps in constructing a frequency distribution, and describe the methods of graphical representation with their uses.<\/span>\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u0947 \u091a\u0930\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0906\u0932\u0947\u0916\u0940\u092f \u0928\u093f\u0930\u0942\u092a\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Define the measures of central tendency, give their formulae, and state when each should be used.<\/span>\u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f, \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u092c \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare the mean, median and mode on the bases of computation, effect of extreme scores, stability and further algebraic use.<\/span>\u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e, \u091a\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935, \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0930\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0906\u0917\u0947 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u0940\u091c\u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f, \u092e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u0932\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is variability? Describe its measures with their merits and demerits.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0926\u094b\u0937 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"The standard deviation is the most reliable measure of variability.\" Discuss, explaining why it replaced the average deviation.<\/span>\"\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f \u092e\u093e\u092a \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0914\u0938\u0924 \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0932\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is correlation? Explain the product-moment and rank-difference methods with a worked example of each.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0917\u0941\u0923\u0928-\u0906\u0918\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094b\u091f\u093f-\u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the interpretation of the coefficient of correlation and the cautions to be observed in using it.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u091c\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0938\u093e\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0928\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain percentiles and percentile ranks with their formulae, and discuss their use in reporting results.<\/span>\u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0923\u0940 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0923\u093e\u092e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0928\u0947 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What are skewness and kurtosis? Explain their types and their educational interpretation.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092e\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u0915\u0941\u0926\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0938\u092e\u091d\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the characteristics of the normal probability curve and its applications in education.<\/span>\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0938\u0902\u092d\u093e\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why are most human traits normally distributed? Explain, and state when a distribution would not<\/em> be normal.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u093e\u0902\u0936 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0935\u0940\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0936\u0947\u0937\u0915 \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902? \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u092c \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902<\/em> \u0939\u094b\u0917\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What are derived scores? Explain the Z-score and the T-score, and show with an example how they make two subjects comparable.<\/span>\u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948\u0902? Z-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 T-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u0926\u093f\u0916\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0935\u0947 \u0926\u094b \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u094b \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u0940\u092f \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u092c\u0928\u093e\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>A pupil scores 80 in Science (M = 70, \u03c3 = 5) and 65 in English (M = 50, \u03c3 = 10). In which subject has he done better? Justify statistically.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u091b\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 80 (M = 70, \u03c3 = 5) \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0905\u0902\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u091c\u093c\u0940 \u092e\u0947\u0902 65 (M = 50, \u03c3 = 10) \u092a\u093e\u090f\u0964 \u0909\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u0947\u0939\u0924\u0930 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e? \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0914\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-9\">\n 11.21<\/span>\n <h3>Questions and Exercises: Reliability, Validity and Trends<\/span>\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"qbank\">\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Short Answer & Numerical<\/span>\u0932\u0918\u0941 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer briefly or compute (2\u20135 marks)<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (2\u20135 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>Define reliability and explain the true-score model X = T + E.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 X = T + E \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>How does the length of a test affect its reliability, and why?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0932\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0908 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0914\u0930 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Why does a homogeneous group lower the reliability coefficient?<\/span>\u0938\u092e\u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u092e\u0942\u0939 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0918\u091f\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Name the four methods of determining reliability and the type of consistency each measures.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0901 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0938\u0902\u0917\u0924\u093f \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is the interval problem in the test\u2013retest method?<\/span>\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u2013\u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093e\u0932 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Write the Spearman\u2013Brown formula and explain each symbol.<\/span>\u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u0940\u0915 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>If rhh<\/sub> = 0.80, find the reliability of the whole test.<\/span>\u092f\u0926\u093f rhh<\/sub> = 0.80 \u0939\u094b \u0924\u094b \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is Cronbach's alpha and what does it assume?<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u094b\u0928\u092c\u0948\u0915 \u0915\u093e \u0905\u0932\u094d\u092b\u093c\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0930 \u091a\u0932\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Define validity and name its five types.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092d\u093e\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between concurrent and predictive validity.<\/span>\u0938\u0939\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0924\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0915\u0925\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>How is content validity established?<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941-\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a criterion? Give two examples used in validation.<\/span>\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u0902\u0921 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924 \u0926\u094b \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any four factors affecting validity.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Reliability sets the ceiling on validity.\" Explain.<\/span>\"\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0927\u093f\u0915\u0924\u092e \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e \u0924\u092f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964\" \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Distinguish between absolute and relative grading.<\/span>\u0928\u093f\u0930\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937 \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0905\u0902\u0924\u0930 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compute SGPA for credits 4, 4, 3, 1 with grade points 9, 7, 8, 10.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f 4, 4, 3, 1 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921 \u092c\u093f\u0902\u0926\u0941 9, 7, 8, 10 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 SGPA \u092a\u0930\u093f\u0915\u0932\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is grade inflation and what causes it?<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921-\u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0938\u094d\u092b\u0940\u0924\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>List any six items of information recorded on a cumulative record card.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0926\u0930\u094d\u091c \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u091b\u0939 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u091a\u0928\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u0932\u093f\u0916\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is an item bank and how does it improve examination?<\/span>\u092a\u0926-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u0932\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948?<\/span><\/li>\n <li>State any three limitations of computerized evaluation.<\/span>\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u0924\u0940\u0928 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u090f\u0901 \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n\n <div class=\"qbank-head\">\n Long Answer<\/span>\u0926\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0918 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f<\/span><\/span>\n <h5>Answer in detail (10\u201315 marks)<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930 \u0926\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f (10\u201315 \u0905\u0902\u0915)<\/span><\/h5>\n <\/div>\n <ol>\n <li>What is reliability? Discuss in detail the factors affecting the reliability of a test.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u0947 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the four methods of determining the reliability coefficient, with the merits and limitations of each.<\/span>\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0915\u0940 \u091a\u093e\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0917\u0941\u0923-\u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the split-half method and the use of the Spearman\u2013Brown formula with a worked example.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0927-\u0935\u093f\u091a\u094d\u091b\u0947\u0926 \u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0938\u094d\u092a\u0940\u092f\u0930\u092e\u0948\u0928\u2013\u092c\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0909\u0928 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917 \u0915\u0940, \u0939\u0932 \u0915\u093f\u090f \u0917\u090f \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924, \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is validity? Describe its types and explain how each is established.<\/span>\u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0915\u0948\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the factors affecting the validity of a test and the measures a teacher can take to improve it.<\/span>\u0915\u093f\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u094b \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0930\u093e \u0915\u093f\u090f \u091c\u093e \u0938\u0915\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u093e\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"Reliability is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of validity.\" Discuss fully, with illustrations.<\/span>\"\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0906\u0935\u0936\u094d\u092f\u0915 \u0936\u0930\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0948, \u092a\u0930\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902\u0964\" \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0939\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Compare reliability and validity on the bases of meaning, method of determination, expected size of coefficient and importance.<\/span>\u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925, \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923-\u0935\u093f\u0927\u093f, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u0915\u0947 \u0906\u0927\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0930 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is grading? Discuss its types, merits and demerits, and state whether it should replace marks.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902, \u0917\u0941\u0923\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u092c\u0924\u093e\u0907\u090f \u0915\u093f \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0905\u0902\u0915\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u0932\u0947\u0928\u093e \u091a\u093e\u0939\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Explain the credit system, the computation of SGPA and CGPA, and the advantages of the CBCS.<\/span>\u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940, SGPA \u090f\u0935\u0902 CGPA \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0924\u0925\u093e CBCS \u0915\u0947 \u0932\u093e\u092d\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is a cumulative record card? Describe its contents and discuss its uses in guidance and evaluation.<\/span>\u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0937\u092f\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Discuss the issues and problems arising from grading, the credit system and the cumulative record card.<\/span>\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916 \u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0915 \u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092e\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u092e\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>Describe the uses of the computer in evaluation and examine its limitations.<\/span>\u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0915\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u092f\u094b\u0917\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>What is multimedia? Discuss its educational value and its limitations.<\/span>\u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948? \u0909\u0938\u0915\u0947 \u0936\u0948\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0915 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0938\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0913\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\"The computer computes, but it cannot evaluate.\" Discuss with reference to the concept of evaluation developed in Unit 1.<\/span>\"\u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u0917\u0923\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0915\u093f\u0902\u0924\u0941 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0915\u0930 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964\" \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0915\u0938\u093f\u0924 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u0940 \u0905\u0935\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0938\u0902\u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0940\u091c\u093f\u090f\u0964<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ol>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u6-6\">\n 11.22<\/span>\n <h3>DEDU504 Syllabus Map<\/span>DEDU504 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u093e\u0928\u091a\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n \n Every topic named in the ten syllabus items, with the section covering it. Where two sections are given, the first is the principal treatment and the second extends or applies it.<\/span>\n \u0926\u0938 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0928\u093e\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u092d\u093e\u0917\u0964 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0926\u094b \u092d\u093e\u0917 \u0926\u093f\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0935\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u0939\u0932\u093e \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928 \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0926\u0942\u0938\u0930\u093e \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0930 \u0905\u0925\u0935\u093e \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u0917\u0964<\/span>\n <\/p>\n\n <table class=\"data-table\">\n <thead>\n <tr>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Item<\/span>\u092e\u0926<\/span><\/th>\n <th>Syllabus topic<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/span><\/th>\n <th class=\"narrow\">Covered in<\/span>\u0915\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u0906\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924<\/span><\/th>\n <\/tr>\n <\/thead>\n <tbody>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">1<\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement and evaluation: concept, need, scope; difference and relevance<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a71.1 \u00b7 \u00a71.2 \u00b7 \u00a71.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Educational testing and assessment: concept, context, issues and current trends<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a71.4 \u00b7 \u00a71.5 \u00b7 \u00a71.6<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a71.7<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">2<\/strong><\/td><td>Characteristics of a good test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Planning for different types of test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.7 \u00b7 \u00a72.8<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Validity \u2014 types, methods and usability<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.2 \u00b7 \u00a72.3 \u00b7 \u00a72.6<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Reliability \u2014 types, methods and usability<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.4 \u00b7 \u00a72.5 \u00b7 \u00a72.6<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">3<\/strong><\/td><td>Test construction<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9 \u00b7 \u00a73.1\u2013\u00a73.7<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Test standardization<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.8 \u00b7 \u00a73.9<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Item analysis: item difficulty, discrimination index<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Effectiveness of distractors<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9 \u00b7 \u00a79.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Development of norms of a test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9 \u00b7 \u00a74.11<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">4<\/strong><\/td><td>Conversion of raw scores into standard scores, Z-scores, T-scores<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.12<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>C-scores<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.13<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Stanine scores<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.12 \u00b7 \u00a74.13<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Percentiles and percentile rank<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.11<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Interpretation of test scores: qualitative and quantitative<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a74.14<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">5<\/strong><\/td><td>Criterion referenced test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a75.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Norm referenced test<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a75.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Factors influencing test scores: nature of test, psychological, environmental<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a75.2<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">6<\/strong><\/td><td>Integrated approach of evaluation<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a76.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Marking system: need, problems and components<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a76.2<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Grading \u2014 need, problems, components and methods<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a76.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Methods of feedback for students<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a76.4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">7<\/strong><\/td><td>Semester system vs annual system<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a77.2 \u00b7 \u00a77.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Continuous assessment<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a77.3 \u00b7 \u00a710.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Portfolio assessment<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a72.8 \u00b7 \u00a76.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Question bank<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a73.9 \u00b7 \u00a77.4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Use of computer in evaluation<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a77.9 \u00b7 \u00a77.10 \u00b7 \u00a77.8<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">8<\/strong><\/td><td>Achievement test: concept, types and construction<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a78.1 \u00b7 \u00a73.9<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Diagnostic test: concept and construction, remedial teaching<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a78.2 \u00b7 \u00a78.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Objective type test: advantages and limitations<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a79.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\">9<\/strong><\/td><td>Short answer type test: advantages and limitations<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a79.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Essay type test: advantages and limitations<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a79.1<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr style=\"background:#f3f8ff;\"><td class=\"narrow\">10<\/strong><\/td><td>Formative and summative evaluation<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.1 \u00b7 \u00a71.4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement of attitude<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement of aptitude<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.4<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement of personality<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.3<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <tr><td class=\"narrow\"><\/strong><\/td><td>Measurement of intelligence<\/td><td class=\"narrow\">\u00a710.2<\/strong><\/td><\/tr>\n <\/tbody>\n <\/table>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n How This Document Is Ordered<\/span>\u092f\u0939 \u0926\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u0947\u091c\u093c \u0915\u093f\u0938 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0939\u0948<\/span><\/span>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Chapters 1 to 10 follow the ten syllabus items exactly, in order.<\/strong> The heading of each chapter reproduces the wording of the syllabus item it covers, so a chapter number and a syllabus number are always the same number.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 1 \u0938\u0947 10 \u0920\u0940\u0915 \u0926\u0938 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u093e, \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092e\u0947\u0902, \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/strong> \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f \u0915\u093e \u0936\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0937\u0915 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926 \u0915\u0940 \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926\u093e\u0935\u0932\u0940 \u0926\u094b\u0939\u0930\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u0938\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0939\u094b\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Chapter 4 carries the statistical apparatus<\/strong> \u2014 central tendency, variability, correlation, the normal curve and percentiles \u2014 because syllabus item 4 asks for score conversion, and no score can be converted without them.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 4 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940\u092f \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/strong> \u2014 \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915 \u2014 \u0930\u0916\u0947 \u0917\u090f \u0939\u0948\u0902, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926 4 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915-\u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u0923 \u092e\u093e\u0901\u0917\u0924\u0940 \u0939\u0948, \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915 \u0930\u0942\u092a\u093e\u0902\u0924\u0930\u093f\u0924 \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0939\u094b \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Chapter 3 opens with the taxonomy of objectives<\/strong>, since a blueprint cannot be drawn without objectives, and the blueprint is the first step of test construction.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 3 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0940\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0938\u0947 \u0906\u0930\u0902\u092d \u0939\u094b\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u093f\u0928\u093e \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u0928\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u092c\u0928 \u0938\u0915\u0924\u093e, \u0914\u0930 \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0915\u093e \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0925\u092e \u091a\u0930\u0923 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Chapter 9 serves syllabus items 8 and 9 together<\/strong>, because objective, short-answer and essay items are compared against one another in a single treatment rather than described separately.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 9 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e-\u092e\u0926 8 \u090f\u0935\u0902 9 \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948<\/strong>, \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902\u0915\u093f \u0935\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0941\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920, \u0932\u0918\u0941-\u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930\u0940\u092f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u092c\u0902\u0927\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0926\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0928\u093e \u092a\u0943\u0925\u0915 \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0923\u0928 \u0915\u0947 \u092c\u091c\u093e\u092f \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947\u091a\u0928 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u0917\u0908 \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Chapter 11 gathers the apparatus<\/strong> \u2014 objectives, summaries, key terms, the formula sheet, abbreviations, the question bank and further reading \u2014 so that revision material sits in one place rather than being scattered through the text.<\/span>\u0905\u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u092f 11 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u090f\u0915\u0924\u094d\u0930<\/strong> \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f, \u0938\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0902\u0936, \u092e\u0941\u0916\u094d\u092f \u092a\u0926, \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930-\u092a\u0924\u094d\u0930, \u0938\u0902\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0947\u092a\u093e\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0930, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0936\u094d\u0928-\u092c\u0948\u0902\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928 \u2014 \u0924\u093e\u0915\u093f \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f-\u0938\u093e\u092e\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092c\u093f\u0916\u0930\u0940 \u0928 \u0930\u0939\u0915\u0930 \u090f\u0915 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0928 \u092a\u0930 \u0939\u094b\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc Every cross-reference in the text has been renumbered to the new scheme, so a \u00a7 reference always points to where the topic now stands.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u092a\u093e\u0920 \u0915\u0947 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0947\u0915 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u0908 \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u093e \u0915\u0947 \u0905\u0928\u0941\u0938\u093e\u0930 \u092a\u0941\u0928\u0903 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0915\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0917\u092f\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0905\u0924\u0903 \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u00a7 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936 \u0938\u0926\u0948\u0935 \u0935\u0939\u0940\u0902 \u0907\u0902\u0917\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u0939\u093e\u0901 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0905\u092c \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u1-12\">\n 11.23<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Measurement and Evaluation<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Bloom, B. S. (ed.). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook I \u2014 Cognitive Domain.<\/em> New York: David McKay, 1956.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S. and Masia, B. B. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II \u2014 Affective Domain.<\/em> New York: David McKay, 1964.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Anderson, L. W. and Krathwohl, D. R. (eds.). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.<\/em> New York: Longman, 2001.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Gronlund, N. E. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching.<\/em> New York: Macmillan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Ebel, R. L. and Frisbie, D. A. Essentials of Educational Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New York: Harper & Row.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Garrett, H. E. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Thorndike, R. L. and Hagen, E. Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: John Wiley.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Freeman, F. S. Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Oxford & IBH.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Aggarwal, J. C. Essentials of Examination System: Evaluation, Tests and Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Singh, A. K. Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.<\/em> Patna: Bharati Bhawan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>NCERT. National Curriculum Framework 2005<\/em> and CCE source books, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u2-10\">\n 11.24<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Tests and Construction<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Gronlund, N. E. and Linn, R. L. Measurement and Assessment in Teaching.<\/em> New York: Macmillan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Ebel, R. L. and Frisbie, D. A. Essentials of Educational Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Thorndike, R. L. and Hagen, E. Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: John Wiley.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New York: Harper & Row.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Anastasi, A. and Urbina, S. Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Pearson.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Aggarwal, J. C. Essentials of Examination System: Evaluation, Tests and Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Singh, A. K. Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.<\/em> Patna: Bharati Bhawan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Garrett, H. E. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>NCERT. Source Book on Assessment<\/em> and CCE manuals, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u3-9\">\n 11.25<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Psychological Testing<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u092e\u0928\u094b\u0935\u0948\u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093f\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Anastasi, A. and Urbina, S. Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Pearson.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Freeman, F. S. Theory and Practice of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Oxford & IBH.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New York: Harper & Row.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Guilford, J. P. The Nature of Human Intelligence.<\/em> New York: McGraw-Hill.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Gardner, H. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.<\/em> New York: Basic Books.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Allport, G. W. Pattern and Growth in Personality.<\/em> New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Singh, A. K. Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.<\/em> Patna: Bharati Bhawan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Aggarwal, J. C. Essentials of Examination System: Evaluation, Tests and Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>Government of India. National Education Policy 2020<\/em>, Ministry of Education, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>NCERT. National Curriculum Framework 2005<\/em> and NCFSE 2023<\/em>, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>Report of the Education Commission 1964\u201366 (Kothari Commission<\/em>) and Report of the Secondary Education Commission 1952\u201353 (Mudaliar Commission<\/em>).<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u4-13\">\n 11.26<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Statistics<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u0938\u093e\u0902\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093f\u0915\u0940<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Garrett, H. E. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Guilford, J. P. and Fruchter, B. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: McGraw-Hill.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Ferguson, G. A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: McGraw-Hill.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Gupta, S. P. Statistical Methods.<\/em> New Delhi: Sultan Chand & Sons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Best, J. W. and Kahn, J. V. Research in Education.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Koul, Lokesh. Methodology of Educational Research.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Mangal, S. K. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Singh, A. K. Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences.<\/em> Patna: Bharati Bhawan.<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"section-heading-block\" id=\"u5-10\">\n 11.27<\/span>\n <h3>Further Reading: Reliability and Validity<\/span>\u0905\u0917\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092e \u092a\u0920\u0928: \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e<\/span><\/h3>\n <\/div>\n\n <ul class=\"icon-list\">\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Anastasi, A. and Urbina, S. Psychological Testing.<\/em> New Delhi: Pearson.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Ebel, R. L. and Frisbie, D. A. Essentials of Educational Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Gronlund, N. E. and Linn, R. L. Measurement and Assessment in Teaching.<\/em> New York: Macmillan.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.<\/em> New York: Harper & Row.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd5<\/span>Garrett, H. E. Statistics in Psychology and Education.<\/em> Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd7<\/span>Thorndike, R. L. and Hagen, E. Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and Education.<\/em> New York: John Wiley.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd8<\/span>Aggarwal, J. C. Essentials of Examination System: Evaluation, Tests and Measurement.<\/em> New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcd9<\/span>Mangal, S. K. and Mangal, U. Essentials of Educational Technology.<\/em> New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>University Grants Commission (UGC). Guidelines on the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)<\/em>, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <li>\ud83d\udcc4<\/span>Government of India. National Education Policy 2020<\/em>, Ministry of Education, New Delhi.<\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n\n <div class=\"recap-box\">\n Course Complete<\/span>\u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923<\/span><\/span>\n <h5 class=\"sub\">EDCN 804E \u2014 the whole course in five sentences<\/span>EDCN 804E \u2014 \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a \u0935\u093e\u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902<\/span><\/h5>\n <ul class=\"split-list\">\n <li>1<\/span>Unit 1<\/strong> established why<\/em> we measure \u2014 measurement quantifies, evaluation adds a value judgement, and both serve objectives drawn from the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 1<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u092a\u093f\u0924 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e \u0915\u093f \u0939\u092e \u0915\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902<\/em> \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902 \u2014 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0923 \u0926\u0947\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0909\u0938\u092e\u0947\u0902 \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0923\u092f \u091c\u094b\u0921\u093c\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0926\u094b\u0928\u094b\u0902 \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915, \u092d\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0915\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0947 \u0928\u093f\u0915\u0932\u0947 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u0915\u0940 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u0947 \u0939\u0948\u0902\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>2<\/span>Unit 2<\/strong> supplied the instruments<\/em> \u2014 teacher-made and standardized tests, the achievement test and its blueprint, item analysis, and the diagnostic test that follows when achievement fails.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 2<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923<\/em> \u0926\u093f\u090f \u2014 \u0936\u093f\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0915-\u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u092e\u093f\u0924 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092e\u093e\u0928\u0915\u0940\u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923, \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f-\u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0938\u0915\u093e \u092c\u094d\u0932\u0942\u092a\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0902\u091f, \u092a\u0926-\u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0932\u0947\u0937\u0923, \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u092a\u0932\u092c\u094d\u0927\u093f \u0935\u093f\u092b\u0932 \u0939\u094b\u0928\u0947 \u092a\u0930 \u0906\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u0928\u093f\u0926\u093e\u0928\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0915 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>3<\/span>Unit 3<\/strong> turned to the person<\/em> \u2014 intelligence, attitude and personality testing \u2014 and then to the institution<\/em>, with the defects of the examination system and the reforms proposed for it.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 3<\/strong> \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930 \u092e\u0941\u0921\u093c\u0940 \u2014 \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f, \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0923 \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u092b\u093f\u0930 \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e<\/em> \u0915\u0940 \u0913\u0930, \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e-\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0923\u093e\u0932\u0940 \u0915\u0947 \u0926\u094b\u0937\u094b\u0902 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0938\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0935\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0941\u0927\u093e\u0930\u094b\u0902 \u0938\u0939\u093f\u0924\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>4<\/span>Unit 4<\/strong> gave the arithmetic<\/em> \u2014 frequency distributions, central tendency, variability, correlation, percentiles, the normal curve and derived scores.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 4<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924<\/em> \u0926\u093f\u092f\u093e \u2014 \u092c\u093e\u0930\u0902\u092c\u093e\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0930\u0923, \u0915\u0947\u0902\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0940\u092f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f, \u0935\u093f\u091a\u0932\u0928\u0936\u0940\u0932\u0924\u093e, \u0938\u0939\u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927, \u0936\u0924\u092e\u0915, \u0938\u093e\u092e\u093e\u0928\u094d\u092f \u0935\u0915\u094d\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0935\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <li>5<\/span>Unit 5<\/strong> used that arithmetic to judge the instrument itself<\/em> \u2014 reliability, validity and their relationship \u2014 and closed with the trends that are reshaping evaluation: grading, credits, the cumulative record, the computer and multimedia.<\/span>\u0907\u0915\u093e\u0908 5<\/strong> \u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0940 \u0917\u0923\u093f\u0924 \u0938\u0947 \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092f\u0902 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u092a\u0930\u0916\u093e<\/em> \u2014 \u0935\u093f\u0936\u094d\u0935\u0938\u0928\u0940\u092f\u0924\u093e, \u0935\u0948\u0927\u0924\u093e \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u0909\u0928\u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092c\u0902\u0927 \u2014 \u0924\u0925\u093e \u0909\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092a\u0930 \u0938\u092e\u093e\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u0939\u0941\u0908 \u091c\u094b \u092e\u0942\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0902\u0915\u0928 \u0915\u094b \u0928\u092f\u093e \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0926\u0947 \u0930\u0939\u0940 \u0939\u0948\u0902: \u0917\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u0902\u0917, \u0915\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0921\u093f\u091f, \u0938\u0902\u091a\u092f\u0940 \u0905\u092d\u093f\u0932\u0947\u0916, \u0915\u0902\u092a\u094d\u092f\u0942\u091f\u0930 \u090f\u0935\u0902 \u092c\u0939\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0927\u094d\u092f\u092e\u0964<\/span><\/span><\/li>\n <\/ul>\n <div class=\"recap-foot\">\n \ud83d\udccc The single thread running through all five units: a measurement is only as good as the objective it serves and the instrument that produced it<\/strong> \u2014 and judging that instrument honestly is the whole business of this course.<\/span>\n \ud83d\udccc \u092a\u093e\u0901\u091a\u094b\u0902 \u0907\u0915\u093e\u0907\u092f\u094b\u0902 \u092e\u0947\u0902 \u091a\u0932\u0928\u0947 \u0935\u093e\u0932\u093e \u090f\u0915 \u0939\u0940 \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930: \u0915\u094b\u0908 \u092d\u0940 \u092e\u093e\u092a\u0928 \u0909\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e \u0939\u0948 \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0928\u093e \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u0926\u094d\u0926\u0947\u0936\u094d\u092f \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0915\u0940 \u0935\u0939 \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0915\u0930\u0924\u093e \u0939\u0948 \u0914\u0930 \u0935\u0939 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u091c\u093f\u0938\u0928\u0947 \u0909\u0938\u0947 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u0915\u093f\u092f\u093e<\/strong> \u2014 \u0914\u0930 \u0909\u0938 \u0909\u092a\u0915\u0930\u0923 \u0915\u094b \u0908\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0926\u093e\u0930\u0940 \u0938\u0947 \u092a\u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e \u0939\u0940 \u0907\u0938 \u092a\u093e\u0920\u094d\u092f\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e \u0915\u093e \u0938\u0902\u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0923 \u0915\u093e\u0930\u094d\u092f \u0939\u0948\u0964<\/span>\n <\/div>\n <\/div>\n\n \n <\/section>\n\n\n \n<\/main>\n<\/div>\n\n<button class=\"to-top\" id=\"toTop\" aria-label=\"Back to top\">\u2191<\/button>\n\n<script>\n(function () {\n 'use strict';\n\n \/* \u2500\u2500 LANGUAGE TOGGLE \u2500\u2500 *\/\n var langToggle = document.getElementById('langToggle');\n var optEn = document.getElementById('optEn');\n var 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